Group 2
Group 2
Group 2
BAYAMBANG CAMPUS
College of Teacher Education
Social Sciences Department
Bayambang, Pangasinan
Group No. : 2
Rica-Mae G. Ranoco
Introduction
Often times, a particular teaching method will naturally flow into another, all within the
same lesson, and excellent teachers have developed the skills to make the process seamless to the
students. Which instructional method is "right" for a particular lesson depends on many things,
and among them are the age and developmental level of the students, what the students already
know, and what they need to know to succeed with the lesson, the subject-matter content, the
objective of the lesson, the available people, time, space and material resources, and the physical
setting. Another, more difficult problem is to select an instructional method that best fits one's
particular teaching style and the lesson-situation. There is no one "right" method for teaching a
particular lesson, but there are some criteria that pertain to each that can help a teacher make the
best decision possible.
I. INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
Instructional methods are kinds of instructional ways or activities used to guide the facilitation
of learning in each phase of the instructional process.
Methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the nature of the
activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson.
Direct Instruction – is the use of straightforward, explicit teaching techniques, usually to teach
a specific skill. It is a teacher-directed method, meaning that the teacher stands in front of a
classroom and presents the information. It is probably the oldest form of teaching.
Didactic Questioning - offers the teacher a way to structure the learning process
(McNeil & Wiles, 1990). Didactic questions tend to be convergent, factual, and often
begin with "what," "where," "when," and "how." They can be effectively used to
diagnose recall and comprehension skills, to draw on prior learning experiences, to
determine the extent to which lesson objectives were achieved, to provide practice, and to
aid retention of information or processes. Teachers should remember that didactic
questions can be simplistic, can encourage guessing, and can discourage insightful
answers or creativity. However, effectiveness of this method can be increased by the
appropriate addition of "why" questions, and the occasional use of "what if" questions.
Explicit Teaching - is when teachers clearly explain to students why they are learning
something, how it connects to what they already know, how to do it and what it looks like
when they have succeeded.
Inquiry, induction, problem solving, decision making, and discovery are terms that are
sometimes used interchangeably to describe indirect instruction. In contrast to the direct
instruction strategy, indirect instruction is mainly student-centered, although the two strategies
can complement each other. Examples of indirect instruction methods include reflective
discussion, concept formation, concept attainment, cloze procedure, problem solving, and guided
inquiry.
The indirect instruction strategy can be used by teachers in almost every lesson. This strategy is
most appropriate when:
Case Studies - is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly
every aspect of the subject's life and history is analysed to seek patterns and causes of
behaviour. Case studies can be used in a variety of fields including psychology, medicine,
education, anthropology, political science, and social work.
In this instructional method, students are provided with data about a particular concept.
These data may be generated by the teacher or by the students themselves. Students are
encouraged to classify or group the information and to give descriptive labels to their
groupings. By linking the examples to the labels and by explaining their reasoning, the
students form their own understanding of the concept.
Inquiry - Inquiry learning provides opportunities for students to experience and acquire
processes through which they can gather information about the world. This requires a
high level of interaction among the learner, the teacher, the area of study, available
resources, and the learning environment. Students become actively involved in the
learning process as they:
1. Deductive Inquiry
The focus in deductive inquiry is on moving students from a generalized principle to
specific instances that may be subsumed logically within generalizations. The process of
testing generalized assumptions, applying them, and exploring the relationships between,
specific elements is stressed. The teacher co-ordinates the information and presents
important principles, themes, or hypotheses. Students are actively engaged in testing
generalizations, gathering information, and applying it to specific examples. Deductive
inquiry is based upon the logical assimilation and processing of information.
2. Inductive Inquiry
The information-seeking process of the inductive inquiry method helps students to
establish facts, determine relevant questions, develop ways to pursue these questions, and
build explanations. Students are invited to develop and support their own hypotheses.
Through inductive inquiry, students experience the thought processes which require them
to move from specific facts and observations to inferences. To help students accomplish
Pangasinan State University
BAYAMBANG CAMPUS
College of Teacher Education
Social Sciences Department
Bayambang, Pangasinan
this, the teacher selects a set of events or materials for the lesson. The student reacts and
attempts to construct a meaningful pattern based on personal observations and the
observations of others. Students generally have some kind of theoretical frame when they
begin inductive inquiry. The teacher encourages students to share their thoughts so that
the entire class can benefit from individual insights.
A. Classroom Group Interaction - The teacher often works with the class as a whole,
particularly when presenting information or modeling a process. The class is viewed as a
work group, engaged in a productive academic enterprise. Teachers should establish a
positive, productive learning climate and provide group participation training. Students
need to acquire group process and discussion skills if they are to learn through the
interactive process. Students that have been helped to develop these processes and
abilities often do better academically because positive interaction fosters self-concept.
The most frequently used classroom group interaction methods are discussion, and
question and answer. These are described below.
o Question and Answer - When the question and answer method is used
effectively, students feel they are being personally addressed by the teacher.
When responding, students should speak, not only to the teacher, but also to their
peers. Frequent use should be made of probes, prompts, and redirecting
techniques. 'Wait time," the pause between asking a question and soliciting a
response, should be used to advantage by the teacher to increase participation
and improve the quality of student responses. An important aspect of the
question and answer method is the wording of questions in order to help students
think more deeply about the material or unit under study.
B. Small Group Interaction - Small groups are particularly effective when the intention is
to develop social as well as academic abilities. In a small group, everyone has an
opportunity to contribute. Students get more chances to talk, listen, and receive feedback
than would be possible in whole-class instruction.
Experiential Learning - Refers to learning process whereby students “learn by doing” and by
reflecting on the experience.
Learning contracts can be highly motivating for students. As they become skillful in
making appropriate choices and as they begin to assume more responsibility for their own
learning, they become increasingly independent, learn to use resources to their advantage,
and take pride in their ability to teach themselves and share their new learning with
others.
Field Trips - is a visit to an area outside of the normal classroom where children can try
new things, have different experiences, and learn valuable life lessons. A field trip can be
to countless locations where students can see new sights and have hands-on opportunities
in a wide variety of experiences. A field trip may be to a location right around the corner
or may require a bus ride to a different town. Regardless, the objective of a field trip is to
learn, be exposed to a different environment, and be able to try new things.
Pangasinan State University
BAYAMBANG CAMPUS
College of Teacher Education
Social Sciences Department
Bayambang, Pangasinan
students. Gives priority to the ways students handle stimuli from their environment,
3. Personal Family- Emphasizes the development of individuals, their emotional life and
Indirect Teaching
Awareness Training & Values Clarification
Role Modeling
Self-Reflection
sequencing learning tasks and shaping behavior. Gives priority to the observable behavior
of students.
Simulations
- Instructional skills are the most specific category of teaching behaviors. These are used
constantly as part of the total process of instruction. They are necessary for procedural purposes
and for structuring appropriate learning experiences for students. No matter how experienced or
how effective a teacher may be, the development and refinement of these skills and processes is
a continual challenge.
- A variety of instructional skills and processes exist. Some are broader than others and
more complex in their nature. Some factors which may influence their selection and application
include student characteristics, curriculum requirements, and instructional methods. For the
purpose of illustrating instructional skills, two examples follow: explaining and demonstrating,
and questioning.
– The teacher spends much classroom time explaining or demonstrating something to the
whole class, a small group, or an individual. Student resource materials typically do not provide
extensive explanations of concepts, and students often need a demonstration in order to
understand procedures.
A. Explaining
Cause and effect relationship (for example, to show the effect of adding an acid to a
base);
That an action is governed by a rule or law (for example, to show when to capitalize a
noun);
A procedure or process (for example, to show the operation of solving a mathematical
equation); or,
The intent of an activity or process (for example, to show the use of foreshadowing in
drama).
Pangasinan State University
BAYAMBANG CAMPUS
College of Teacher Education
Social Sciences Department
Bayambang, Pangasinan
B. Demonstrating
1. Questioning
b. Wait Time – is defined as the pause between asking the question and
soliciting a response. Providing additional wait time after a student response also
allows all students to reflect on the response prior to further discussion. Increased
wait time results in longer student responses, more appropriate unsolicited
responses, more student questions, and increased higher order responses. It should
be noted that increased wait time is beneficial for students who speak English as a
second language or English as a second dialect.
(The instructional techniques presented below are for reference and provide a sampling of
effective techniques based on the literature. They are not intended to be a complete set of all
available techniques implemented.)
- Is a technique where an intervention is triggered when the learner commits errors that
are either individually or cumulatively significantly divergent from the ideal as defined in the
expert model of the domain within the ITS. Implementation of error-sensitive feedback with
ITSs poses the significant challenge of providing timely feedback while maintaining
flow/engagement. High frequency feedback resulting from several errors may result in negative
learner affect (e.g., frustration).
- According to Durlach and Ray (2011), error-sensitive feedback might be helpful if the
student erred because they simply forgot the material; it might not be helpful if the learner does
not comprehend the material – no reminder or review will ultimately help lost learners find their
way and will ultimately lead to frustration (p. 24)
B. Mastery learning
– Is a technique where the tutor ensures the learner has “mastered” (can recall and apply)
prerequisite knowledge before allowing the learner to move on to the next lesson/concept:
“Mastery does not imply perfection, but satisfactory performance” (Murray & Arroyo, 2002). In
this context, satisfactory performance is generally defined as the minimum standard to pass. In
this way, mastery learning may contribute to higher self-esteem based on achievement or may
contribute to frustration if the learner is unable to grasp requisite concepts and does not move
forward in the curriculum.
- Is a techniquewhere the learner more easily recalls knowledge items/objects when these
knowledge artifacts are exposed to the learner repeatedly over a long time span rather than
Pangasinan State University
BAYAMBANG CAMPUS
College of Teacher Education
Social Sciences Department
Bayambang, Pangasinan
repeatedly studied during a short time span (Dempster, 1988). This prolonged exposure
promotes deeper learning and extends the spacing between instances of refresher training.
D. Metacognitive prompting
– Is a technique where the tutor encourages the learner to self-reflect and evaluate, self-
explain, and self-correct rather than provide the answer directly. The Cognitive Transformation
Theory (CTT; Klein & Baxter, 2006) asserts that problem solving on the part of learner involves
the recognition of flaws in their existing mental models and restructuring of those models by
shedding flawed elements of those mental models for less-flawed models through reflection and
discovery. Sottilare & Goldberg (2012) note the need for the tutor to support processes, which
allow the learner to construct and restructure their own mental model in order to promote transfer
and, in some cases, accelerate learning.
- Subsequent sections of this chapter address the three primary themes within the
literature (affect, engagement, and grit) and their relationship to instructional management
principles and learning outcomes, but first we identify and discuss the criteria by which we will
evaluate the effectiveness of reviewed instructional strategies and tactics
-Psychologists and educators were called to develop training materials for the military services.
-Skinner (1958) introduces ideas on increasing human learning and the characteristics of
effective instructional materials, called programmed instructional materials.
-Present instruction in small steps; require active responses to frequent questions, immediate
feedback.
1970’s: Leslie Briggs demonstrated that an instructionally designed course could produce
up to 2:1 increase over conventionally designed class in terms of achievement, reduction
in variance, and reduction of completion time, saved dollars in salary cost.
1980’s: increased use of microcomputer has a major effect on computer-based
instruction, drill and practice.
1990’s: constructivism, problem-solving and collaboration socio-cultural issues.
Just a decades ago, teachers used chalkboards, then progressed to whiteboards, and now
they are using smart boards, are advanced boards which allows teachers to teach and
share information with students in different ways.
Computer audio visual capabilities from power presentations and other animation
software are used to present information in an effective manner which invites greater
interest from the students.
Use of projectors, screens and addressing systems (speakers and microphones) allow
teachers to teach a large number of students.
The Analyze phase is the foundation for all other phases of instructional design. During this
phase, you must define the problem, identify the source of the problem and determine possible
solutions.
The phase may include specific research techniques such as needs analysis, job analysis and task
analysis. The outputs of this phase often include the instructional goals, and a list of tasks to be
instructed. These outputs will be the inputs for the Design phase.
Pangasinan State University
BAYAMBANG CAMPUS
College of Teacher Education
Social Sciences Department
Bayambang, Pangasinan
Design
The Design phase involves using the outputs from the Analyze phase to plan a strategy for
developing the instruction. During this phase, you must outline how to reach the instructional
goals determined during the Analyze phase and expand the instructional foundation.
Some of the elements of the Design Phase may include writing a target population description,
conducting a learning analysis, writing objectives and test items, selecting a delivery system, and
sequencing the instruction. The outputs of the Design phase will be the inputs for the Develop
phase.
Development
The Develop phase builds on both the Analyze and Design phases. The purpose of this phase is
to generate the lesson plans and lesson materials. During this phase you will develop the
instruction, all media that will be used in the instruction, and any supporting documentation. This
may include hardware (e.g., simulation equipment) and software (e.g., computer-based
instruction).
Implementation
The Implementation phase refers to the actual delivery of the instruction, whether it's classroom-
based, lab-based, or computer-based. The purpose of this phase is the effective and efficient
delivery of instruction. This phase must promote the students' understanding of material, support
the students' mastery of objectives, and ensure the students' transfer of knowledge from the
instructional setting to the job.
Evaluation
This phase measures the effectiveness and efficiency of the instruction. Evaluation should
actually occur throughout the entire instructional design process - within phases, between phases,
and after implementation. Evaluation may be Formative or Summative.
Formative Evaluation is on-going during and between phases. The purpose of this type of
evaluation is to improve the instruction before the final version is implemented.
Summative Evaluation usually occurs after the final version of instruction is implemented. This
type of evaluation assesses the overall effectiveness of the instruction. Data from the Summative
Evaluation is often used to make a decision about the instruction (such as whether to purchase an
instructional package or continue/discontinue instruction).
Conclusion
After an excellent presentation, you might have heard someone comment, “Now, there is
a born teacher!” This comment would seem to indicate that effective teaching comes
automatically. In reality, teaching effectively is a learned skill. Development of this skill requires
knowledge of the educational process, including which instructional methods to use in which
circumstances. The determination of which instructional method is most appropriate depends on
a variety of differences: the age and developmental level of the learners; what the learners
Pangasinan State University
BAYAMBANG CAMPUS
College of Teacher Education
Social Sciences Department
Bayambang, Pangasinan
already know and what they need to know to succeed; the subject-matter content; the objectives
for the learner; the available people, time, space, and material resources; and the physical setting.
An instructional method is the way information is taught that brings the learner into
contact with what is to be learned. Examples of such methods include lecture, group discussion,
one-to-one instruction, and demonstration and return demonstration, gaming, simulation, role
playing, role modelling, and self-instruction modules. As the use of technology evolves, these
methods may be incorporated into Web-based courses.
There are numerous teaching methods that go into becoming an effective teacher, and
these methods will assist teachers in getting to know their students' interests, strengths, and
weaknesses so that they can choose the best strategy for creating and designing lessons that are
more fun, meaningful, and effective. And, as prospective educators, let us remember that when
selecting teaching methods, we must keep our pupils in mind in order to provide successful
instruction. Overall, because it is such an important aspect of teaching, adopting teaching
methods is a difficult task to manage and prepare. Thus, instructional methods are essential part
of teachers’ effectiveness.
References:
https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/cte492/Modules/M3/Methods-Strategies.htm
http://people.uwplatt.edu/~steck/Petrina%20Text/Chapter%204.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
267039871_A_Guide_to_Instructional_Techniques_Strategies_and_Tactics_to_Manage_Learner
_Affect_Engagement_and_Grit
https://www.lib.purdue.edu/sites/default/files/directory/butler38/ADDIE.pdf
https://online.iu.edu/degrees/instructional-systems-technology-edd-doctoral.html
https://www.jstor.org/stable/44418880
https://www.gdrc.org/info-design/instruct/intro.html