Research Methods (MPC-005)

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)

Course Code: MPC-005
Assignment Code: MPC-005/AST/TMA/2012-23

SECTION C
Answer the following in about 50 words each.
9) Difference between causal comparative and experimental research design

Causal comparative and experimental research share the goal of establishing cause
and effect relationships through comparison, but they differ in their methodologies.
Experimental design involves selecting a random sample and dividing it into two or
more groups, followed by the assignment of treatments and the execution of the
study. On the other hand, in causal comparative design, individuals are not randomly
assigned to treatment groups because they were already assigned to groups prior to
the research. In experimental research, the independent variable is manipulated by
the researcher, whereas in causal comparative research, the groups are already
established and naturally differ in the independent variable. Therefore, in causal
comparative research, the researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable.
10. Definition of research design
A research design encompasses the arrangement, structure, and approach
employed to investigate and obtain answers to research questions while managing
variance. It serves as the comprehensive scheme or framework for the research,
encompassing everything from formulating hypotheses and their practical
implications to the final analysis of gathered data. The structure of the research
refers to the outline of the research design, while the scheme pertains to the
operational framework of the variables. The strategy encompasses the methods
used to collect and analyze the data, essentially outlining how the research objective
will be achieved and how any encountered issues will be addressed. In essence, the
research design outlines the researcher's plan to address research questions and
achieve research objectives.
A traditional research design is a detailed plan or blueprint that outlines how a
research study will be conducted. It delineates how variables will be operationalized
and measured, the methodology for selecting a relevant sample, the data collection
process to be used for hypothesis testing, and the approach to analyzing the
obtained results.
In summary, a research design can be defined as the plan adopted by a researcher
to address research questions effectively.
11. Significance of hypothesis formulation.
ANS: The formulation of a hypothesis is a fundamental aspect of scientific research.
When a hypothesis is simple, concise, and well-defined, it enables the investigator to
proceed effectively in the research field. The significance and value of formulating a
hypothesis for research can be examined in the following manner. According to
Goode and Hatt, conducting research without a formulated hypothesis results in an
unfocused and haphazard empirical exploration. The obtained results lack clear
meaning and cannot be analyzed as factual evidence. By formulating a hypothesis, a
connection is established between theory and investigation, which ultimately leads to
the discovery of new knowledge and additional insights.
12. Meaning of reliability
Ans: Reliability in scientific research refers to the ability to replicate significant
results. When other researchers can perform the same experiment under identical
conditions and obtain the same outcomes, it validates the findings and ensures
acceptance of the hypothesis. Replication of statistically significant results is crucial
for testability and for a hypothesis to establish itself as a scientific truth. Reliable
instruments and measurements are essential for valid experiments. However,
experiments involving human judgment are more challenging to repeat and
inherently less reliable due to variations in individual observers. Reliability is
necessary for determining the overall validity of an experiment and strengthening the
results.
In short, reliability is the consistency and repeatability of measurements. A
measurement is considered reliable if similar scores are obtained when the same
test is administered multiple times. It is important to note that reliability is estimated
rather than directly measured. The reliability of a test reflects the consistency of
scores obtained by an individual on different occasions or with different sets of
equivalent items. It can be defined as the correlation between scores from equivalent
tests or as the proportion of true variance in obtained test scores. Additionally, error
in psychological testing does not imply a mistake but rather indicates inherent
inaccuracies in measurement. The goal of psychological measurement is to assess
the magnitude of such errors and develop methods to minimize them.
13. Method of snow ball sampling.
Snowball sampling, also known as network or chain referral sampling, is a
sociometric non-probability method. It involves collecting data from contacts known
to the researcher and then asking respondents to provide contact information for
additional potential participants. This method is useful when other sampling methods
are limited or when the population is unknown.
Advantages of snowball sampling include its effectiveness in studying small social
groups and their impact on formal structures. It can also reveal communication
patterns and concepts like community power and decision-making.
However, snowball sampling has limitations. It becomes challenging with large
sample sizes exceeding 100 participants. Additionally, this method does not allow for
the use of probability statistical methods, introducing potential bias since the sample
relies on subjective choices of initially selected respondents.

14.Difference between independent and dependent variable

The independent variable, also known as the stimulus variable, is manipulated or
selected by the experimenter to examine its relationship with an observed
phenomenon. It can be further categorized into Type E, directly manipulated, and
Type S, manipulated through selection only. For example, in a study on the effect of
noise on task performance, noise is the independent variable, directly manipulated
by dividing it into different categories. On the other hand, the dependent variable is
the factor that appears, disappears, or varies as the independent variable is
introduced, removed, or varied. It is a measure of the subject's behavior and can be
assessed through dimensions such as frequency, duration, latency, and force. The
dependent variable depends on the independent variable, and in an experiment, the
relationship between the two is discovered and confirmed.
15. Relevance of grounded theory
The data and theory derived from grounded theory are meaningful and important
because
Grounded theorists enhance the reliability and validity of their theory by preparing
reports based on information collected from various sources.

The ground theory approach gives an opportunity for exploring the facts and
analysing the causal reasons behind those facts.

It is an inductive type of research which has its basis or is ‘grounded’ on the base of
observations and data collected

The grounded theory approach also provides a base to specify how a knowledge
base should be changed in the light of new information

The grounded theory data often categorises data which further forms a basis for
organising and reporting results.
16 Meaning of ethnography
This research method, also referred to as "ethnomethodology" or "methodology of
people," involves studying culture through close observation and active participation.
Its focus is on examining socio-cultural phenomena within a community. The
ethnographer or researcher gathers information about these phenomena from
numerous individuals within the community. Additionally, participants from the
community assist the researcher by identifying and providing contacts of other
individuals, creating a chaining process. Data is collected through chain sampling
across different areas of investigation. Selected samples are re-interviewed to obtain
more in-depth and nuanced responses. The ethnographer immerses themselves in
the community for an extended period, gathering additional information through the
chaining process and collecting data in the form of observational transcripts and
interview recordings. The analysis of this data contributes to the development of
theories about the socio-cultural phenomena under study, based solely on the
perspectives and insights of the respondents.

17. Criteria for selecting a case study.

When choosing cases for a case study, we often employ information-oriented
sampling. Our selection is primarily based on information that focuses on extreme or
typical cases, rather than average cases. Extreme or typical cases tend to provide
more valuable information as they involve fundamental mechanisms and multiple
actors within the studied situation. Moreover, both from a perspective of
understanding and taking action, it is often more crucial to uncover the underlying
causes and consequences of a given problem rather than simply describing its
symptoms or frequency.
Random samples that prioritize representativeness are unlikely to offer this level of
insight. Instead, it is more appropriate to select a few cases based on their validity,
although this is not always the case. There are three types of information-oriented
cases that can be distinguished: critical cases, extreme or deviant cases, and
paradigmatic cases.
Yin (2005) proposed that researchers should decide whether to conduct single-case
or multiple-case studies and choose whether to maintain the case as a holistic entity
or include embedded sub-cases.

18. Concept of cross sectional survey research design.

A cross-sectional survey is employed by researchers to gather data from diverse
groups, such as varying age ranges, genders, ethnicities, nationalities, or tribes, all
at one point in time. For instance, an investigation into the impact of socialization on
children belonging to different age groups within a specific country could be
conducted using this approach. Cross-sectional surveys offer the advantage of being
both time-efficient and cost-effective.

SECTION B
Answer the following questions in about 400 words each.
4. Type of Quasi Experimental Designs.
In specific contexts, there exist numerous quasi-experimental designs that serve
various purposes. In this study, we will examine several significant quasi-
experimental designs.
Non-Equivalent Group, Posttest only Design
The posttest only design, which is not equivalent, involves administering an outcome
measure to either two groups or a program/treatment group and a comparison. A
significant drawback of this design is that the two groups may not be initially identical
before any instruction occurs, and they might have significant differences that affect
their reading progress.
Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
In this design, both a control group and an experimental group are compared, but the
selection and assignment of the groups are based on convenience rather than
randomization. The challenge with this design lies in determining the appropriate
method to compare the results between the experimental and control groups.
The Separate Pretest -Posttest Sample Design
This design compares different individuals for the pretest and posttest. There are
four groups, two from each non-equivalent group. For example, in a study with two
similar organizations, one is the study group and the other is the control. Since
customers switch between the organizations, measuring the same customer before
and after the program is impossible. Instead, customer satisfaction is measured at
different times in each organization. Individual responses cannot be matched, only
the average change in customer satisfaction is analyzed. Non-equivalence exists
between and within the organizations for the pretest and posttest groups.
The Double Pre-Test Design
The double pre-test design is a strong quasi-experimental design for internal validity.
It addresses the issue of non-equivalent groups in pre-post non-equivalent group
designs, where differences observed in post-tests can be wrongly attributed to the
program. By including two pre-tests, it allows us to assess if the groups are changing
at similar rates before the program. This design effectively controls for selection and
maturation threats by detecting any differential maturation between the program and
comparison group.
The Switching Replications Design
The Switching Replications quasi-experimental design is strong in terms of internal
validity and can enhance external validity. It involves two groups and three phases of
measurement. In the first phase, both groups are pretested, one receives the
program, and both are post-tested. In the second phase, the groups switch roles.
This design is superior to the simple pre-post non-equivalent groups design.
Mixed Factorial Design with one Non-Manipulated Variable
In this design, an experiment was conducted to examine the potential influence of
caffeine intake on pain perception, with consideration for gender differences. The
study involved 25 men and 25 women who participated in two sessions, one week
apart. In one session, they consumed coffee with caffeine, while in the other session,
they consumed decaffeinated coffee. During both sessions, the participants
submerged their non-dominant hand in an ice water bath and indicated the point at
which they first noticed pain.
Interrupted Time-Series Designs
These research designs allow for comparing the same group over time by analyzing
data trends before and after experimental manipulation. Pre-testing and post-testing
are conducted at different intervals, and the number of tests can vary. Interruptions
may occur to assess treatment strength over an extended period.
Multiple Time Series Design
In this design, there are two groups: one receives treatment and the other acts as
the control group without treatment. The setting is often complex with various events
and trends that may impact the behavior under study. Including a comparison group
that undergoes the same measurements but doesn't receive the treatment helps
clarify the relationship between the treatment and any changes in the behavioral
measures.
Repeated Treatment Design
The repeated treatment design involves the presentation of a treatment, its
withdrawal, and then its presentation again. In this design, the treatment is
administered multiple times. The subject's response is measured before and after
the introduction of the treatment, followed by the withdrawal of the treatment. The
process is then repeated.
Counter Balanced Design
These designs are also known as crossover designs. In this design, experimental
control is achieved by randomly assigning the experimental treatment. Each
treatment is applied once and only once in each column and row.

Q5. Research Biases.

Engaging in research poses the challenge of maintaining objectivity and avoiding

biases that can cloud one's judgment. This challenge arises due to the fact that our
ideas and beliefs are often intertwined with certain biases, influenced by our
personal opinions and values. As a result, these biases can shape the way we
perceive and interpret information, potentially distorting our impressions of collected
data.
Numerous biases have been identified that can impact the objectivity of research.
External influences, such as cultural norms or media portrayal, can shape our
worldview and predispose us to accept certain perspectives or narratives. These
influences can unconsciously guide our interpretations and conclusions, even if we
strive to remain objective.
Personal bias is another influential factor that can distort the research process. Our
individual beliefs, attributes, and past experiences can all contribute to subjective
judgments and evaluations. These biases can manifest in various ways, such as
favoring certain outcomes or discounting information that contradicts our
preconceived notions.
Observer bias is another form of bias that can affect research. It occurs when
different individuals perceive events or phenomena differently, assigning different
levels of meaning or significance to them. This can lead to discrepancies in how
observations are interpreted and understood.
It's crucial to acknowledge that researchers themselves are not immune to biases.
They are products of their own cultural and societal backgrounds, which can shape
their perspectives and influence their observations. Additionally, researchers may
have been exposed to certain gender role expectations or other societal norms that
can subconsciously influence their interpretations of events or data.
Expectancy bias is a cognitive bias that can impact the objectivity of research.
Researchers may develop expectations or hypotheses about the outcomes they
anticipate, consciously or unconsciously. As a result, they may be inclined to
interpret data in a way that aligns with their expectations, potentially overlooking
alternative explanations or disregarding contradictory evidence. This bias can
compromise the validity and reliability of the research findings.
Lastly, placebo biases can come into play, particularly in subjective assessments of
outcomes. When individuals strongly desire a treatment to be successful, such as
when taking a placebo like a sugar pill, they may experience a placebo effect,
leading them to claim improvements in well-being or symptom reduction. This desire
to believe in the effectiveness of a treatment can influence subjective judgments and
create a bias towards perceiving positive outcomes.
Overall, recognizing and addressing biases is essential for maintaining objectivity
and ensuring the integrity of research. Researchers must strive to be aware of their
own biases, as well as the potential biases that may exist in the broader research
context. This awareness can help mitigate the impact of biases on the research
process and improve the reliability and validity of research findings.

6. Distinguish between field and experimental research design

Experimental research Field experiment
The subjects in the group are of a The subjects may vary in a number of
similar nature. characteristics
The experimental subjects are in The subjects are in their natural settings
controlled environment and uncontrolled environment.
A single experimental group is selected, Two groups, carefully matched in terms
wherein the independent variable of specific fundamental characteristics
(intervention) is applied to observe its that could potentially influence the
impact on the individuals within the results, are formed. One group
group undergoes an intervention, while the
other does not. Finally, the outcomes of
both groups on a dependent variable
are compared to assess the impact of
the intervention
In a laboratory experiment, where The cause-effect relationship can be
extraneous factors are controlled, the established to a certain extent, although
cause-effect relationship can be firmly not with the same level of accuracy as
established. This controlled in experimental research where
environment allows for a focused study extraneous factors are controlled in a
on the pure effects of the intervention laboratory setting.
Based on the experiment, it is possible Prediction is possible to a certain
to make predictions, and under the extent; however, it is important to note
same conditions, one can even that real-life situations may vary across
accurately predict a phenomenon different locations where the study is
conducted. Therefore, the accuracy of
predictions may be influenced by the
contextual differences in various
settings.
Experiments often yield quantitative he field experiment encompasses both
results, focusing on numerical data and qualitative and quantitative aspects in
measurements. terms of the results obtained. This type
of experiment allows for the collection
and analysis of both qualitative data,
such as observations and interviews, as
well as quantitative data, including
numerical measurements and statistical
analysis.
The experiment is designed in such a Field experiments, while replicable, may
way that it can be replicated, meaning require modifications in terms of the
that it can be conducted again by matching factors. Replication of field
following the same procedures and experiments involves repeating the
methods. This allows other researchers study in different settings or with
to reproduce the experiment and verify different populations. However, since
the findings, thereby increasing the field experiments are often conducted in
reliability and credibility of the results. real-world environments, certain
matching factors may need to be
adjusted to account for the specific
conditions and characteristics of the
new context. This ensures that the
experiment remains relevant and
applicable in different scenarios while
maintaining the potential for replication.

7. Types of questions that can be used in a survey research

Ans: Structured Questions
Choosing the right type of questions is crucial for research, as the entire study
hinges on them. Survey questions can be broadly categorized as either structured or
unstructured, each serving a different purpose in collecting data.
Structured questions are those questions, the format of which is preplanned and
predefined in advance. Some of the types of structured questions include (i)
Dichotomous Questions. (ii) Level of measurement based questions (iii) Filter or
Contingency Questions
I)Dichotomous question
A question is considered dichotomous when it allows for only two possible
responses, such as yes or no, true or false, and similar options. These types of
questions are typically presented in the questionnaire in the following formats
Please mention your gender: Male Female

II) Level of measurement based questions

It is worth noting that there are three fundamental levels of measurement: nominal,
ordinal, and interval. Nominal measurement involves the classification of individuals,
objects, or groups based on names or categories. Ordinal measurement is based on
ranks or preferences. Interval measurement relies on ratings or numerical scales.
Ex of Nominal questions
Select your Blood Group
O-
O+
A-
A+
B-
B+
AB-
AB+
A question based on the ordinal level of measurement will be based on the
preference or choice of the respondent
Ex of Ordinal level
Most Loved Singer
Arijit Singh
Sonu Nigam
Shreya Ghoshal
A. R. Rehman
Hariharan
The question based on interval scale may be based on rating the choices, out of
which the most commonly used scale is Likert response scale (which has a rating of
1 to5, or 1to7, or, 1 to 9) For Eg.
The TATAS are more industrialist and philanthropist then businessman.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Agree Agree Can not say Disagree Strongly Disagree
III) Filter or Contingency Questions
When a question is structured in a manner where it is followed by subsequent
questions that act as sub-parts of the main question, this design is referred to as
filter or contingency questions.
For Ex,
Do you regularly Drive your car
Yes
No

If yes, then how many times?

Once in a month
in a month
Every week of the month
Each and every day in a month
To obtain subsequent responses, researchers may utilize multiple filter questions.
However, it is important to ensure that the interest of the respondent is maintained
by limiting the number of levels for any question to no more than two or three.
Unstructured Questions
Unstructured questions are commonly employed in interviews, where the researcher
may not have a predefined list of questions and the sequence of inquiries relies on
the subjects' responses. These questions are often asked in a casual and informal
setting. To ensure sufficient and relevant information is obtained, the researcher
should exercise caution by using silent probes, offering verbal encouragement,
seeking clarification, and demonstrating empathy towards the respondent.

Q8. Strategies of interpreting data in a qualitative research.

There are multiple methods available for interpreting and summarizing data. Some
examples include:
Creating a definitive list
Developing detailed narratives
Utilizing matrices
The researcher has the option to summarize labeled categories, code them, and
generate a final list of findings. These findings can then be further explained in
subsequent stages when preparing reports.
Elaborate narratives
In addition, the researcher has the ability to ascribe meaning to the findings derived
from data collected through interviews, recordings, and discussions. They can
provide further elaboration and contextualization to enhance the understanding of
the results.
Use of Matrices
A matrix refers to a chart that resembles a cross table and contains words.
Researchers may employ matrices when they wish to compare various groups or
datasets based on significant variables, which are represented by keywords.
If the researcher wants to compare the number of men and women who self drive
cars then he may represent the information in the form of the following matrix
Matrix indicating age group and gender

Age group No of men No of women

>25 75 40
>50 50 20

Figure: Matrix on introduction of a new comfy automatic high security luxury car
product to be introduced targeting women above 50.
Flow chart
A flow chart is a graphical depiction consisting of boxes that hold variables and arrows that
depict the connections among these variables.
The representation of analysing the number of men and women of different age groups
using self-drive cars, as mentioned in the previous example, can be illustrated in the
following diagram
MEN 75
AGE GRP
>25
WOMEN 40
THE CAR

AGE GRP
>50
MEN 50

WOMEN 20

SECTION A
Answer the following question in about 1000 words each.

1. Explain the factorial design with the help of a suitable example.

ANS: Answer the following question in about 1000 words each.
Explain the factorial design with the help of a suitable example.
Traditional Research methods generally study the effect of one variable at a time,
because it is statistically easier to manipulate. However in many cases two factors
may be interdependent, and its impractical or false to analyse them in a traditional
fashion.
An independent variable is the variable of interest that the experimenter will
manipulate. The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the variable that the
researcher then measures. By doing this, psychologists can see if making changes
to the independent variable results in some type of change in the dependent
variable.
So In the simplest psychology experiments, researchers look at how one
independent variable affects one dependent variable. But what happens if
researchers want to look at the effects of multiple independent variables? This type
of study that involve the manipulation of two or more variables is known as
a factorial design.
A factorial design refers to a research design where two or more variables or factors
are utilized in a way that encompasses all potential combinations of chosen values
for each variable As per Singh, a factorial design involves manipulating selected
values of two or more independent variables in every conceivable combination to
examine their independent as well as interactive impact on the dependent variable.
Based on the above definition, it can be concluded that a factorial design allows the
experimenter to investigate both the individual effects and the combined effects of
two or more independent variables by manipulating them in all possible
combinations.
Factorial design tests all possible conditions. Because factorial design can lead to a
large number of trials, which can become expensive and time-consuming, factorial
design is best used for a small number of variables with few states (1 to 3). Factorial
design works well when interactions between variables are strong and important and
where every variable contributes significantly.
Factor
Factors encompass the independent variable, which is manipulated by the
investigator during an experiment or through a selection process. The term "factor" is
used broadly to include the independent variable that is directly manipulated in
research.
Example Imagine a study aiming to investigate the impact of different types of
exercise on cardiovascular health. In this case, the factor could be the type of
exercise. The researcher may manipulate the factor by assigning participants to
different exercise groups, such as aerobic exercise, resistance training, and a control
group that does not engage in any exercise. By manipulating the type of exercise,
the researcher can examine how it influences the dependent variable, which could
be measured by changes in participants' heart rate, blood pressure, or other
cardiovascular health markers.

Main Effect This is the simplest effect of a factor on a dependent variable. It is the
effect of the factor alone averaged across the level of other factors

Interaction The interpretation of the main effects of two independent variables alone
can sometimes be misleading unless we also consider the interaction effect between
the two variables. For eg, A company runs two advertising campaigns, Campaign X
and Campaign Y, targeting different demographic groups. After analysing the results,
it is determined that both campaigns individually lead to increased brand awareness.
However, Campaign X is particularly effective among younger consumers, while
Campaign Y has a stronger impact on older consumers, indicating an interaction
effect between campaign and age group.
Types of Interaction
1) Antagonistic interaction : When main effect is non-significant and interaction is
significant. In this situation the two independent variables tend to reverse each
others effect.
2) Synergistic interaction : When higher level of one independent variable
enhances the effect of another independent variable.
3) Celling effect interaction : When the higher level of one independent variable
reduces the differential effect of another variable. that is one variable has a smaller
effect when paired with higher level of a second variable
Randomization refers to the procedure of assigning experimental units to different
treatments using a random process rather than subjective judgment. The goal is to
allocate treatments to units in a manner where each treatment has an equal
probability of being assigned to any unit.
Blocking is a method used to enhance the comparison of treatments in an
experiment by grouping experimental units into homogeneous clusters. The aim is to
allocate treatments randomly within each cluster or block, thus ensuring a more
effective and fair comparison.
In the two factor design we have two independent variables, each of which has two
values or levels. This is known as two by two (2x2) factorial design because of the
two levels of each variables. For example
If we are administering a dosage of Paracetamol to cure fever.
Administering a paracetamol will be one factor we might have two variable in it which
is 500mg and 650mg. Another factor added here can be are we administering the
drug on empty stomach or post food we can add multiple factors in this to study
permutation combination for experiments. Another addition can be a factore where
one is empty stomach but juice consumed. So the three different factors here will be
PARACETEMOL FOOD JUICE
FOR A 2x2=4
Praracetamol

Dosage A Empty stomach Full stomach

500mg A1 B1 B2
650 mg A2 B1 B2

We can have 4 combination via this experiment If there are “a” levels of factor A and
“b” levels of factor B then each replicate contains all ab combinations. Hence in
factorial design, all possible combination of all the levels of the factors are
investigated in each replication. i.e.
500mg dose on empty stomach (A1B1)
500mg dose on a filled stomach (A1B2)
650mg dose on an empty stomach(A2B1)
650mg dose on a filled stomach (A2B2)
A 2x3 factorial design is a research design that involves two independent variables,
where one has two levels and the other has three levels. This design allows for the
examination of main effects and interaction effects between the variables. Let's
explore an example of a 2x3 factorial design:
Research Question: How do lighting conditions and noise levels affect productivity in
a workspace?
Independent Variables:
Lighting Conditions:
Level 1: Bright lighting
Level 2: Dim lighting
Noise Levels:
Level 1: Low noise
Level 2: Moderate noise
Level 3: High noise
Dependent Variable: Productivity (measured by tasks completed, errors made, or
time taken to complete tasks)
Procedure:
Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to one of the six
experimental conditions based on the combination of lighting conditions and noise
levels.
Experimental Groups:
a. Bright Lighting + Low Noise Group
b. Bright Lighting + Moderate Noise Group
c. Bright Lighting + High Noise Group
d. Dim Lighting + Low Noise Group
e. Dim Lighting + Moderate Noise Group f. Dim Lighting + High Noise Group
Data Collection: Productivity measures are recorded, such as the number of tasks
completed, errors made, or time taken to complete tasks, for each participant in their
respective experimental condition.
Data Analysis: Statistical analysis is performed to examine the main effects of
lighting conditions and noise levels, as well as the interaction effect between the two
variables, on productivity.
Results and Interpretation: The 2x3 factorial design allows for the examination of
the effects of lighting conditions and noise levels on productivity, as well as their
interaction effect. The results may reveal the following:
Main Effects: a. Lighting Conditions: The main effect of lighting conditions can be
evaluated by comparing the average productivity across all noise levels for bright
lighting conditions versus dim lighting conditions. b. Noise Levels: The main effect of
noise levels can be assessed by comparing the average productivity across all
lighting conditions for low noise, moderate noise, and high noise levels.
Interaction Effect: The interaction effect between lighting conditions and noise levels
is examined by comparing the differences in productivity across all six experimental
conditions. If there is a significant interaction effect, it suggests that the combined
effects of lighting conditions and noise levels differ from what would be expected by
simply summing their individual effects.
By utilizing a 2x3 factorial design, researchers gain insights into the individual effects
of lighting conditions and noise levels on productivity, as well as whether there is an
interaction effect indicating that the combination of lighting and noise has a different
impact on productivity compared to their individual effects.
Advantages:
They are more efficient then one factor at a time experiments
A factorial design is necessary when interactions may be present to avoid misleading
conclusions
Factorial designs allow the effects of a factor to be estimated at several levels of
other factors, yielding conclusions that are valid over the range of experimental
conditions.
The design is simple and easy to interpret the results
It is a practical choice for researchers if there are if there are 2-4 factors used.
It is easy to study the combined effect of two or more factors

2. Explain the assumptions, theories and steps of discourse analysis

Ans Discourse Analysis is a qualitative analysis method that looks specifically at

the subjective underlying meaning and language in written or spoken communication
within the context in which it takes place.

Theoretical discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary approach extensively employed

by social scientists and cognitive psychologists. This approach is founded on certain
key assumptions:
Psychologists traditionally assume that the study of human behavior should be
conducted objectively, free from biases or subjectivity of both the researcher and the
individuals being studied. However, this assumption has been challenged since it is
recognized that people, including researchers, cannot entirely eliminate their own
subjective positions, expectations, beliefs, or cultural values during the research
process.
These expectations of researchers may become evident when interpreting and
explaining events and experiences. Additionally, the approach assumes that reality is
socially constructed. Scientific research often categorizes aspects such as
personality, intelligence, and thinking as real and naturally occurring categories or
phenomena. However, this assumption overlooks the role of language in shaping
these categories and constructs. Language is a social and cultural phenomenon,
leading to the socially and culturally constructed nature of our perception of reality.
Furthermore, the approach assumes that individuals are shaped by social
interaction. Within the scientific framework, many of the constructs used are believed
to be "inner essences" residing within our minds and bodies. These constructs, such
as personality, anxiety, and drives, are thought to manifest only when individuals
engage in social interactions. However, it is possible that many of these supposed
essences are actually products of social interaction itself, challenging the notion of
their inherent existence.
APPROACHES OR THEORIES OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
There are numerous “types” or theories of discourse analysis. The various
discourses has been explained or categorised on basis of several theories and
approaches. Some of them are
Modernism Modernism emerged as a movement characterized by a focus on
progress, innovation, and a rational approach to understanding the world. The
theorists of modernism believed in the power of achievement and sought to ground
their ideas in a reality-based orientation.
In the realm of discourse, modernism theorists viewed it as being closely tied to the
act of talking or the way language is used. They recognized that language shapes
our understanding of the world and that discourse plays a crucial role in conveying
meaning and knowledge. However, they also acknowledged that language is not
static and should evolve to keep pace with new discoveries, inventions, and evolving
areas of interest.
Modernism theorists emphasized the importance of language and discourse
transformations in developing new or more accurate words and concepts. They
believed that by refining and expanding language, we could better describe and
comprehend the complexities of the modern world. Through the creation of precise
and innovative vocabulary, they aimed to capture the nuances of new inventions,
innovations, understandings, and emerging areas of interest.
Language and discourse were conceptualized as natural and real products of
common sense usage and societal progress. They were seen as dynamic and
responsive to the evolving needs and experiences of individuals and communities.
Modernism, in this context, fostered the development of various discourses centered
around fundamental principles such as rights, equality, freedom, and justice. These
discourses aimed to challenge established norms, advocate for social change, and
promote a more inclusive and equitable society.
Overall, modernism's emphasis on achievement, reality-based orientation, and
transformative language and discourse laid the foundation for the development of
discourses that continue to shape our understanding of social issues and the pursuit
of a more just and egalitarian world.
Structuralism theorists argue that human actions and social formations are
interconnected with language and discourse, forming systems of interconnected
elements. According to this approach, individual elements within a system only hold
significance when examined in relation to the overall structure. Structures are self-
contained, self-regulated, and self-transforming entities, determining the meaning
and function of individual elements. Structuralism has made a significant contribution
to the understanding of language and social systems.
Postmodernism Postmodern theorists diverged from the modern approach by
focusing on the diverse experiences of individuals and groups, emphasizing
differences rather than similarities. They placed greater emphasis on analyzing
discourses as texts, language, policies, and practices. Michel Foucault emerged as a
prominent figure in discourse analysis, defining discourse as systems of thoughts
that construct subjects and their worlds. He highlighted the role of discourse in
legitimizing power dynamics and stressed the interplay between power and
knowledge. Foucault argued that every human relationship involves a struggle for
power and that discourse operates through exclusionary rules. Postmodernism, a
movement of the mid- to late-20th century, sought to liberate the human mind from
traditional constraints and explore new frontiers of human development.
Feminism Feminists have conceptualized discourse as social practices and have
examined the intricate connections between power, ideology, language, and
discourse. They have placed particular emphasis on the idea of "performing gender,"
suggesting that gender is not an inherent quality of individuals, but rather a set of
behaviors to which society attributes gendered meanings. In other words, gender is
seen as a property assigned by society to specific behaviours and actions.

STEPS IN DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Discourse analysis is a methodology that examines speech patterns, including how
people discuss a topic, their use of metaphors, conversational turn-taking, and more.
Analysts perceive speech as a form of performance rather than merely describing a
state of affairs or mindset. This analysis often relies on intuition and reflection, but it
may also involve quantitative aspects, such as counting instances of turn-taking and
observing their impact on the conversation and the manner in which individuals
communicate with one another.
The researchers collect and interpret information in the following steps
Target orientation: Initially, analysts must identify and define their target or subject of
study. From the outset, they should consider the methods and approaches they will
employ to analyze and interpret the collected data.
Significance of data: After gathering the necessary information, researchers must
evaluate the quality and significance of the collected data, particularly when it
originates from multiple sources.
Interpretation of the data: As the research unfolds, the analyst's task is to
comprehend and interpret the data, enabling both the researchers and others to
grasp the underlying dynamics and insights.
Analysis of the findings: Lastly, the researcher must engage in the systematic
process of analyzing, interpreting, and summarizing the collected data. Based on the
analysis, the findings can be condensed and conclusions drawn. There are various
qualitative analysis software programs available to assist social researchers in
different tasks. These programs can perform functions such as word or phrase
searching, creating word lists in alphabetical order, adding keywords or comments,
counting word occurrences, or applying numeric codes. While these software tools
aid in retrieving and analyzing text, as well as developing theories, it's important to
note that computers cannot engage in critical thinking, judgment, or interpretation of
qualitative data.

Q3 What are the different steps followed for conducting a scientific research?
Ans: The research process encompasses a sequence of actions and procedures
essential for conducting scientific investigations. When researchers adhere to
specific steps during their research, they can effectively carry out their work with
minimal challenges. The following steps outline this process.
Step-I: Identification of the Problem
The research process begins with identifying a problem or question that arises from
curiosity and requires an answer. Psychological studies focus on understanding the
causes, nature, and relationships of behaviors and psychological processes.
Formulating the research problem involves understanding it thoroughly and
expressing it in meaningful terms, considering available resources and knowledge
gaps. The next step is identifying the factors to be examined, ranging from simple
variables like age to complex measures like the effects of violent cartoons on
behavior. Reviewing the relevant literature helps eliminate duplication, provides
guidance, and contributes to selecting relevant variables. It also helps systematize
knowledge, draw conclusions, redefine variables, and establish a context for further
investigation. Various sources, such as journals and books, can be used for literature
review, with PsycINFO being an effective tool for searching psychological literature.
Abstracts can guide further reading for additional information
Step-II: Formulating a Hypothesis
After identifying the problem and conducting a literature review, the researcher
formulates a hypothesis, which serves as a proposed answer to the problem.
Hypotheses play a crucial role in guiding and shaping a study. They are typically
derived from existing theories, previous research findings, and personal
observations.
A hypothesis is a tentative statement that suggests a relationship between the
variables being studied. It is usually expressed as a declarative sentence. For
example, if you are interested in exploring the effect of rewards on learning and have
analyzed past research indicating a positive relationship between the two variables,
you can develop the following hypothesis: "Individuals who receive rewards will
require fewer trials to learn the lesson compared to those who do not receive
rewards."
It is important for unbiased research that hypotheses are formulated prior to the
data-gathering process. Hypotheses should not be developed after data collection
has taken place.

Step-III: Identifying, Manipulating and Controlling Variables

n scientific literature, particularly in psychology, the term "variable" is commonly
used. Variables are characteristics that are manipulated, controlled, and observed by
the experimenter. It is essential to recognize at least three types of variables from
the outset: the dependent variable, the independent variable, and the extraneous
variable.
The dependent variable is the characteristic or condition that is predicted to change
based on the experiment. In other words, it is the variable that is observed as the
experimenter manipulates the independent variable(s). On the other hand, the
independent variable is the condition or characteristic that is deliberately
manipulated or selected by the experimenter to examine its relationship with the
observed phenomena.
An extraneous variable is an uncontrolled variable that may have an impact on the
dependent variable. The experimenter is not interested in the changes caused by the
extraneous variable, so efforts are made to control it as much as possible. This type
of variable is also referred to as a relevant variable.
To ensure clarity, precision, and effective communication, variables need to be
operationally defined. An operational definition involves specifying the actual
operations or procedures that define a given variable. Operational definitions are
particularly important for measurement purposes, as psychological variables can be
complex and pose unique measurement challenges. Psychologists often use verbal,
behavioral, and psychological measures to operationally define variables in their
studies. These measures assist in specifying the operations involved and may allow
for quantification.
Step-IV: Formulating a Research Design
A research design serves as the blueprint for the procedures used by the researcher
to test the relationship between the dependent variable and the independent
variable. The selection of an experimental design depends on the research purpose,
the types of variables to be controlled and manipulated, and the experimental
conditions. The primary goal of a research design is to facilitate the manipulation of
independent variables and maximize control over extraneous variables. This ensures
that any observed changes are solely attributable to the experimental manipulation.
The research design plays a crucial role in explaining how research questions will be
answered. It encompasses logistical arrangements, measurement procedures,
sampling strategies, analysis frameworks, and the time frame. The selection of an
appropriate research design is essential for obtaining valid findings, making
comparisons, and drawing conclusions. A flawed design can lead to misleading
results. The evaluation of empirical investigations is heavily influenced by the chosen
research design. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the selected research
design is valid, feasible, and manageable.
Constructing Devices for Observation and Measurement
Once the research design is in place, the next step is to choose or create suitable
research tools for data collection. Questionnaires and interview schedules are
commonly used in psychological research, but researchers may need to develop
their own tools if existing ones are not available. These tools involve gathering
information directly from individuals rather than relying solely on observation.
Sample Selection and Data Collection
After selecting the research tools, the researcher decides on the participants and
data collection method. The participants can be from various groups, and the data
collection can be done individually or in groups. During data collection,
considerations include staff recruitment, response rate, and cost-effectiveness,
ensuring accuracy and reliability.
Step-V: Data Analysis and their Interpretation
After gathering the data through observation, they are analyzed using various
quantitative/statistical and qualitative techniques. Thorough examination of the data
is a crucial step in the scientific method. The analysis aims to understand the data,
shed light on the research problem and hypotheses, and draw appropriate
conclusions. Data analysis can involve univariate analysis (examining a single
characteristic of interest), bivariate analysis (exploring two characteristics of interest),
or multivariate analysis (involving more than two characteristics).
The choice of statistical analysis, whether parametric or non-parametric, depends on
the nature of the data and the experiment's purpose. Generally, the goal of statistical
analysis is to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.

Step-VI: Drawing Conclusions

After analyzing the results, the researcher draws conclusions that address the
research problem. These conclusions allow the researcher to make statements that
would not have been possible without conducting the study. The researcher
generalizes the conclusions to the entire population of interest. During this phase,
hypotheses are either accepted or rejected based on the findings. Additionally, the
conclusions of the study are compared and related to existing theories or prior
research findings from which the hypotheses were derived. If the new findings differ
significantly, the original theory may need to be modified.
Step-VII: Preparation of Report and Publication
The final step in most research studies is the documentation of the entire research
process in a clear and comprehensive report. This report informs readers about what
has been done, what has been discovered, and the conclusions drawn from the
findings. When the researcher has a clear understanding of the entire process, it
becomes easier to write a report that effectively communicates the study. This allows
readers to understand the study and utilize it for various purposes, including
replication. Publication of the study in scientific journals, books, or in the public
domain ensures that the work is disseminated widely and accessible to a broader
audience.

It's important to note that these steps are not always strictly linear and may require
iteration or adjustment throughout the research process.
THE END