Final Year Project

A Project Report On
SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF WASTE

COCONUT COOKING OIL
Submitted to
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,

ANANTHAPURAMU.
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
Submitted by
B BHANU PRAKASH 204M1A0313
B MANJUNATH REDDY 204M1A0311
C SAI SHASHANK 204M1A0315
G NAVEEN KUMAR 204M1A0337
K SREEKAR 204M1A0345
Under the Guidance of

Dr. P. CHENGA REDDY, M.E., Ph.D.,
Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, ISO
9001:2015 Certified Institution and Accredited by NBA, NAAC A+.
Tirupati – Chittoor Highway, P. Kothakota, Chittoor (Dt.) A.P-517 112.
2023-2024.
Tirupati – Chittoor Highway, P.Kothakota Chittoor (Dt.) A.P-517 112.
2023-2024.

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION
OF WASTE COCONUT COOKING OIL” a bonafide record done by
In the partial fulfillment of the requirements of the award of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING during the academic year 2023 - 2024 in VEMU
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, P. Kothakota, Chittoor.
PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Dr. P. CHENGA REDDY, M.E., Ph.D., Dr. K.V.N.V.N. RAO, M.Tech., Ph.D.,
Professor Professor & HOD
Dept of Mechanical Engineering Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Submitted for viva-voce examination held on:
Internal Examiner External Examiner

ii
Tirupati – Chittoor Highway, P.Kothakota Chittoor (Dt.) A.P-517 112.
2023-2024.
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project report entitled “SYNTHESIS AND

CHARACTERIZATION OF WASTE COCONUT COOKING OIL” submitted to the
Department of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the
award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in MECHANICAL ENGNIEERING.
This project is the result of our own effort, and it has not been submitted to any other University or
Institution for the award of degree.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our first and foremost thanks to the almighty for his blessings in the successful completion
of our project report.
We are very much grateful to our beloved Chairman of the college DR. K. CHANDRA
SEKHAR NAIDU GARU, an icon in the field of technical education. We are expressing
my heart full thanks to the management for providing a comfortable working environment around
our college to complete our project.
We extend our thanks to Dr. NAVEEN KILARI, M.Tech., Ph.D., Professor and Principal
for his support in the completion of this project work.
With profound respect, we express our deep sense of gratitude to our Head of the Department
Dr. K.V.N.V.N Rao, M.Tech., Ph.D., Professor for being the source of inspiration throughout
the study in this course.
We express my sincere gratitude to my Guide Dr. P. CHENGA REDDY, M.E., Ph.D.,

Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering for his supervision and timely guidance with
valuable pieces of advice during the course of my project.
We sincerely thank my project coordinator Dr. G. SURESH, M.Tech., (Ph.D)., Associate

Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering, for his guidance, valuable suggestions and
support in the completion of the project.
We would like to express my sincere and profound gratitude for unmatched service and
valuable guidance in each and every stage of completing this work successfully.
Finally, we convey our thanks to our beloved parents and my friends who helped us either
directly or indirectly in bringing of this project successfully.
With Regards,

iv
ABSTRACT
The rapidly expanding energy, transportation, and technology sectors resulted in an

increase in the demand for oil and energy globally. India is a developing country that depends
on other countries for its energy needs. The volatility in fossil fuel costs is a result of the
continuously changing global political landscape. Diesel engines may run on biodiesel since it
is an oxygen-based fuel that is renewable, high-cetane, lubricating, and non-toxic. The potential
to produce biodiesel from waste oils in an economically feasible manner is intriguing;
nevertheless, the transesterification process is significantly hindered by the waste oil's high
concentration of free fatty acids (FFA). The purpose of the current study is to create biodiesel
using waste coconut cooking oil (WCCO). When transesterification was conducted in the
presence of a 1.5 weight percent alkali catalyst (KOH) at 60 degrees Celsius, a 94% yield of
fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) was achieved. Reaction time was also 60 minutes. The
biodiesel's density, viscosity, pour point, fire point, flash point, and calorific
value were measured.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 LIST OF CONTENTS vii
2 LIST OF TABLES x
3 LIST OF FIGURES x
vi
LIST OF CONTENTS
CHAPTERS DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 INTRODUCTION 1-25
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Diesel 1
1.2.1 Low compression 3
1.2.2 Low fuel pressure 3
1.2.3 Low cranking speed or Faulty battery 3
1.2.4 Thermostart or Glow plugs faulty 4
1.2.5 Poor or low fuel supply 4
1.2.6 Contaminated fuel 4
1.2.7 Air in fuel 4
1.2.8 Fuel filter fuel pipes blocked 4
1.2.9 Faulty injectors 4
1.2.10 Injection pump faulty 5
1.2.11 Fuel lift pump faulty 5
1.2.12 Blocked or Dirty air cleaner 5
1.2.13 Turbocharger faulty 5
1.2.14 Injector washers leaking 5
1.2.15 Internal engine faults 6
1.2.16 Disadvantages of diesel include 6
1.2.17 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 6
1.2.18 Particulate Matter (PM) 6
1.3 Vegetable oil 7
1.3.1 Transesterification process 7
1.3.2 Advantages of vegetable oil-based biodiesel 7
1.3.3. Challenges 8
vii
1.3.4 Alternative feedstocks 8
1.3.5 Vegetable oil drawbacks 8
1.4 Transesterification of vegetable oil 9

Biodiesel has several advantages over diesel
1.4.1 10
fuel, including
1.4.2 Biodiesel Production 11
1.5 Reactions 13
1.6 Product purification 14
1.7 Production methods 14
1.7.1 Supercritical process 14

Ultra- and high-shear in-line and batch
1.7.2 14
reactors
1.7.3 Ultrasonic reactor method 14
1.7.4 Lipase-catalyzed method 15

Volatile fatty acids from anaerobic digestion
1.8 15
of waste streams
1.9 Features of Biodiesel 16
1.10 Benefits of Biodiesel 16
1.11 Advantages of Using Biodiesel 17

Properties of Biodiesel Versus Petroleum
1.12 17
Diesel
1.13 Biodiesel Blends 18
1.14 Biodiesel Production Technologies 18

Waste Coconut Cooking Oil as a Biofuel
1.15 20
Source
1.16 A Renewable Fuel for Diesel Engines 21
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 26-40
3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP & 41-46

METHODOLOGY
3.1 Methodology 41
3.1.1 Pretreatment 41
3.1.2 Transesterification Reaction 41
3.1.3 Separation of Products 41
viii
3.1.4 Biodiesel Purification 41
3.1.5 Glycerol Recovery and Purification 41
3.1.6 Quality Testing 42
3.1.7 Storage and Distribution 42
3.1.8 Blending 42
3.1.9 Characterization 42
3.2 Objective of The Study 43

Experimental work of Waste Coconut
3.3 43
Cooking Oil (WCCO) filtration
3.4 Transesterification process 44
3.5 Biodiesel characterization 46
3.6 FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) 46
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 47-53

4.1 Comparison of fuel properties 47
4.2 B10 FTIR (Fourier-Transform Infrared) 48
4.7 FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) analysis 53
5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 54-55
5.1 Conclusion 54
5.2 Features of Biodiesel 55
6 REFERENCES 56-59
ix
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

4.1 Comparison of fuel properties 48
LIST OF FIGURES
FIG. NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
1.1 Biodiesel fuel life cycle 9
1.2 Schematic view of biodiesel production 11
1.3 A Detailed view of Biodiesel Production 12
1.4 Synthesis of biodiesel via transesterification process 13
1.5 Transesterification process 15
1.6 Separation of biodiesel and Glycerin 16
1.7 Process flowchart of non-edible crop seeds to biodiesel 19
3.1 Methodology of waste coconut cooking oil 43
3.2 WCCO filtration 44

Transesterification process, (a) Schematic view (b)
3.3 45
Photographic view and (c)Separation process
3.4 (a) Blends preparation, and (b) Test samples 45
4.1 B10 FTIR Spectrum 49
4.6 FTIR Spectrum 54
x
SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF WASTE COCONUT COOKING OIL
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The idea of using biofuels in diesel engines emanated when the first diesel engine was
displayed by its mastermind, Rudolf Diesel, at the world fair in Paris in 1900. Peanut oil was
used as the fuel, and he assumed that oil from locally grown crops could be used to operate his
engines. Basically, fossil diesel has been effectively utilized in all sectors such as agriculture,
transportation and industrially because of its adaptability, availability, reliability, as well as high
energy efficiency. The diesel engine runs on the diesel, burnt by the heat of compression of air
in the cylinder because of its desirable properties such as ignition quality, viscosity, volatility,
specific gravity and lubricity. At the same time, depletion of resources has always been a
concern with regard to fossil fuels, especially farmers who have always sought alternative fuel
for their agricultural production.
In consideration of global total energy consumption and GHG emissions, transportation

occupies 3rd place (after the industry and the building sectors) owing to the heavy dependence
of vehicular engines on fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel. This level of utilization is
expected to rise by 60% by 2030 mainly because of industrialization, population increase and
better standards of living. All the technologies needed for transition to 100% renewables are
already available, one of the major advantage biomass and biofuels have always had above the
volume of energy they produce is their renewability. Biofuels are significant because of their
sustainability while fossil fuels are a limited resource. Biofuels have the capacity to power
different types of diesel engine cars regardless of the atmospheric conditions. Improving the
production of liquid biofuels, such as biodiesel, would therefore lead to much availability of a
cleaner, cheaper source of energy in contrast to fossil fuels.
1.2 Diesel
The global fuel crises in the 1970s triggered awareness amongst many countries of their
vulnerability to oil embargoes and shortages. Considerable attention was focused on the
development of alternative fuel sources, with particular reference to the alcohols. A blend of
10% dry ethanol and unleaded gasoline (E10) was commercially introduced into the US and
continues to be marketed mainly in the Midwestern states. The use of ethanol blended with
diesel was a subject of research in the 1980s and it was shown that ethanol–diesel blends were
DEPT OF ME VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Page | 1

technically acceptable for existing diesel engines. The relatively high cost of ethanol production
at that time meant that the fuel could only be considered in cases of fuel shortages. Recently
the economics have become much more favourable in the production of ethanol, and it is able
to compete with standard diesel. Consequently, there has been renewed interest in the ethanol
diesel blends with particular emphasis on emissions reductions.
An additional factor that makes ethanol attractive as a fuel extender or substitute is that
it is a renewable resource. The dwindling fossil fuel sources and the increasing dependency of
the USA on imported crude oil have led to a major interest in expanding the use of bioenergy.
The recent commitment by the USA government to increase bioenergy three-fold in 10 years
has added impetus to the search for viable biofuels. The European Union (EU) have also
adopted a proposal for a directive on the promotion of the use of biofuels with measures
ensuring that biofuels account for at least 2% of the market for gasoline and diesel sold as
transport fuel by the end of 2005, increasing in stages to a mini mum of 5.75% by the end of
2010.
In the last two decades of the 20th century, major advances in engine technology have
occurred, leading to greater fuel economy in vehicles. The reduction of emissions from engines
has become a major factor in the development of new engines and manufacturers are focusing
considerable energy and resources in order to meet emissions standards specified by the US
Environ mental Protection Agency (EPA) and by the EU. As a result the use of non-conventional
fuels as a means of meeting these requirements has generated much attention.
Diesel fuel is heavier and oilier than gasoline. It has higher energy density and better lubrication
properties.
➢ Diesel engines work by compressing air to very high temperatures first before injecting
diesel fuel into the combustion chamber. This differs from gasoline engines that use spark
plugs for ignition.
➢ Diesel engines are widely used in larger vehicles like trucks, buses, construction
equipment, locomotives, and some automobiles because they provide better fuel
efficiency and more torque compared to gasoline engines.
➢ The main types are petroleum diesel made from crude oil and biodiesel made from plant
or animal oils/fats.
➢ Advantages of diesel include better fuel efficiency, higher torque output, and longer
engine life compared to gasoline engines.

➢ Downsides can include higher emissions of particulates and nitrogen oxides, though
modern diesel engines use technologies like exhaust filters to reduce emissions.
➢ The price of diesel fuel often tracks slightly lower than gasoline prices at the pump.
When considering an alternative fuel for use in diesel engines, a number of issues are
important. These issues include supply and distribution, integrity of the fuel being delivered to
the engine, emissions and engine durability. The purpose of this review is to discuss the
properties and specifications of ethanol blended with diesel fuel with special emphasis on the
factors critical to the potential commercial use of these blends. These factors include blend
properties such as stability, vis cosity and lubricity, safety and materials compatibility. The
effect of the fuel on engine performance, durability and emissions is also considered.
1.2.1 Low compression
Low cylinder compression will result in insufficient heat being generated to ignite the
fuel and cause hard starting (The flash point of diesel is 210°C). This is more of a problem with
higher hour engines. A cold engine compression test should be performed. Compression should
be between 20 to 35 bars (300 to 500 psi) (24 to 27 bar (350 to 400 psi) is ideal), although it’s
more important to have equal pressures, no more than ± 3 bar (50 psi) between cylinders.
Anything below this will cause starting problems.
1.2.2 Low fuel pressure
Low fuel pressure could be either poor fuel supply to the injectors or the injectors are
worn and not holding the fuel pressure. The best way to diagnose this is to look at the fuel
supply in 3 areas.
➢ Low pressure supply from the tank to the fuel injection pump. The supply from the tank
to the injection pump via the lift pump should be about 2 to 5 bar (30 to 70 psi).
➢ Fuel is delivered from the injection pump to the injectors at approx. 175 atmos.
➢ Once the fuel is delivered to the injectors at the relevant pressure it must lift the needle
and spray finely atomised fuel into the cylinder.
1.2.3 Low cranking speed or Faulty battery
If the engine turns over too slowly, the injection pump can’t generate enough fuel
pressure, and the piston speed will be too low to generate a high enough air temperature to
initiate combustion, causing hard starting problems. This is usually in the colder months

especially if the battery is run down, the tractor has been left sitting or if the battery terminals
are corroded. The battery should be kept fully charged and all connections in good order.
1.2.4 Thermostart or Glow plugs faulty
The engine relies on the thermostart or glow plugs (If fitted), to heat the air in the
combustion chamber while the engine is being cranked. Problems in this area will cause starting
problems, uneven running and white smoke when the engine is cold.
1.2.5 Poor or low fuel supply
If there isn’t enough fuel in the tank or there’s a problem with the fuel pipes being split
or kinked the fuel supply can be restricted. The fuel tank cap breather can sometimes be blocked
causing a vacuum in the tank.
1.2.6 Contaminated fuel
Poor quality fuel and water in the fuel can cause injection pump and injector failure.
Filters and sediment bowls must be changed and drained regularly. Diesel contaminated with
other fuels is a fairly common problem. Most pump and injectors failures are due to fuel related
issues.
1.2.7 Air in fuel
This is similar to ‘Poor or low fuel supply’. Loose or faulty fuel pipe connections can
allow air to be drawn into the system, but dirty fuel filters or a faulty filter head assembly may
also cause fuel supply issues and hard starting. The banjo bolt with the ‘restriction’ hole must
be in place between the leak off pipe and the filter head to build up back pressure in the injection
pump, the leak off return pipe must go the bottom of the fuel tank.
1.2.8 Fuel filter fuel pipes blocked
Dirty fuel containers/tanks/fuel can cause filters in the tank, lift pump and main filter to
become blocked. They must be cleaned or changed on a regular basis. Biodiesel with a high
Bio concentration is a very effective cleaner and can cause blockages.
1.2.9 Faulty injectors
The greatest cause of injector failure is due to the injectors having worn needles and
nozzles or a build-up of carbon. This can cause a poor spray pattern or fuel ‘Dribble’. This

results in hard or poor starting. The injectors should be serviced or replaced at regular intervals.
Diesel additives can help to clean injectors and fuel systems. Over time the injector springs can
weaken.
1.2.10 Injection pump faulty
If the pump is faulty there will be a ‘Low fuel pressure’ problem. The transfer pump
blades may be worn (DPA), the plungers may be stuck or worn (DPA & Minimec), the rack
may be stuck (Minimec) or the cold start device may be stuck or inoperative (DPA & Minimec).
1.2.11 Fuel lift pump faulty
Known faults in the lift pump are Split diaphragms and leaking, loose or displaced non-
return valves. If the lift pump is faulty there will be a ‘Low fuel pressure’ problem, a split
diaphragm will dilute the engine oil with diesel.
1.2.12 Blocked or Dirty air cleaner
A blocked or dirty air cleaner element can severely restrict air flow to the engine.
Whether it’s an oil bath or dry element air cleaner it must be serviced at regular intervals.
1.2.13 Turbocharger faulty
The most common turbocharger fault is due to incorrect operator actions (Not allowing
the engine to idle when started and before stopping), poor maintenance and not using the correct
type of oil. A turbocharger can rotate at up to 160,000 revolutions per minute under full power,
therefore the rotor bearings require adequate lubrication. Worn bearings and seals will allow oil
to pass into the engine! Another problem is if the air hoses to and from the turbocharger leak
due to damaged or loose hose clips allowing air to escape.
1.2.14 Injector washers leaking
Leaking injector washers can be the cause of some of the following symptoms. Hard or
difficult starting, erratic or uneven idle speed, lumpy running, smoke on idle, a black deposit
around the injectors and a characteristic chuffing sound from the engine when running. Leaking
injector washers occur when the injector does not seal against the copper injector washer in the
cylinder head (This could be due to uneven tightening of the injector). Copper ‘Work hardens’
in time making sealing difficult if the injector is removed and replaced. Injector washers can be

annealed to re-soften them. If closed end injector sleeves are fitted they can be removed and
annealed (Heat to cherry red and quench in cold water).
1.2.15 Internal engine faults
This is usually a mechanical failure such as cracked pistons, worn or broken piston rings,
low oil pressure, overheating, blowing valves, cracked liners, leaking liner seals, blowing head
gasket, worn bearings, leaking valve seals and much more. The list is endless, so it’s best to get
an engine specialist to diagnose the fault.
1.2.16 Disadvantages of diesel include

➢ Noisier operation due to the combustion process.
➢ Higher emissions of some air toxics like acrolein.
➢ Less widespread availability of diesel fuel compared to gasoline.
➢ Higher manufacturing costs for diesel engines.
1.2.17 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
• Diesel engines produce higher levels of nitrogen oxides due to the higher combustion
temperatures and pressures involved.
• Nitrogen oxides contribute to ground-level ozone, smog, and respiratory problems.
1.2.18 Particulate Matter (PM)
• The diesel combustion process results in emissions of fine particulate matter or soot.
• Particulates can penetrate deep into the lungs and have been linked to heart and lung
disease, as well as contributing to haze.
While diesel engines are more fuel efficient and have lower carbon dioxide emissions, the higher
NOx and PM emissions have been a major environmental drawback compared to gasoline
vehicles, especially in urban areas.
Modern emissions control technologies like diesel particulate filters and selective catalytic
reduction help mitigate NOx and PM, but at an added cost. Overall, emissions have been the
biggest challenge for broader adoption of diesel engines, especially for passenger vehicles.

1.3 Vegetable oil
Vegetable oils are extracted from various types of seeds, fruits, nuts, and grains. The
most consumed oils are olive, sunflower, palm, canola, coconut, safflower, corn, peanut,
cottonseed, palm-kernel, and soybean. In general, vegetable oils are used to cook food and also
as crude oil to add flavour. The fatty acid composition of a vegetable oil is associated with the
impact on human health and is the main factor for its stability and food application. The highest
content of the vegetable oils shows less than 40% of saturated fatty acids in relation to the total
content of fatty acids, except for palm and coconut oil. However, the health benefits of coconut
and palm oil are becoming increasingly known, in contrast to the negative antisaturated fat
campaigns that have prevailed for decades. In this sense, more specific long-term studies should
be done to assess the benefits and impacts of vegetable oils on human health.
Feedstock: Various types of vegetable oils can be used as feedstock for biodiesel production,
including soybean oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, palm oil, sunflower oil, and even waste cooking
oils.
1.3.1 Transesterification process
Biodiesel is produced through a chemical process called transesterification, which

involves reacting the vegetable oil with an alcohol (usually methanol or ethanol) in the presence
of a catalyst (typically a strong base like sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide). This
process converts the triglycerides in the vegetable oil into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME),
which is the main component of biodiesel.
1.3.2 Advantages of vegetable oil-based biodiesel
• Renewable and sustainable: Vegetable oils are derived from renewable plant sources,
making biodiesel a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.
• Reduced emissions: Biodiesel produced from vegetable oils typically has lower
emissions of particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons compared to
conventional diesel.
• Biodegradable and non-toxic: Vegetable oil-based biodiesel is biodegradable and less
toxic than conventional diesel fuel.
• Lubricity: Biodiesel has excellent lubricity properties, which can help extend the life of
diesel engines.

1.3.3 Challenges
• Feedstock availability and cost: The availability and cost of vegetable oils can fluctuate,
affecting the economics of biodiesel production.
• Competition with food sources: The use of edible vegetable oils for biodiesel production
can potentially create competition with food sources, leading to debates about food vs.
fuel.
• Cold flow properties: Some vegetable oils, like palm oil, have poor cold flow properties,
which can affect the performance of biodiesel in cold climates.
1.3.4 Alternative feedstocks
To address the challenges of using edible vegetable oils, researchers and the industry
are exploring alternative feedstocks for biodiesel production, such as non-edible oils (e.g.,
jatropha, camelina), algae, and waste oils and fats.
1.3.5 Vegetable oil drawbacks
Limited Supply: Vegetable oil production requires a significant amount of agricultural land, and
the supply may be limited in some regions.
Cost: Vegetable oil is more expensive than other types of oil, such as crude oil.
High in Calories: Vegetable oil is high in calories and may contribute to weight gain and other
health issues if consumed in large quantities. Transesterification is the general term used to
describe the important class of organic reactions where an ester is transformed into another
through interchange of the alkoxy moiety. When the original ester is reacted with an alcohol, the
transesterification process is called alcoholysis. In this review, the term transesterification will
be used as synonymous for alcoholysis of carboxylic esters, in agreement with most publications
in this field. The transesterification is an equilibrium reaction, and the trans-formation occurs
essentially by mixing the reactants.

Fig.1.1 Biodiesel fuel life cycle
1.4 Transesterification of vegetable oil
The transesterification of vegetable oils with methanol as well as the main uses of the
fatty acid methyl esters are reviewed. The general aspects of this process and the applicability of
different types of catalysts (acids, alkaline metal hydroxides, alkoxides and carbonates, enzymes
and non-ionic bases, such as amines, amidines, guanidines and triamino(imino)phosphoranes)
are described. Special attention is given to guanidines, which can be easily heterogenized on
organic polymers. However, the anchored catalysts show leaching problems. New strategies to
obtain non-leaching guanidine-containing catalysts are proposed. Finally, several applications of
fatty acid esters, obtained by transesterification of vegetable oils, are described.

Transesterification of Vegetable Oils In the transesterification of vegetable oils, a

triglyceride reacts with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or base, producing a mixture
of fatty acids alkyl esters and glycerol25,26. The overall process is a sequence of three
consecutive and reversible reactions, in which di-and monoglycerides are formed as
intermediates26. The stoichiometric reaction requires 1 mol of a triglyceride and 3 mol of the
alcohol. However, an excess of the alcohol is used to increase the yields of the alkyl esters and
to allow its phase separation from the glycerol formed. Several aspects, including the type of
catalyst (alkaline or acid), alcohol/vegetable oil molar ratio, temperature, purity of the reactants
(mainly water content) and free fatty acid content have an influence on the course of the
transesterification.
1.4.1 Biodiesel has several advantages over diesel fuel, including
Emissions
Biodiesel reduces emissions of particulates, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide compared
to diesel fuel. Biodiesel also reduces carbon dioxide emissions by 74% compared to petroleum
diesel.
Toxicity
Biodiesel is less toxic to aquatic organisms than petroleum diesel.
Lubricity
Biodiesel is more "slippery" than petroleum diesel, which can reduce engine wear.
Sulphur
Biodiesel contains practically no sulphur, which can reduce pollution from engines using
biodiesel.
Flash Point
Biodiesel has a higher flash point than petroleum diesel, making it safer to transport and store.
Renewability
Biodiesel is considered sustainable because it can be generated from renewable sources.

1.4.2 Biodiesel Production
Fig.1.2 Schematic view of biodiesel production
Biodiesel is produced through a chemical reaction called transesterification, which

converts fats and oils into biodiesel and glycerin. A schematic view of biodiesel production as
shown in Fig.1.2 The process also uses low molecular weight alcohols. The fats and oils react
with short-chain alcohols (typically methanol or ethanol). The alcohols used should be of low
molecular weight. Ethanol is the most used because of its low cost, however, greater
conversions into biodiesel can be reached using methanol. Although the transesterification
reaction can be catalyzed by either acids or bases, the base-catalyzed reaction is more common.
This path has lower reaction times and catalyst cost than those acid catalysis. However, alkaline
catalysis has the disadvantage of high sensitivity to both water and free fatty acids present in
the oils.

Fig.1.3 A Detailed view of Biodiesel Production
A Detailed view of Biodiesel Production is shown in Fig.1.3 The first step is to trans
esterify fatty acids into fatty acid methyl esters, which is done with the help of a catalyst. The
fatty acids then react with methanol to produce methyl ester, which is biodiesel. A reactive
distillation process is used to intensify the reaction and separation tasks for the esterification
process.

Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, yellow grease, used cooking oils, or animal fats.
The fatty acids part of biodiesel comes from vegetable oils like sunflower, soybean, rapeseed
(mustard), palm, peanut, cottonseed, corn (maize), canola, ricebran, jojoba, and flax oils.
Many factors need to be considered to produce quality biodiesel, including: selection of

feedstock, catalyst, process, and washing.
1.5 Reactions
From the Fig.1.4 it is observed that the base-catalyzed transesterification reacts lipids
(fats and oils) with alcohol (typically methanol or ethanol) to produce biodiesel and an impure
coproduct, glycerol. If the feedstock oil is used or has a high acid content, acid-catalyzed
esterification can be used to react fatty acids with alcohol to produce biodiesel. Other methods,
such as fixed-bed reactors, supercritical reactors, and ultrasonic reactors, forgo or decrease the
use of chemical reaction that reduces the quality of substance in chemistry.
The transesterification reaction is base catalyzed. Any strong base capable of

deprotonating the alcohol will work (e.g. NaOH, KOH, sodium methoxide, etc.), but the sodium
and potassium hydroxides are often chosen for their cost. The presence of water causes
undesirable base hydrolysis, so the reaction must be kept dry.
In the transesterification mechanism, the carbonyl carbon of the starting ester

(RCOOR1) undergoes nucleophilic attack by the incoming alkoxide (R2O−) to give a
tetrahedral intermediate, which either reverts to the starting material, or proceeds to the trans
esterified product (RCOOR2). The various species exist in equilibrium, and the product
distribution depends on the relative energies of the reactant and product.
Fig.1.4 Synthesis of biodiesel via transesterification process

1.6 Product purification

Products of the reaction include not only biodiesel, but also the byproducts soap,
glycerol, excess alcohol, and trace amounts of water. All of these byproducts must be removed
to meet the standards, but the order of removal is process dependent. The density of glycerol is
greater than that of biodiesel, and this property difference is exploited to separate the bulk of
the glycerol coproduct. Residual methanol is typically recovered by distillation and reused.
Soaps can be removed or converted into acids. Residual water is also removed from the fuel.
1.7 Production methods

1.7.1 Supercritical process
An alternative, catalyst-free method for transesterification uses supercritical methanol
at high temperatures and pressures in a continuous process. In the supercritical state, the oil and
methanol are in a single phase, and reaction occurs spontaneously and rapidly. The process can
tolerate water in the feedstock, free fatty acids are converted to methyl esters instead of soap,
so a wide variety of feedstocks can be used. Also the catalyst removal step is eliminated. High
temperatures and pressures are required, but energy costs of production are similar or less than
catalytic production routes.
1.7.2 Ultra- and high-shear in-line and batch reactors
Ultra- and High Shear in-line or batch reactors allow production of biodiesel
continuously, semi- continuously, and in batch-mode. This drastically reduces production time
and increases production volume. The reaction takes place in the high-energetic shear zone of
the Ultra- and High Shear mixer by reducing the droplet size of the immiscible liquids such as
oil or fats and methanol. Therefore, the smaller the droplet size the larger the surface area the
faster the catalyst can react.
1.7.3 Ultrasonic reactor method
In the ultrasonic reactor method, the ultrasonic waves cause the reaction mixture to
produce and collapse bubbles constantly; this cavitation simultaneously provides the mixing
and heating required to carry out the transesterification process. Use of an ultrasonic reactor for
biodiesel production can drastically reduce reaction time and temperatures, and energy input.
Using such reactors, the process of transesterification can run inline rather than using the time-
consuming batch processing. Industrial scale ultrasonic devices allow for processing of several
thousand barrels per day.

Fig.1.5 Transesterification Process
1.7.4 Lipase-catalyzed method
Large amounts of research have focused recently on the use of enzymes as a catalyst for
the transesterification. Researchers have found that very good yields could be obtained from
crude and used oils using lipases. The use of lipases makes the reaction less sensitive to high
free fatty-acid content, which is a problem with the standard biodiesel process. One problem
with the lipase reaction is that methanol cannot be used because it inactivates the lipase catalyst
after one batch. However, if methyl acetate is used instead of methanol, the lipase is not in-
activated and can be used for several batches, making the lipase system much more cost-
effective.
1.8 Volatile fatty acids from anaerobic digestion of waste streams
Lipids have been drawing considerable attention as a substrate for biodiesel production
owing to its sustainability, non-toxicity and energy efficient properties. However, due to cost
reasons, attention must be focused on the non-edible sources of lipids, in particular oleaginous
microorganisms. Such microbes have the ability to assimilate the carbon sources from a
medium and convert the carbon into lipid storage materials. The lipids accumulated by these
oleaginous cells can then be transesterified to form biodiesel.

1.9 Features of Biodiesel
Below are certain features of the fuel:
➢ Biodegradable and Renewable Fuel.

➢ Safer to use and has low toxicity compared to fossil diesel fuel.
➢ Lower exhaust emission rate than normal diesel fuel.
➢ As per ASTM D 6751 quality parameters, the quality of diesel is analyzed.
➢ Using biodiesel doesn’t require any diesel engine modification.
Fig.1.6 Separation of biodiesel and Glycerin
1.10 Benefits of Biodiesel
Biodiesel has the following benefits:
➢ Biodiesel and biodiesel blends are used in almost all diesel engines and vehicles.
➢ It is a carbon-neutral liquid, which means that the combustion of biodiesel never
produces the net output of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide like another mineral
diesel.
➢ In 2007, British Royal Train ran its train with 100% biodiesel fuel.
➢ Used as heating oil – In many commercial & domestic boilers, biodiesel is also used as
heating fuel.

1.11 Advantages of Using Biodiesel
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) research indicates that biodiesel emits 11%
less carbon monoxide and 10% less particulate matter than diesel. According to Car Talk, a
study done by the Department of Energy and Agriculture found biodiesel reduces net carbon
dioxide emissions by 78%.
1.12 Properties of Biodiesel Versus Petroleum Diesel
The sizes of the molecules in biodiesel and petroleum diesel are about the same, but
they differ in chemical structure. Biodiesel molecules consist almost entirely of chemicals
called fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), which contain unsaturated "olefin" components. Low-
sulfur petroleum diesel, on the other hand, consists of about 95 percent saturated hydrocarbons
and 5 percent aromatic compounds. If the biodiesel is made using ethanol rather than methanol,
the resulting molecules are "fatty acid ethyl esters"(FAEE).
The differences in chemical composition and structure between petroleum diesel and
biodiesel result in several notable variations in the physical properties of the two fuels. The
seven most significant differences are as follows:
Biodiesel has higher lubricity (it is more "slippery") than petroleum diesel. This is a
good thing, as it can be expected to reduce engine wear.
Biodiesel contains practically no sulfur. This is also a good thing, as it can be expected
to result in reduced pollution from engines using biodiesel.
Biodiesel has a higher oxygen content (usually 10 to 12 percent) than petroleum diesel.
This should result in lower pollution emissions. But, relative to petroleum diesel, it causes
slightly reduced peak engine power (~4 percent).
Biodiesel tends to thicken and "gel up" at low temperatures more readily than petroleum
diesel. Some types of oil are more of a problem than others. This is a concern, especially for
the cold winters that are typical to Pennsylvania.
Biodiesel is more likely to oxidize (react with oxygen) to form a semisolid gel-like mass.
This is a concern, especially for extended fuel storage and when using engines that are only
operated occasionally (such as standby power generators). A good method for storage is to use
a dry, semi-sealed, cool, light-tight container.

Biodiesel is more chemically active as a solvent than petroleum diesel. As a result, it

can be more aggressive to some materials that are normally considered safe for diesel fuel.
Biodiesel is much less toxic than petroleum diesel. This can be a real benefit for spill
cleanups.
The quality of petroleum diesel fuel tends to be more uniform and reliable, especially
when compared to small-scale production of biodiesel where quality control may or may not
have been good. Petroleum diesel can vary in quality from plant to plant or from region to
region, but the variations are typically much smaller. Poor-quality biodiesel fuel can lead to
many problems in engine performance, and care should be taken to ensure that your fuel is of
good quality (see the Renewable and Alternative Energy Fact Sheet: Using Biodiesel Fuel in
Your Engine). Biodiesel that conforms to ASTM standard D6751 should be of a consistent, high
quality.
In all fairness, we should mention that petroleum diesel has also demonstrated problems
with oxidative stability and low-temperature performance, although biodiesel, at present, seems
to be more susceptible.
1.13 Biodiesel Blends
Biodiesel fuel blends very easily with petroleum diesel. These blends are described by
their percentage of biodiesel (e.g., "B20" has 20 percent biodiesel, 80 percent petroleum diesel).
In general, the properties of a blend will lie somewhere between the properties of the biodiesel
and the petroleum diesel. Blends are sometimes used to improve the lubricity of petroleum
diesel or reduce its sulfur content.
Probably the most useful reason for a biodiesel producer to blend would be to improve
cold-operating characteristics during the winter. A mix of 70 percent biodiesel and 30 percent
petroleum diesel has been reported to be effective for mild winter conditions.
1.14 Biodiesel Production Technologies
It is generally accepted that viscosity is the main difficulty that hampers the direct use
of vegetable oils in traditional diesel engines. Consequently, there are established techniques
and processes that have been used to produce biodiesel from various non-edible feedstocks to
reduce viscosity. These methods include pyrolysis, micro-emulsification, dilution, and
transesterification. Of all these methods, transesterification remains the viable process that has

been adopted so far for the reduction of viscosity. The flowchart shown in Fig.1.6 describes the
routes to produce biodiesel from non-edible oil seeds and their final products.
Transesterification was found to be the most common method used in biodiesel production.
Fig.1.7 Process flowchart of non-edible crop seeds to biodiesel

Diesel fuel also called diesel oil or historically heavy oil, is any liquid fuel specifically
designed for use in a diesel engine, a type of internal combustion engine in which fuel ignition
takes place without a spark as a result of compression of the inlet air and then injection of fuel.
Therefore, diesel fuel needs good compression ignition characteristics. The most common type
of diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil, but alternatives that are not
derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel, biomass to liquid (BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL)
diesel are increasingly being developed and adopted. To distinguish these types, petroleum-
derived diesel is sometimes called petrodiesel in some academic circles. petrodiesel is a high-
volume profitable product produced in crude oil refineries. Diesel fuel has many colloquial
names; most commonly, it is simply referred to as diesel.
The gradual depletion of fossil resources is becoming a severe challenge, and the control
of the release of carbon dioxide is becoming a practical issue across the Earth. Efforts to find
reusable resources such as biomass, wind energy, solar energy, and fuel cells are under
investigation in both academic and industrial organizations. Fuel cells are one of the most
promising ways of solving the problem of transportation pollution in cities . As a clean energy,
fuel cells utilize hydrogen and oxygen as the energy source, and produce water as a byproduct,
making them a suitable candidate for replacing the combustion engines used in cars and buses.
These composites offer a good balance between charge carrier density and mechanical stability,
making them good candidates for future PEMFC applications. This chapter mainly covers the
current progress in using heterocycle-polymer systems for PEMFC development.
Biodiesel is obtained from vegetable oil or animal fats (biolipids) which are
mainly fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), and transesterified with methanol. Methanol can also
be replaced with ethanol for the transesterification process, which results in the production of
ethyl esters. The transesterification processes use catalysts, such as sodium or potassium
hydroxide, to convert vegetable oil and methanol into biodiesel and the undesirable byproducts
glycerine and water, which will need to be removed from the fuel along with methanol traces.
Biodiesel can be used pure (B100) in engines where the manufacturer approves such use, but it
is more often used as a mix with diesel.
1.15 Waste Coconut Cooking Oil as a Biofuel Source
Coconut oil, a popular cooking oil with several culinary applications, generates a
significant amount of waste oil after use. Disposing of this waste oil improperly can cause

environmental problems. However, waste coconut cooking oil (WCCO) presents a valuable
opportunity to produce biofuels like biodiesel.
This introduction sets the stage for exploring the potential of WCCO as a sustainable alternative
fuel source. Here's a breakdown of the key points:
• Waste generation: Coconut oil's widespread use leads to a substantial amount of waste
oil.
• Environmental concerns: Improper disposal of WCCO can harm the environment.
• Biofuel potential: WCCO can be a promising feedstock for biodiesel production.
The following sections can delve deeper into:
• The environmental impact of improper WCCO disposal (e.g., water contamination, soil
degradation).
• The advantages of using WCCO for biodiesel production (e.g., renewable resource,
reduced dependence on fossil fuels).
• The challenges associated with WCCO utilization (e.g., free fatty acid content, need for
pre-treatment).
1.16 A Renewable Fuel for Diesel Engines
Biodiesel is a clean-burning, renewable alternative fuel derived from biological sources

like vegetable oils, used cooking oil, and animal fats. It's a popular choice for reducing
dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
Here's a quick introduction to biodiesel:
• Source: Made from plant oils, animal fats, or recycled cooking grease.
• Renewable: Derived from organic materials, unlike fossil fuels.
• Biodegradable: Breaks down naturally, minimizing environmental impact from spills.
• Usable in existing engines: Most diesel engines can run on biodiesel blends (B20, B5
etc.) or even pure biodiesel (B100) with minimal modifications.
This introduction provides a basic overview of biodiesel. You can further explore the following
aspects:

➢ Production process: How vegetable oils or fats are converted into biodiesel through
a chemical process called transesterification.
➢ Environmental benefits: Reduced greenhouse gas emissions, improved air quality
compared to petroleum diesel.
➢ Challenges and considerations: Cold weather performance, potential for land-use
change for feedstock production, economic factors.
Synthesis of biodiesel and its utilization in the transportation industries and other
industrial processes is a particular area of interest that requires more attention from
researchers. Biodiesel and appropriate techniques for its production have been a major
research focus recently. Biodiesel is a non-toxic, biodegradable, and renewable fuel derived via
the alcoholysis of plant oil or animal fat using homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts.
Biodiesel is the best option for dealing with this problem because biodiesel is derived
from sources other than fossil fuels. Many researchers have investigated the possibility of
biodiesel as alternative sources energy beside petroleum diesel. According to the studies,
biodiesel appears to be a very excellent possibility for a variety of reasons, including its high
biodegradability and low toxicity. Furthermore, it also better than petroleum diesel in terms of
fewer combustion emissions, and it is closed carbon cycle means it does not contribute to global
warming. Most fascinating is that biodiesel may be utilised in existing diesel engines with little
or no modification and just a minor performance loss.
In order to produce better and relatively high biodiesel, a study and development for
raw materials used in biodiesel manufacturing was done in response to some of these issues.
Based on study, WCO is believing as an alternative to replace palm oil in biodiesel production.
WCO which is much less expensive than pure vegetable oil shares some qualities and value
with palm oil in terms of biodiesel production. Transesterification process is the common
method use to produce biodiesel from WCO.
A major fraction of the production costs of biodiesel includes the cost of the feedstock.
Waste cooking coconut oil (WCCO), collected from household cooking vegetable oil because
it can reduce the overall biodiesel production cost as well as effectively resolving the disposal
problems of waste cooking oil. The high flash point attributes to their lower volatility which
leads to more deposit formation, carbonization of injector tips, ring sticking, lubrication oil
dilution and degradation. To overcome these problems caused by the high viscosity of vegetable
oils, several techniques have been used. These include dilution or blending with diesel,
increasing the fuel temperature, transesterification to produce biodiesel and micro
emulsification to make the hybrid fuel the objectives of this study were to prepare ethanol–

coconut oil-based fuels using the micro emulsification technique, and to determine their
relevant properties, engine performance and exhaust emission characteristics.
After describing the methodology for the preparation of the blends, the chemical and
physical fuel properties of the blends were analysed. The results of the engine performance and
the emission characteristics of a direct injection diesel genset operated on these blends are then
reported and analysed. Biodiesel production reaction occurs under different reaction conditions
like temperature, which has effects on calcination of the catalyst and biodiesel reaction,
methanol to oil molar ratio, reaction time and catalyst loading, all of which have different effects
on biodiesel production process. In order to obtain a higher biodiesel yield with fulfilled
standard specification, these conditions must be optimized during the reaction process. This
work was devoted to optimizing the operating conditions of a low-energy consumption, high
frequency reactor used for biodiesel production from waste cooking coconut oil (WCCO)
Biodiesel has gained more attention as an alternative for conventional diesel fuel due to various
environmental benefits, such as the ability to be derived from renewable biomass sources
through cleaner production processes, low emission, and biodegradability The rapid depletion
of fossil fuel reservoirs has made biodiesel as an attractive alternative fuel in recent times due
to its similar characteristics to diesel fossil fuel. Moreover, biodiesel is environmentally friendly
since it produced exhaust gas free of Sulphur and aromatic compound.
In the last decades, energy consumption has increased significantly because of the
change in lifestyles and growth of population. The increase in the energy demand was typically
provided by fossil fuel resources, which, otherwise, are limited and cause of serious
environmental concerns. Therefore, there is an urgent need for alternative and renewable fuel,
such as biodiesel. Biodiesel is a renewable, clean, and environmentally friendly fuel derived
from vegetable oils and animal fats. However, it has been reported that the cost of the raw
materials is about 80% of the total biodiesel production cost. In this context, the cheaper waste
cooking coconut oils (WCCOs) are potential substitutes for vegetable oils in the production of
biodiesel.
Waste Cooking coconut Oil (WCCO) is a type of fat and oil used in commercial or
industrial food processing, including restaurants. It is made up of various vegetable oils,
including sunflower, palm, rapeseed, and soya. WCCO is primarily made up of triglycerides,
monoglycerides, diglycerides, and free fatty acids. It can be used for energy production or bio-
fuel synthesis. Despite its limitations, WCCO is considered a promising bio-oil feedstock due

to its high free fatty acid (FFA) and water content. prevent unlawful recycling, and control
kitchen waste processing. biodiesel is being used in trash collection trucks, and subsidies are
offered to biofuel companies to reduce production costs and increase recovery rates. In stricter
regulations on waste recovery have been enacted to ensure proper disposal of WCCO.
The need for the energy and fuel is increasing and thought not to fall. Of this, most of
the heavy-duty vehicle use diesel as the energy source. Hence, the need for the biodiesel in a
conventional manner will be a gift to meet the energy needs. Chemical synthesis of biodiesel
using oil and acid base system has reached its saturation; the cost for the production is not
feasible for the chemical processes to be commercialized. chemical synthesis of biodiesel
involves costly extraction procedure for glycerol recovery. Thus, in search for an alternative is
the process using biological materials for biodiesel production in a conventional way. The
whole cell catalysts are gaining importance than the conventional methods of biodiesel
production by enzymatic transesterification. The research works in biodiesel is much favoured
on region-specific lipases like Lipase catalysed transesterification of rapeseed oil for biodiesel
production with a t-butanol as the reaction medium produced many positive effects in biodiesel
production.
The increasing production of waste cooking oil (WCCO) from the household and
catering industry is a global issue, WCCO annually. WCCO, mainly containing cis or trans free
fatty acids, is often used for animal feeds, posing food safety risks. It also contributes to
wastewater treatment issues and clogging in cold winters. To address this issue, researchers are
developing practical processes to transform WCCO into products, such as biodiesel production.
Biosurfactants from renewable resources, such as WCCO, have gained popularity type of
biosurfactant, has excellent surface activity and wide application. However, the pathogenic
nature of most bacteria makes WCCO Biodiesel has become an attractive alternative fuel due
to its similar characteristics to diesel fuel and its environmental friendliness. Low-cost
feedstocks like waste cooking oil (WCCO) and animal fats have been used to replace refined
vegetable oil in biodiesel production. However, undesired components like free fatty acid (FFA)
and water in WCCO have created problems in conventional alkaline transesterification.
Heterogeneous catalysts are more preferable than homogeneous catalysts in biodiesel
production, as they can be removed from the final product by filtration and can be regenerated
and reused. Recent studies have investigated transesterification of refined or non-edible oils
using heterogeneous acid and base catalysts. Zirconia supported catalysts have been acclaimed
for their amphoteric nature and redox properties, which can be either acid or base catalyst if

pre-treated well. Some studies have reported high methyl ester yields, while others have found
to be more effective in esterification and transesterification of FFA and triglycerides. The
basicity of zirconia can be enhanced by modifying it with alkali promoters like potassium
hydroxide, magnesium metal, and lanthanum oxide.

CHAPTER - 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Andi Mulkan, et al. (2024) synthesized biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) using
jackfruit seed powder (JPW) as a solid catalyst was tested in an unmodified diesel engine.
Performance evaluation included parameters such as power output, fuel consumption, and
combustion efficiency compared to standard diesel fuel. Six different biodiesel samples (B10,
B20, B30, B40, B50) were tested under full load conditions and varying engine speeds. Exhaust
emissions analysis measured CO, CO2, NO, HC, and smoke opacity. The study aims to
contribute to sustainability and reduce the environmental impact of engine operations. Biodiesel
showed a decrease in brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and an increase in brake thermal
efficiency (BTE) with increasing engine speed. Engine torque decreased initially and
significantly at high speeds, while brake power exhibited an increase. Biodiesel blends with
solid catalysts improved combustion properties and reduced smoke generation.
Physicochemical properties of WCO biodiesel were summarized, including density and
viscosity. Biodiesel blends with WCO showed potential for optimizing engine performance and
reducing emissions. Understanding these evaluations is crucial for achieving lower emissions
and promoting sustainable practices. The production volume of WCO in Indonesia is
approximately 900,000 tons. The production volume of WCO in Malaysia is approximately
540,000 tons. The blending WCO biodiesel synthesized using the JPW catalyst with pure diesel
results in improved engine performance and reduced exhaust emissions. It suggests that such
biodiesel blends can be a promising substitute for powering diesel engines, contributing to
sustainability and reducing the environmental impact of traditional fossil fuels. The biodiesel
production from WCO and its effects on diesel engine performance and emissions.
Ines Simbi, et al. (2022) optimization biodiesel production from waste sunflower
cooking oil using a bi-functional catalyst. It highlights the global energy demand, the reliance
on fossil fuels, and the potential exhaustion of petroleum reserves, which has led to increased
interest in renewable energy sources like biodiesel. The study emphasizes the economic and
environmental benefits of using waste cooking oils for biodiesel production, addressing the
high cost of raw materials and the need for efficient production methods. The transesterification
process to produce biodiesel from waste sunflower oil using a novel Cao/Al2O3 catalyst and
methanol. The study employs central composite response surface methodology to investigate
the effects of operation parameters such as catalyst loading, temperature, and time on the yield
of biodiesel. The document also discusses the importance of statistical models in economizing

time and energy in biodiesel production. Biodiesel production process, where a significant yield
of 98.23% was obtained under optimal conditions (catalyst loading of 2.5 wt%, time of 5 hours,
and temperature of 60°C). It also mentions the properties of the optimized Fatty Acid Methyl
Esters (FAME) and how they compare with international standards, except for high
concentrations of Ca and Mg. The biodiesel from waste sunflower oil using a bi-functional
catalyst is both feasible and efficient. The optimized conditions lead to a high yield of biodiesel
that meets international standards, except for certain metal concentrations. The use of statistical
models is validated as an effective approach to optimize the biodiesel production process,
potentially contributing to the commercialization of biodiesel as a sustainable alternative fuel.
Muhammad Irsyad, et al. (2023) the potential of waste cooking oil (WCO),
particularly from coconut oil, as a thermal energy storage (TES) medium for room cooling
applications. It highlights the environmental issues associated with the improper disposal of
WCO and the significant increase in cooking oil consumption, which presents a large potential
for WCO generation. The study aims to explore the thermal properties of WCO to assess its
feasibility for TES. The thermal properties of WCO, including phase change temperature,
sensible heat, latent heat, and thermal conductivity. The study involves various tests such as
Gas Chromatography (GC) for fatty acid composition, T-History method for freezing and
melting processes, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and thermal conductivity tests.
The document emphasizes the changes in fatty acid composition due to the frying process and
the implications for the thermal properties of the oil. The thermal properties of coconut cooking
oil (CCO) and waste coconut cooking oil (WCCO), as well as palm cooking oil (PCO) and
waste palm cooking oil (WPCO). It compares the differences in fatty acid composition before
and after the frying process and discusses the suitability of these oils as phase change materials
(PCMs) for room cooling based on their thermal properties. The WCO, especially WCCO, has
promising thermal properties that make it a potential candidate for TES in room cooling
applications. The thermal properties of WCCO are similar to those of CCO, with a latent heat
of 97.7 kJ/kg for melting and a thermal conductivity of 0.155 W/m.K. However, the study notes
that the thermal conductivity of WCO is lower than water, suggesting the need for treatment to
improve this property. Additionally, the wide range of phase change temperatures and the
occurrence of subcooling are identified as challenges that need to be addressed.
Impha Yalagudige Dharmegowda, et al. (2023) optimization of biodiesel derived

from waste coconut and fish oil using magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles. It addresses the
increasing energy demand in India due to population growth and industrialization, highlighting

the reliance on petroleum fuels and the associated environmental impacts. The study explores
sustainable feedstocks for biofuel production, focusing on waste oils and animal fats, and the
potential benefits of using MgO nanoparticles as an additive to improve engine performance
and reduce emissions. The characterization of MgO nanoparticles, the experimental setup for
testing engine performance and emissions, and the application of design of experiments (DOE)
methodologies. The themes revolve around the quest for renewable and sustainable energy
sources, the utilization of waste materials for energy production, and the enhancement of
biodiesel-fueled engine performance through the addition of nanoparticles. The document also
delves into the optimization techniques used to analyze the effects of various parameters on
engine outputs, employing statistical and computational methods such as response surface
methodology (RSM), grey relational analysis (GRA), and metaheuristic algorithms. The use of
MgO nanoparticles in biodiesel blends and their impact on engine performance and emissions.
It presents case studies where different concentrations of nanoparticles and biodiesel blends are
tested in diesel engines, with the aim of finding optimal conditions that lead to improved fuel
efficiency and reduced environmental impact. The study also compares the performance of
biodiesel with and without MgO nanoparticles, highlighting the benefits of nanoparticle
addition.
The potential of MgO nanoparticles to enhance the performance and emission characteristics
of biodiesel derived from waste coconut and fish oil. The main takeaway is that the addition of
MgO nanoparticles to biodiesel can lead to significant improvements in engine efficiency and
a reduction in harmful emissions, contributing to the development of more sustainable and
environmentally friendly fuel alternatives. The study demonstrates the effectiveness of
advanced optimization methods in identifying the best conditions for biodiesel use in engines.
Jassinnee Milano, et al. (2022) The energy crisis and environmental pollution caused
by the continuous use of fossil fuels, leading to harmful emissions and substances in the
atmosphere. Biofuel, particularly biodiesel or biodiesel-diesel fuel, is presented as a high-
efficiency alternative to replace deteriorating fossil fuel sources and mitigate global warming's
detrimental impact. The study explores the tribological characteristics of biodiesel produced
from waste cooking oil, blends with Calophyllum inophyllum oil, and its diesel blends on
lubricant oil. The four-ball tribotester according to ASTM D4172 to conduct wear tests and
determine the wear preventative characteristics of lubricity fluids. The results indicate that fatty
acids in biodiesel and its low viscosity significantly reduce the frictional coefficient of
lubricating oil and act as wear prevention. The research suggests that biodiesel produced from

waste cooking oil blended with Calophyllum inophyllum oil shows better lubricity and can be
used as an additive to petroleum-based lubricant for improved automotive engine performance.
That biodiesel, particularly when produced from waste cooking oil and blended with
Calophyllum inophyllum oil, can enhance the lubricity of lubricating oils and reduce wear on
engine components. This indicates that biodiesel is a viable alternative to fossil fuels, with the
potential to improve engine performance and reduce environmental impact. The research
supports the use of biodiesel as a sustainable energy resource and as an additive to improve the
properties of lubricants in automotive engines.
Akansha Mohanty, et al. (2024) The environmental issues caused by waste oil
treatment and fossil fuel burning, emphasizing the potential of using waste oils as feedstock for
biofuel production through pyrolysis. It highlights the challenges of traditional disposal
methods and the advantages of clean and secure pyrolysis technology in overcoming these
challenges. The technical and economic aspects of bio-oil production from various biomass
through pyrolysis. It examines the impact of higher hydrogen and volatile matter contents in
waste oils on biofuel production and the role of co-pyrolysis with plastic waste in improving
bio-oil yield and quality. The study also delves into the life cycle assessment (LCA) of waste
oil with co-feeds and the influence of research on the commercialization of bio-oil. The use of
waste cooking oil, lubricating oil, and other waste oils as optimal raw materials for biofuel
production. The document discusses the use of metal, zeolites, and bi-functional catalysts to
decrease the acid value in biofuels and the effectiveness of energy and time-saving techniques
in the pyrolysis process. That waste oil pyrolysis presents a viable solution to environmental
problems and a pathway to sustainable biofuel production. It emphasizes the need for further
research and development to enhance the pyrolysis process and the commercial viability of bio-
oil products.
Monika, Sangita Banga, et al. (2023) The urgent need for sustainable energy resources
due to the depletion of fossil fuels and the increasing global energy demand. It highlights the
environmental challenges posed by fossil fuel combustion, which emits harmful pollutants, and
presents biodiesel as a renewable and less polluting alternative. Waste cooking oil (WCO) is
identified as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production, offering an environmentally friendly
solution to its disposal. The various aspects of biodiesel production from WCO, including the
characteristics of WCO, the transesterification process, and the application of heterogeneous
catalysts. It emphasizes the importance of optimizing the transesterification process to improve
biodiesel yield and reduce production costs. The manuscript also explores the potential of WCO

as a biodiesel feedstock, considering its economic viability and environmental benefits. The
different methods for biodiesel production, such as pyrolysis, transesterification, and
supercritical methods, with a focus on transesterification as the most adaptive method. It also
discusses the use of various reactors, such as tubular/plug-flow reactors, jet stirred reactors, and
mechanically assisted transesterification processes, highlighting recent research in the field.
Biodiesel production from WCO is a sustainable process that can address environmental
challenges and meet energy demands. It underscores the significance of process optimization
and the use of heterogeneous catalysts to enhance the sustainability and economic feasibility of
biodiesel production from WCO.
Gan Cheng, Mengni Zhang, et al. (2024) Waste fried oil can be used to produce soap,
liquid soap, and soap powder through the process of saponification. The optimal conditions for
saponification of waste fried oil are a ratio of 6:4 of waste fried oil to coconut oil, a 30% mass
fraction of NaOH solution, a saponification temperature of 70°C, and a 15% concentration of
orange peel extract. The resulting soap has a beautiful appearance, fresh smell, moderate foam,
strong detergent capability, and is non-toxic and gentle on the skin. Liquid soap can be prepared
from the mature soap by adding distilled water, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS), and
coconut diethanol amide (CDEA). The prepared liquid soap has stable properties, good fluidity,
a smooth hand feel, and produces abundant foam during use. Soap powder can be produced by
crushing the mature soap into a powder form. The soap powder has strong decontamination
ability and is easy to rinse. The washing performance of the soap, liquid soap, and soap powder
meets national standards and is comparable to commercial products. Waste fried oil treatment
involves removing impurities, degumming, and decolorization to improve the quality and
stability of the oil. Orange peel extract is prepared by soaking orange peel pieces in 95%
ethanol, which enhances the smell of the soap. The physical properties of waste fried oil include
a moisture and volatile content of 0.31%, an acid value of 3.59 mg KOH/g, a saponification
value of 235.79 mg KOH/g, a density of 0.967 g/mL, and a relative molecular mass of 724.49.
The quality of the soap is influenced by factors such as the mass fraction of NaOH solution, the
proportion of waste fried oil, coconut oil, and olive oil, the saponification temperature, and the
concentration of orange peel extract.
Abin Mathew & K. Anand (2019) The growing interest in alternative fuels due to the
depletion of crude oil reserves and the environmental impact of fossil fuels. It specifically
investigates the feasibility of using biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil (WCO) in light-
duty diesel engines, comparing it with biodiesel made from fresh sunflower oil. The cost of raw

materials is a major obstacle to the commercialization of biodiesel, with 70-95% of the total
cost incurred in producing biodiesel coming from the cost of raw materials. Utilizing waste
cooking oil (WCO) as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production could address cost and
disposal problems. The WCO used in the study was collected from a student's restaurant and
had acid values ranging from 0.97 to 1.34 g KOH/kg of oil. The biggest challenge in producing
biodiesel from WCO is optimizing the fuel production methodology based on the properties of
the WCO, which depend on the food preparation method. Impurities such as food particles,
solid impurities, and high moisture content need to be eliminated through pretreatment
processes like filtering and dehydration. Transesterification reaction parameters for WCO and
fresh sunflower oil were optimized in a small reactor before scaling up to a larger reactor for
engine studies. The measured acid value of WCO was within the recommended standard limit
for base transesterification. A single-stage base-catalyzed transesterification process using
methanol and potassium hydroxide (KOH) as a catalyst was used to produce biodiesel from
WCO. The optimum reactant concentration for the reaction was determined by altering the
catalyst amount, methanol-to-oil molar ratio, reaction time, and temperature. A methanol-to-oil
molar ratio of 6:1 and 0.75% w/w of KOH were used for the final reaction, which was carried
out at a temperature of 55-60°C for 1.5 hours.
Yorinda Buyang, Reva Edra Nugraha, et al. (2023) The depletion of crude oil
reserves and fluctuating oil prices have spurred research into sustainable and renewable energy
sources. Biomass, including waste oil, is a promising renewable energy source that can
potentially meet a significant portion of global energy demand while reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. Waste cooking oil (WCO), rich in triglycerides, is particularly suitable for
conversion into renewable fuel. The study explores the optimization of pyrolysis parameters to
convert WCO into diesel hydrocarbon fuel using dolomite as a catalyst. The distribution of
liquid product yield composition from pyrolysis of waste cooking oil (WCO) was analyzed
based on functional group, alkene/alkane aliphatic hydrocarbon, and hydrocarbon range in
gasoline, diesel, and heavy oil. Dolomite catalyst showed high selectivity towards alkane, with
90.11% selectivity at 0% dolomite loading. Increasing the dolomite loading to 1% resulted in
an equal ratio of alkene and alkane, while 6% dolomite loading increased alkane selectivity to
64.44%. Bio-oil obtained from pyrolysis of WCO had a rich composition of aliphatic
hydrocarbons, making it a potential fuel source. The amount of catalyst loading directly
influenced the distribution of gasoline and diesel fractions, with higher catalyst loading leading
to increased production of these fractions. The findings contribute to the understanding of the

pyrolysis process and the potential for utilizing waste cooking oil as a sustainable source of
hydrocarbon fuel.
M.N.A.M. Yusof, et al. (2022) The growing energy demand in the transportation sector
raises concerns about energy security and greenhouse gas emissions. It highlights the need for
renewable and carbon-neutral biofuels like biodiesel, derived from various sources such as
edible oils, non-edible oils, animal fats, waste cooking oil (WC), and algae oil. The study
focuses on the transesterification of a ternary oil mixture comprising waste cooking oil, Jatropha
curcas oil, and palm oil into biodiesel using microwave irradiation-assisted transesterification.
The optimization of biodiesel yield through response surface methodology (RSM) based on
central composite design (CCD) is a key aspect of the study. The RSM model predicted a
biodiesel yield of 96.81%, while the experimental yield was slightly higher at 96.94%.
Microwave irradiation-assisted transesterification is an effective method for producing
biodiesel from a ternary oil mixture. The optimized process parameters lead to a high biodiesel
yield that meets international standards. The synergistic mixture of the ternary oil results in
improved cold flow properties, oxidation stability, and cetane number, making it a viable
alternative biofuel for transportation. The study demonstrates the potential of non-edible crops
and waste oils in biodiesel production, contributing to energy conservation and
environmental sustainability.
Ahmed I. Osman et al. (2024) The optimized structure of the bioreactor was
determined to be an R-R configuration with an aspect ratio of 1.5 and a rotation angle of 150°.
Under these conditions, the researchers optimized the enzymatic production of biodiesel. The
optimized process conditions included a static mixer length of 30 cm, a material flow rate of
1.77 m/s, a reaction temperature of 40 °C, the addition of methanol three times, and a molar
ratio of 3.4 alcohol to oil with a 10% lipase dose. The results showed that under optimal
conditions, the yield of biodiesel reached 81.3% in 1.5 h. Furthermore, even after 12 repeated
uses of lipase, the yield remained above 70%. Comparing the static mixer bioreactor with a
stirred reactor under the same reaction conditions, the static mixer achieved the same
conversion rate (81.3%) in only one-third of the time, demonstrating its excellent mass transfer
performance. By modeling and simulating chemical reactions, adjusting reaction conditions,
and creating catalysts, computational chemistry plays a critical role in the manufacture of
biodiesel from waste. By anticipating response rates, maximizing production parameters, and
choosing appropriate feedstocks, machine learning and data mining approaches can improve
the production of biodiesel. Additionally, reaction conditions can be optimized, reaction rates

can be predicted, and possible degradation pathways can be found using computational
chemistry. Large dataset analysis, process optimization, and process scale-up simulation are all
made possible by machine learning. It is important to take ethical factors like data security and
privacy into account when using machine learning algorithms.
G. Díez Valbuena, et al. (2024) The importance of clean energy generation is growing
over the years. In 2015 the United Nations (UN) promoted an affordable, reliable, sustainable
and modern energy transition for all and the decarbonization of fuels plays a crucial role in the
process. Biodiesel must meet the requirements outlined in the EN 14214:2012 + A2:2019 and
ASTM D6751 standards. The FAMEs with the higher frequency are the methyl esters of the
following fatty acids: C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2 and C18:3, whose presence ranged from 69.5
to 98.9% of the biodiesel simples. These four fatty acids are the most typical in commercial
biodiesel according to Bukkarapu and Krishnasamy.
Veeranna Modi, et al. (2024) Nanoparticle additives in biodiesel blends can improve
engine performance and emissions reduction. The specific outcomes depend on factors like
nanoparticle type, size, concentration, and blend composition. Nanoparticles can influence
biodiesel properties such as kinematic viscosity, density, flash point, cetane number, and
calorific value. Nanoparticle-enhanced biodiesel blends have improved ignition properties,
faster evaporation, higher oxygen content, and elevated cetane numbers. The use of
nanoparticles in biodiesel engines requires further research and optimization to address
complexities and potential risks. The significance of different biodiesel blends, compositions,
and nanoparticle additions in determining engine performance and emissions. It found that
nanoparticle additives significantly influence Brake Thermal Efficiency and combustion
efficiency, leading to cleaner combustion and more environmentally friendly engine operation.
The research supports the beneficial effects of nanoparticles on bio diesel characteristics and
emissions reduction but cautions against potential environmental and health risks. Further
research and optimization are needed to maximize the benefits of antiparticle additives in bio
diesel engines.
Marlene Lopes et al. (2020) Waste cooking oils (WCO) are generated from vegetable
oils (coconut, sunflower, soybean, palm tree, cottonseed, rapeseed, olive, etc.) employed to fry
foods in household and HORECA (Hotels, Restaurants and Catering) segments and are no
longer suitable for human consumption. Specifically, in HORECA sector, fast food restaurants
(particularly those of chicken and hamburger) are the principal generators of WCO. Based on
their chemical structure, biosurfactants are classified as lip peptides, glycolipids, phospholipids,
neutral lipids, and polymeric compounds. The incorporation of WCO in the media formulation

to produce added-value compounds by microorganisms might improve its production

economics. Thus, it is expected that the Research & Development (R&D) activities on this field
increase, since the microbial valorisation of WCO may contribute to the development of a
circular economy model around added-value compounds production in urban biorefineries. The
authors con cluded that yeast cultivation assisted with ultrasound led to an overall increase in
the sophorolipids yield, attributing this result to cavitational effects that increase the cell
permeability and improve WCO intake and metabolism of yeast cell
Soumya Parida, Harveer Singh Pali, et al. (2024) The process of producing biodiesel
with the use of green chemistry. The best reaction conditions were ascertained by applying
response surface methodology (RSM). The catalyst concentration was 0.97 weight percent, the
cosolvent concentration was 29.1 weight percent, the temperature was 60.1 °C, and the reaction
duration was 30 minutes. These were the optimum parameters. A yield of 98.1% biodiesel was
obtained under these conditions. Using a cosolvent increased the yield of the product; a
minimum concentration of 20 weight percent was required. Ester yields decreased as catalyst
concentration increased. To verify the ideal conditions and compare observed and projected
values, experimental experiments were carried out. The difference that resulted from this
comparison was calculated. The study emphasizes the necessity of optimizing biodiesel
production to raise the quantity.
Achanai Buasri, et al. (2024) The efficient and predicted determination coefficients
(R2 and R2pred) had values of 0.9850 and 0.9411, respectively, indicating a strong correlation
between the independent variables and the model's significance. The yield of FAEE from JCO
using a CaO-K2O catalyst. The 3D surface response and interaction plots developed through
RSM showed satisfactory results, indicating the effectiveness of the CCD model. The
reusability of the synthesized catalyst was tested for 6 cycles, and a small decrease in the yield
of FAEE was observed after each cycle, likely due to negligible weight loss during the
separation process. The CCD approach is a valuable method for studying the impacts of process
variables on biodiesel production and optimizing reaction conditions. Previous research has not
investigated the optimization of biodiesel synthesis from JCO using a CaO-K2O catalyst,
making this study unique.
Ali Reza Aghamiri, Pooya Lahijani (2024) The potential use of liquid products from
distillation as alternative fuels through chemical characterization and property evaluation. Shim
et al. achieved a diesel selectivity of 48.1% and an oxygen removal rate of 69.6% during the

catalytic deoxygenation of oleic acid under inert atmospheric pressure. The CoMoO4 species
in the CoMo catalyst was identified as the active species, influencing the biofuel properties.
The review focuses on catalytic post-treatment strategies for enhancing oil quality from
renewable biological sources and waste plastics, including catalytic pyrolysis, deoxygenation,
isomerization, and cracking. Air transportation plays a crucial role in the global economy, and
the demand for aviation fuel is expected to increase in the future. Catalysts play a pivotal role
in enhancing the stability, water content, and viscosity of bio-oil during the upgrading process.
Various processing methods, such as hydro processing, cracking, and isomerization, have
proven effective in improving the quality of bio-oil. Hydro processing involves the application
of hydrogen under specific conditions to refine bio-oil and meet fuel standards.
Renita Manurung, et al. (2024) The study focuses on the impregnation of LiOH,
NaOH, and KOH on palm oil leaf silica ash, resulting in the formation of a crystalline phase.
The catalysts have similar crystallinity to previous studies and have been characterized using
various methods such as BET, XRD, FTIR, GC-MS, SEM-EDS, and the Hammett indicator
method. The ash was prepared by calcining dry palm leaves and washing with HCl. The Si-OH
functional group appeared in all samples at a wave number of 3100-3400 cm-1, indicating the
absence of organic compounds. The catalysts also contained a Si-O-Si functional group
(siloxane group). The impregnation process involved dissolving palm leaf ash in water and
slowly adding NaOH/KOH solution. The mixture was then stirred and heated at 90°C for 2
hours. The impregnated catalysts showed higher surface area and pore volume compared to
palm leaf ash. They showed improved catalytic activity in biodiesel production, good thermal
stability, and good reusability after multiple cycles of catalytic reactions. The impregnated
catalysts showed high basic strength based on the Hammett indicator method. The study
suggests that the impregnated catalysts have potential for application in biodiesel production
due to their high catalytic activity and stability. The impregnated catalysts also showed good
thermal stability and reusability after multiple cycles of catalytic reactions.
A. Aloia, et al. (2024) The study investigated the use of chitosan as an emulsifier for
triglycerides and free fatty acids. Survey and high-resolution spectra were acquired and
processed using Multipak software. Surface morphology was analyzed using a field emission-
scanning electron microscope (FESEM) equipped with an energy dispersive spectrometer
(EDS). TEM microscopy was performed using a FEI Tecnai 12 instrument. Quantitative
analysis showed a significant reduction in calcium content below 1.5%. The catalyst used in the
study did not undergo any evident alterations, indicating its robustness. A multigram scale

experiment was conducted using waste cooking oil (WCO) as a starting material. The catalyst
showed excellent results even after the 10th recycle, with a conversion rate of around 90%.
Minimal leaching of material without modification of chemical composition was observed. The
kinetic behavior of the catalyst was studied, resulting in an activation energy (Ea) value
of 63.25 kJ⋅mol-1. An important parameter to set up in the transesterification reaction is the
methanol/oil ratio. Stoichiometrically, 3 mol of alcohol are required to convert 1 mol of
triglyceride. However, the methanol/oil ratio can be very different, depending on the reaction
conditions, the nature of the catalyst and the type of oil.
V. I Chukwuike, et al. (2024) Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR) was

used to identify the functional groups present in different biodiesel samples. UV-Vi’s
spectroscopy was used to identify the complexion products present in the biodiesel samples.
Physio-chemical properties of the biodiesel samples were analysed to determine their suitability
for CI engines. ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards were used to evaluate the fuel
characteristics of the biodiesel samples. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to
investigate the surface morphology of the immersed catalysts from the biodiesel samples. The
corrosion of steel coupons in different biodiesel samples was analysed using SEM images. The
steel surface corroded significantly in JOB biodiesel, followed by NOB and the least in WCOB.
B20 biodiesel composition showed the highest corrosion compared to other fuel blends. The
presence of ethyl and methyl esters in biodiesel contributes to the corrosion process and metal
degradation. Biodiesel is more prone to degradation compared to fossil diesel due to the
presence of unsaturated double bond carbon fatty acids. The fatty acid % composition is highest
in JOB, lowest in WCOB and moderate in NOB, since the corrosion attack arises mainly due
to the presence these fatty acids. Therefore, WCOB can be recommended as the least corrosive
biodiesel for the long operational life duration of carbon steel.
Asuquo Jackson Asuquo, et al. (2024) The development of green heterogeneous

catalysts derived from fermented kola nut pod husk for biodiesel production, addressing
environmental concerns related to fossil fuel usage and the Paris Agreement's goal for net-zero
carbon emissions by 2050. Biodiesel is a renewable and environmentally friendly alternative to
fossil fuels, but the high cost of biodiesel feedstock presents a challenge. The study focuses on
the characterization of fermented and calcined Kola Nut Pod Husk catalysts for biodiesel
production using various analytical techniques. The yield of each catalyst was determined by
weighing samples before and after calcination. XRD analysis revealed crystalline nature, strong
catalytic characteristics, and a hierarchical pore structure in the calcined samples. FT-IR spectra

revealed functional groups, and thermal treatment resulted in a carbohydrate-lignin matrix in

the calcined samples. The results suggest that the synthesized catalysts are suitable for biodiesel
production. The study was supported by the Petroleum Technology Development Fund of
Nigeria. The produced calcined catalysts have shown great catalytic potential due to the high
K, Ca, and Mg contents, increased surface area and the existence of mixed mineral oxides such
as Cao, MgO, and K2O.
Sabah Mohamed Farouk, et al. (2024) Literature reviews identify promising

methodologies and compare their performance. Challenges include costly feedstocks,
environmental concerns, and efficiency improvement. Reviews provide a comprehensive
understanding of biodiesel production technology. Policymakers and industry leaders rely on
up-to-date insights for informed decisions. Concise surveys and reviews facilitate collaboration
and knowledge sharing within the biodiesel research community. Public education about
biodiesel production can increase support and adoption. Key topics include feedstock selection,
transesterification process, and benefits of biodiesel use in engines. Techno-economic analysis
is crucial in evaluating the feasibility and viability of biodiesel production. The optimum
conditions for the transesterification of WFO were 1:16 oil to methanol by weight, 3 wt% cata
lyst, 65 °C reaction temperature, and 35 min reaction time. FAME conversion (99.5%) and 96%
yield are achieved at this optimal reaction setting.
Suresh Vellaiyan, et al. (2024) Thorough surveys and reviews inform researchers
about biodiesel production advancements and challenges. Literature reviews identify promising
methodologies and compare their performance. Challenges include costly feedstocks,
environmental concerns, and efficiency improvement. Reviews provide a comprehensive
understanding of biodiesel production technology. Policymakers and industry leaders rely on
up-to-date insights for informed decisions. Concise surveys and reviews facilitate collaboration
and knowledge sharing within the biodiesel research community. Public education about
biodiesel production can increase support and adoption. Key topics include feedstock selection,
transesterification process, and benefits of biodiesel use in engines. Techno-economic analysis
is crucial in evaluating the feasibility and viability of biodiesel production. Optimized
concentrations of CMPO, water, and CNT/MgO were 27.6%, 12.2%, and 64.9% respectively.
Projected performance characteristics were BSFC and BTE, 300.9g/kWh and 32.8%
respectively. Anticipated emission parameters were 20.18ppm, 0.046%, 929ppm, and 16%.
Confirmation experiment confirmed the high degree of proximity between predicted and actual
values.

Mayasar I. Al-Zaban & Abeer R.M. Abd El-Aziz (2023) The study focuses on
developing gold-silver core-shell nanoparticles as a nano catalyst for biodiesel production from
A. terreus KC46206. The optimization of lipid productivity by A. terreus KC46206 is achieved
through a one-step transesterification reaction. A. terreus KC46206 is found to be a promising
tool for lipid production, with pH having a significant impact on lipid biosynthesis. Biodiesel
production process efficiency is highly dependent on preferred process conditions. The study
demonstrates a significant time reduction in biodiesel production from fungal lipids using gold-
silver core-shell nanoparticles. Oleaginous filamentous fungi, such as Aspergillus species, show
promise for renewable feedstock utilization in biodiesel production. The biodiesel produced by
A. terreus KC46206 meets international standards such as ASTM 6751-3, EN 14214, and IS
15607-05. The study successfully synthesizes gold-silver core-shell nanoparticles and
characterizes their properties using FTIR analysis. The biodiesel yield obtained using gold-
silver core-shell nanoparticles is higher compared to previous studies, with a shorter reaction
time. The study highlights the importance of optimizing lipid productivity and biodiesel
production for sustainable and efficient energy production.
Adrian García, et al. (2024) The study explores the advantages and environmental
impacts of a specific hydrogen production technique, specifically the use of anatase TiO2 phase
as a photo electrocatalyst due to its crystalline structure. The nanostructure of TiO2 used in the
experiment consists of smooth-walled tubular structures with specific dimensions. Gas
chromatography and gas chromatograph mass spectrometry were used to analyse the reaction
products and reactants in the experiment. The authors acknowledge the contributions of
individuals involved in the research and the potential for optimizing catalysts and using lower
temperatures to improve the production of GVL. The nanostructure of TiO2 is smooth walled
with specific dimensions, and gas chromatography and gas chromatograph mass spectrometry
were used to analyse the reaction products and reactants. The study was supported by grants
from MCIN/AEI, the European Union, and the Generalitat Valenciana. The authors
acknowledge the contributions of individuals involved in the research and the potential for
improving the production of GVL with minimal environmental impacts. The study aims to
explore a promising technique for hydrogen production with minimal environmental impacts,
focusing on the optimization of catalysts and the use of lower temperatures. The authors have
made their data available upon request and acknowledge the contributions of individuals
involved in the research.

Erminta Tsouko, et al. (2024) The research was funded by the Hellenic Foundation
for Research and Innovation. All data generated or analyzed during the study are included in
the published article. The authors declare no competing interests. The study used an inductively
coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) to analyze the composition of biochar
samples. The biochar samples were prepared by pyrolyzing different lignocellulosic feedstocks.
The study investigated the adsorption capacity of biochar membranes for phenolic compounds.
The biochar membranes showed an increase in substrate dephenolization and adsorption
capacity over time. The study used various lignocellulosic feedstocks to extract nanocellulose,
including flax, sisal, hemp, wood, bamboo, wheat straw, and flax. Enzymatic hydrolysis of
lignocellulosic biomass resulted in the production of cellulose with fibril diameters ranging
from 5-110 nm. The study found that biochar membranes have potential for phenolics
adsorption and depenalization applications.
Dan Egesa, Pawel Plucinski (2022) The efficiency of extracting lipids from
magnetically separated microalgae using ionic liquids (ILs) with sub sequent recycling of ILs
and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) was fully demonstrated for the first time. MNPs were used
to separate microalgae from the aqueous phase at a separation efficiency of 99%. The separated
microalgae/MNPs slurry was subjected to IL treatment to lyse the microalgae cell wall thereby
exposing lipids for efficient solvent extraction using hexane. The lysed cells were mixed with
hexane for 2 h to extract the lipids. The extraction efficiency of 99% was achieved when ILs/
hexane was used compared to only 5% with hexane only. The extracted lipids were analyzed
using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS), Fourier-transform infrared
spectroscopy (FT-IR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR). The MNPs were recovered
from cell biomass by sonicating in de-ionized (DI) water and recycled via magnetic separation
to harvest more microalgae at a separation efficiency of 96%. All these confirmed the absence
of structural alteration in the recycled ILs. Magnetic separation can potentially lower the cost
of microalgae harvesting and IL extraction can lower the cost of lipid extraction by 30–50%. A
combination of the two processes implies that the extraction of lipids from mag nautically
separated microalgae could potentially lower the processing cost of biofuels and essential
compounds. Recycling MNPs and ILs and extraction of essential compounds alongside
microalgae lipids could further lower the processing costs potentially culminating in a lower
cost of biofuels compared to petroleum-derived fuels.

Rauf Foroutan, et al. (2024) The physicochemical aspects of the magnetic nano
catalyst were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), vibrating
sample magnetometer (VSM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) and map techniques. In the trans esterification process, the
effect of temperature, methanol-to-oil ratio, process time, and nano catalyst weight on the
potential of nano catalyst to produce biodiesel from WCO and WCOT was explored. The
highest yield of biodiesel from WCO (96.82%) and WCOT (99.18%) was attained at 65 0 C,
nano catalyst weight of 3 wt %, methanol-to-oil ratio of 19:1, a processing time of 3 h, and a
mixing rate of 600 rpm. Based on thermodynamic studies, the biodiesel production process was
endothermic and non-spontaneous. The regeneration of the nano catalyst was studied using
various solvents and n-hexane had a good ability to recover the catalyst (90% up to 5 stages).
The results of the 1 H NMR test revealed that the desired nano catalyst had a high potential to
generate biodiesel from WCO and WCOT. The properties of produced biodiesel met ASTM
D6751 and EN 14214 standards. the spectrum of the XRD test is presented to check the
crystalline and amorphous regions and phases in the desired samples. In the structure of BPB,
Fe3O4, ZIF-67, and the desired magnetic nano composites, peaks with different intensities have
appeared, which shows that the samples are crystalline.
Siti Aminah Mohd Johari, et al. (2024) The optimization and kinetic aspects of the
microwave (MW) heating transesterification process for converting dairy waste scum oil
(DWSO) into bio diesel using lithium impregnated calcium oxide from eggshell (Li-ECaO) as
a catalyst. The transesterification was done via microwave heating while varying catalyst
loading (1 – 5 wt%), methanol to oil molar ratio (6 – 18:1), temperature (55 – 75⁰C), and
reaction time in the range of 5 – 25 min. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) optimized the
process parameters, yielding an impressive 90.5% biodiesel yield. The optimal operating
conditions were determined 3 wt% catalyst loading, 18:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, a reaction
temperature of 65ºC, and a reaction time of 25 minutes. A thorough kinetic analysis of the
transesterification reaction for the MW heating transesterification of DWSO by Li-ECaO was
performed at various temperatures (45 – 75ºC). The pseudo-first order kinetic study of the
reaction revealed a moderately low activation energy of 38.86 kJ/mol and a high pre-
exponential factor of 1141.27 s-1, which is consistent with previous studies. Future studies could
focus on the economic feasibility of scale-up production of biodiesel from DWSO by applying
the optimized parameters from this study. Moreover, to better understand environmental
aspects, life cycle analyses for this study could also be carried out down the line.

CHAPTER - 3
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP & METHODOLOGY
3.1 Methodology
3.1.1 Pretreatment
The collected waste coconut cooking oil is filtered to remove any solid particles, food
debris, or impurities. Depending on the quality of the oil, it may undergo additional pretreatment
processes, such as degumming or deacidification, to remove gums, free fatty acids, or other
impurities that could interfere with the transesterification reaction.
3.1.2 Transesterification Reaction
The pretreated or filtered oil is mixed with an alcohol, typically methanol or ethanol, in
the presence of a catalyst, usually sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH).
The mixture is heated and stirred for a specific duration to allow the transesterification reaction
to occur, where the triglycerides in the oil react with the alcohol to form fatty acid methyl esters
(FAME) or fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE), which are the main components of biodiesel. The
molar ratio of alcohol to oil, catalyst concentration, reaction temperature, and reaction time are
critical parameters that need to be optimized for efficient conversion.
3.1.3 Separation of Products
After the transesterification reaction, the mixture separates into two distinct layers: the
biodiesel (FAME or FAEE) layer and the glycerol by-product layer. The two layers are separated
using a settling tank or a centrifuge.
3.1.4 Biodiesel Purification
The biodiesel layer is further purified by washing with water or an acidic solution to
remove any remaining catalyst, soap, or unreacted components. The biodiesel may also undergo
drying or distillation processes to remove any residual alcohol or water.
3.1.5 Glycerol Recovery and Purification
The glycerol by-product layer can be further purified and recovered as a valuable co-
product, which has various applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries.

3.1.6 Quality Testing
The purified biodiesel is subjected to quality tests to ensure it meets the required
specifications and standards, such as ASTM D6751 or EN 14214, which cover properties like
viscosity, flash point, cloud point, and acid value.
3.1.7 Storage and Distribution
The biodiesel that meets the quality standards is stored and distributed for use as a
transportation fuel or as a fuel additive, blended with conventional diesel fuel.
3.1.8 Blending
The biodiesel may then be blended with regular diesel fuel to create a biofuel suitable for
use in diesel engines.
3.1.9 Characterization
The final stage involves characterizing the biodiesel to ensure it meets the quality
standards for fuel. Some of the properties measured include viscosity, flash point, fire point,
calorific value, and density.
Fig.3.1 Methodology of waste coconut cooking oil

3.2 Objective of The Study
➢ The primary objective is to synthesis the waste coconut cooking oil

(WCCO) into biodiesel via transesterification process using magnetic stirring process.
➢ To prepare various blends with conventional diesel fuel percentage basis like B10, B20
and B30.
➢ To characterize the WCCO and its blends as per ASTM standards such as viscosity,
flash, fire point, density, and calorific value.
3.3 Experimental work of Waste Coconut Cooking Oil (WCCO) filtration
Using a filtration procedure, the collected WCCO was first cleaned to get rid of any
leftoverfood and other suspended contaminants as shown in Figi.3.2 The WCCO was rinsed
with hot,distilled water at 70 °C to get rid of any soluble contaminants. After that, silica gel was
used toextract the water content from the cleaned oil. The oil was heated up in an air oven for
the entire night for the purpose of removing the water vapours from the feedstock.
Fig.3.2 WCCO filtration
3.4 Transesterification process
A 1000 mL glass reactor with a magnetic stirrer (as shown in Fig.3.3) was used to carry
out the transesterification process. Initially, the catalyst was added to methanol at 40 °C and
continuously mixed for 30 minutes to activate it. Later, the WCCO was added to the 1000 ml
glass reactor along with the catalyst of 18 grams and methanol of 200 ml. The reactionmixture
was stirred using a magnetic stirrer. During the reaction the temperature was maintained at 55-

65°C, and continuously mixed for 60 mins in order to get homogeneous mixture. In addition to
biodiesel, the reaction also yields soap, glycerol, excess alcohol, and amounts of water as
byproducts. To comply with regulations, each of these byproducts needs to be eliminated. To
facilitate the separation of the various phases, the residual mixture was leaved overnight in a
separator as shown in Fig.3.4 Glycerol was settled down at the bottomand the ester layer was at
the top. Subsequently, unreacted methanol was recovered by vacuum distilling the top ester
layer. To get rid of any water remnants, anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) was used. Every
experiment was run three times, and the percentage of biodiesel wascalculated using the given
Eqn. (1) by averaging the three experimental data.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙
% 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100 % Eqn. (1)
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝐶𝐶𝑂
Fig.3.3 Transesterification process, (a) Schematic view (b) Photographic view and (c)
Separation process

Fig.3.4 (a) Blends preparation, and (b) Test samples
3.5 Biodiesel characterization
The following instruments were used to determine the various properties of biodiesel: bomb
calorimeter (ASTM-D5865-13), Cannon Fenske viscometer (ASTM-D446), portable digital
density meter (ASTM-D7777), cloud and pour point apparatus (ASTM-D97-16), and Pensky
Marten flash and fire apparatus (ASTM-D92). These instruments measured the calorific value
(CV), kinematic viscosity, density, cloud and pour points, and brightness, respectively.
3.6 FTIR (Fourier transform infrared)

When infrared radiation is bombarded on a sample, it absorbs the light and creates various
vibration modes. This absorption relates precisely to the nature of bonds in the molecule. The
frequency ranges are measured as wavenumbers typically over the range of 4000–600 cm^-1.
The FTIR spectrum is measured as wavenumber because wavenumber is directly related to the
energy and frequency, thus providing an easy way for interpreting the spectrum. Prior to the
sample analysis, the background is recorded, to avoid air and water vapor contamination peaks.
The proportion of the background and the sample spectrum are directly related to the absorption.
spectrum of the sample. The absorption spectrum indicating various vibrations of the bonds
presents in the sample molecule. Several modes arise due to the various bond vibrations. So, in
this way one can easily identify the functional group in a molecule.
Monitoring transesterification reaction
FTIR can be used to monitor the progress of the transesterification reaction during
biodiesel production. The presence of characteristic peaks corresponding to the functional groups
of triglycerides, fatty acid esters, and glycerol can be observed, allowing the determination of
the conversion rate and the completion of the reaction.

Characterization of biodiesel
FTIR is a valuable tool for characterizing the composition and quality of the produced
biodiesel. It can provide information about the presence of various functional groups, such as
the ester groups (-COO-) characteristic of fatty acid alkyl esters, which are the main
components of biodiesel.
Identification of contaminants
FTIR can help identify and quantify potential contaminants or impurities present in the waste
coconut cooking oil or the produced biodiesel. These contaminants may include unreacted
triglycerides, free fatty acids, water, alcohols, or other compounds that can affect the quality
and performance of the biodiesel.
Quality control
FTIR can be used as a quality control technique to ensure that the produced biodiesel meets the
required specifications and standards. By analyzing the infrared spectra, the presence of
undesirable compounds or deviations from the expected composition can be detected.
Monitoring of oxidation and degradation
FTIR can be employed to monitor the oxidation and degradation of waste coconut cooking oil
or biodiesel during storage or use. Changes in the infrared spectra can indicate the formation of
oxidation products, such as aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids, which can negatively
impact the fuel properties.
To perform FTIR analysis, a small sample of the waste coconut cooking oil, biodiesel,
or related material is placed in the instrument's sample compartment. The sample is then
exposed to infrared radiation, and the absorbed or transmitted radiation is measured and
converted into an infrared spectrum using Fourier transform algorithms. The resulting spectrum
provides information about the molecular bonds and functional groups present in the sample,
enabling qualitative and quantitative analysis.
FTIR is a valuable analytical tool in the field of waste coconut cooking oil and biodiesel
production due to its ability to provide detailed information about the chemical composition
and quality of the materials involved.

CHAPTER - 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Comparison of fuel properties
Table 4.1 presents a comparison of the qualities of biodiesel. Compared to diesel (827.3
kg/m3), B100 based WCCO density (891 kg/m3) was found to be greater, indicating that the fuel
has a larger bulk modulus of compressibility, pressure waves can pass through it more easily, and
fuel injection can start earlier. A fuel's usable energy content is indicated by its CV. When
compared to diesel (43476.85 kJ/kg), a reduced CV of 37,223.77 J/kg was noted for CWCME,
resulting in increased fuel consumption under fixed load conditions. The presence of inborn
oxygen may be the cause of biodiesel's lower CV. The ability of a liquid to resist flow is known
as kinematic viscosity. CWCME was found to have a higher kinematic viscosity than diesel. This
reduces leakage in the fuel pump's barrel/plunger and speeds up the pressure rise, advancing fuel
injection. The safety of fuel for storage and transportation is indicated by flash and fire points.
With flash and fire points of 114 °C and 123 °C, respectively, greater than diesel's 51 °C and 58
°C, is a safer fuel to transport and store than diesel.
Table - 4.1 Comparison of fuel properties
ASTM Diesel WCCO - WCCO - WCCO - WCCO -

Characteristics
Standard B10 B20 B30 B100
Kinematic
Viscosity D446 2.371 2.71 2.53 2.30 2.80
@40°C in cSt
Flash Point °C D92 51 62 60 57 114
Fire Point °C D92 58 67 63 61 123
Gross
D5865-
Calorific 43476.85 40,902.12 41,415.29 41,923.56 37,223.77
13
Value kj/kg
Density in
D7777 827.3 848 860 865 891
kg/m3

4.2 B10 FTIR (Fourier-Transform Infrared)
FT-IR (Fourier-Transform Infrared) spectroscopy is a technique used to identify

functional groups in a molecule by analyzing its infrared absorption spectrum. The horizontal
axis of the graph is wavenumber, which is measured in reciprocal centimetres (cm^-1). The
vertical axis is transmittance, which is measured as a percentage. The higher the transmittance,
the less infrared light is absorbed by the sample. A peak in the spectrum indicates that a certain
wavenumber of infrared light is being absorbed by the sample. The relative intensity of the peaks
can be used to identify the functional groups present in the molecule.
➢ In the FT-IR spectrum, there are several peaks between 400 and 1600 cm^-1. Here the
maximum peak is at 1458.82 cm^-1 and lowest peak is at 432.52 cm^-1.
➢ In the FT-IR spectrum, there are several peaks between 400 and 3500 cm^-1. The Overall
graphs highest peak is at 2921.04 cm^-1.
➢ These peaks correspond to the stretching vibrations of various functional groups in the
Zn-MOF nanoparticle.
100
90 80
Transmittance [%]
50 60 70
40
30
2921.04
2854.62
1748.01
1458.82
1374.83
1155.74
723.98
524.19
502.80
491.67
460.90
432.52
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber cm-1
C:\Program Files\OPUS_65\MEAS\B 10.0 B 10 Instrument type and / or accessory 15/03/2024

Fig.4.1 B 10 FTIR Spectrum
Page 1/1


FT-IR (Fourier-Transform Infrared) spectroscopy is a method used to discover functional
groups in molecules. The graph's horizontal axis represents wavenumber, expressed in reciprocal
centimeters (cm^-1). The transmittance, expressed as a percentage, is the vertical axis. The
sample absorbs less infrared light the greater the transmittance. A peak in the spectrum signifies
that the sample is absorbing infrared light at a certain wavenumber. The functional groups
included in the molecule can be determined by comparing the relative intensities of the peaks.
There are many peaks in the FT-IR spectra between 400 and 1800 cm^-1. In this case, 457.19
cm^-1 is the lowest peak and 1747.60 cm^-1 is the largest peak. With an induction time of 0.51
years at 30 °C, the blend's oxidation stability clearly increased by 84.31% when biodiesel and
diesel were blended at 20% volume concentration (B20). Since oxygen is more electronegative
than carbon, any hydrogen atoms in the oil will be absorbed by oxygen molecules, resulting in a
reduced OS of B100.
100
90
80
Transmittance [%]
50 60 40
30
20 70
2920.80
2854.96
1747.60
1458.08
1374.85
1156.27
722.77
531.09
486.88
457.19
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber cm-1
C:\Program Files\OPUS_65\MEAS\B 20.0 Fig.4.2

B 20 B type
Instrument 20 and
FTIR Spectrum
/ or accessory 15/03/2024
Page 1/1


The FT-IR spectrum is a tool used to analyze the absorption of infrared light by a sample.
It is measured in cm^-1 and consists of several peaks between 400 and 2000 cm^-1, with the
highest peak at 1746.89 cm^-1 and the lowest at 444.64 cm^-1. The highest peak is 2921.24 cm^-
1, which corresponds to the stretching vibrations of various functional groups in the Zn-MOF
nanoparticle. The x-axis represents wavenumber, the frequency of light passing through the
sample, and the y-axis represents transmittance, the amount of light transmitted at each
wavenumber. The absorption relates to the nature of molecule bonds.
➢ Frequency ranges are measured as wavenumbers, typically over 4000–600 cm−1.
➢ Wavenumber is directly related to energy and frequency, aiding in spectrum
interpretation.
➢ Background is recorded before sample analysis to avoid contamination peaks.
➢ The proportion of background and sample spectrum is directly related to the
sample's absorption spectrum.
100
90
80
Transmittance [%]
50 6040
30
20 70
2921.24
2854.20
1746.89
1458.93
1374.13
1156.13
722.44
520.18
490.72
459.54
444.64
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber cm-1
C:\Program Files\OPUS_65\MEAS\B 30.0

Fig.4.3
B 30
B 30 FTIR Spectrum
Instrument type and / or accessory 15/03/2024
Page 1/1

➢ There are many peaks in the FT-IR spectra, ranging from 400 to 1600 cm^-1. In this case,
the lowest peak is at 462.93 cm^-1 and the greatest peak is at 1457.857 cm^-1.
➢ There are many peaks in the FT-IR spectra, ranging from 400 to 3500 cm^-1.
FT-IR spectroscopy is a frequently used approach to discover functional groups in molecules.
Wavenumber is plotted on the graph's x-axis and is expressed in reciprocal centimeters (cm^-1).
In essence, it shows the light frequency that is traveling through the sample. Transmittance is
shown as a percentage on the y-axis. At each wavenumber, it displays the quantity of light that
passes through the sample. Less light is being absorbed by the sample at that frequency when the
transmittance is greater.
100
90 80
Transmittance [%]
50 60 70
40
30
2920.36
2855.61
1457.57
1375.12
724.59
493.92
462.93
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber cm-1
C:\Program Files\OPUS_65\MEAS\B 500.0 Fig.4.4

B 50 B 50typeFTIR
Instrument Spectrum
and / or accessory 15/03/2024
Page 1/1

The strong O-H chains are present in the B.O line at wave number 3353.4 cm-1 (72.09 %T),
which is indicative of a higher oxygen molecule prevalence and the linearity of long chain
molecules, both of which are related to the fast induction period for B100. An environment with
a higher concentration of oxygen will constantly draw in other oxygen molecules. This will cause
a chemical reaction that forms free radicals like superoxide and peroxide, among others, and will
promote oxidation through a free radical chain reaction. At room temperature, environmental
microorganisms break down the organic compounds in the oil and produce more free radicals,
which reduces the oil's capacity to store energy. The B100 induction period.
➢ In the FT-IR spectrum, there are several peaks between 400 and 2000 cm^-1. Here the
maximum peak is at 1743.45 cm^-1 and lowest peak is at 428.22 cm^-1.
➢ In the FT-IR spectrum, there are several peaks between 400 and 3500 cm^-1. The Overall
graphs highest peak is at 2921.85 cm^-1.
➢ These peaks correspond to the stretching vibrations of various functional groups in the Zn-
MO nanoparticle.
100
90 80
Transmittance [%]
60 70
50
40
30
2921.85
2853.52
1743.45
1459.85
1371.62
1155.67
1109.48
721.20
530.44
502.44
490.59
471.52
460.29
428.22
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber cm-1
C:\Program Files\OPUS_65\MEAS\B 100.0

Fig.4.5
B 100
B 100 FTIR Spectrum
Instrument type and / or accessory 15/03/2024
Page 1/1

4.7 FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) analysis
The presence of bands in the samples has been utilized by FT-IR analysis to identify the
functional groups that are currently in place as shown in Fig.6. The different stretching and
bending vibrations seen in oils, esters, and biodiesel samples are correlated with the FT-IR
spectrum. Strong absorbers in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum are applied
to oils and esters. Using a PerkinElmer instrument, FT-IR investigations were performed on
diesel, WCCO-based biodiesel (B100), and its mixes in the 4000–650 cm−1 range. A computer
software application spectrum was used to process each and every result.
Fig.4.6 FTIR Spectrum

CHAPTER - 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
5.1 CONCLUSION
The comparison between diesel and biodiesel derived from waste coconut cooking oil
reveals distinct advantages and considerations for each. Diesel, with its advanced
desulfurization process, offers a higher efficiency in removing sulfur compounds from the oil,
resulting in cleaner emissions when used as fuel. This makes diesel an attractive option for
reducing air pollutants and improving air quality. Additionally, diesel may have the potential to
extend the lifespan of engines by reducing the harmful effects of sulfur on engine components.
On the other hand, biodiesel produced from waste coconut cooking oil presents a
compelling environmental benefit. It is a renewable and biodegradable fuel that can
significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional diesel. The use of
waste cooking oil as a feedstock for biodiesel production also contributes to waste reduction
and promotes a circular economy.
The choice between diesel and biodiesel would ultimately depend on specific priorities
and circumstances. For operations focused on minimizing emissions and improving air quality,
diesel could be the preferred option. Conversely, those prioritizing environmental sustainability
and waste reduction might find biodiesel more aligned with their goals.
It is worth noting that both diesel and biodiesel production processes require careful
consideration of factors such as cost, scalability, and availability of feedstock. Further research
and development in both technologies are essential to optimize their efficiency, reduce costs,
and enhance their overall sustainability.
By comparing between diesel and biodiesel from waste coconut cooking oil should be
made based on a comprehensive evaluation of the specific requirements and objectives of the
operation. Both technologies offer promising solutions for reducing the environmental impact
of transportation fuels, and their adoption can contribute to a cleaner and more
sustainable future.

5.2 Features of Biodiesel
Below are certain features of the fuel:
➢ Biodegradable and Renewable Fuel.

➢ Safer to use and has low toxicity compared to fossil diesel fuel.
➢ Lower exhaust emission rate than normal diesel fuel.
➢ As per ASTM D 6751 quality parameters, the quality of diesel is analyzed.
➢ Using biodiesel doesn’t require any diesel engine modification.

CHAPTER - 6
REFERENCES
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A Project Report On

SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF WASTE

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL

Under the Guidance of

VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Submitted for viva-voce examination held on:

Internal Examiner External Examiner

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

We hereby declare that the project report entitled “SYNTHESIS AND

B BHANU PRAKASH 204M1A0313

We express my sincere gratitude to my Guide Dr. P. CHENGA REDDY, M.E., Ph.D.,

We sincerely thank my project coordinator Dr. G. SURESH, M.Tech., (Ph.D)., Associate

B BHANU PRAKASH 204M1A0313

The rapidly expanding energy, transportation, and technology sectors resulted in an

S.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

CHAPTERS DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1.2.1 Low compression 3

1.2.2 Low fuel pressure 3

1.2.3 Low cranking speed or Faulty battery 3

1.2.4 Thermostart or Glow plugs faulty 4

1.2.5 Poor or low fuel supply 4

1.2.6 Contaminated fuel 4

1.2.7 Air in fuel 4

1.2.8 Fuel filter fuel pipes blocked 4

1.2.9 Faulty injectors 4

1.2.10 Injection pump faulty 5

1.2.11 Fuel lift pump faulty 5

1.2.12 Blocked or Dirty air cleaner 5

1.2.13 Turbocharger faulty 5

1.2.14 Injector washers leaking 5

1.2.15 Internal engine faults 6

1.2.16 Disadvantages of diesel include 6

1.2.17 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 6

1.2.18 Particulate Matter (PM) 6

1.3 Vegetable oil 7

1.3.1 Transesterification process 7

1.3.2 Advantages of vegetable oil-based biodiesel 7

1.3.5 Vegetable oil drawbacks 8

1.4 Transesterification of vegetable oil 9

1.6 Product purification 14

1.7 Production methods 14

1.7.1 Supercritical process 14

1.7.4 Lipase-catalyzed method 15

1.10 Benefits of Biodiesel 16

1.11 Advantages of Using Biodiesel 17

1.14 Biodiesel Production Technologies 18

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 26-40

3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP & 41-46

3.1.2 Transesterification Reaction 41

3.1.3 Separation of Products 41

3.1.5 Glycerol Recovery and Purification 41

3.1.6 Quality Testing 42

3.1.7 Storage and Distribution 42

3.2 Objective of The Study 43

3.5 Biodiesel characterization 46