Cell Biology Lecture Notes

E. Chemistry of the Cell F. Carbohydrates and Polysaccharides (I) G. Protein Structure and Function H. Nucleic Acids (III) I. Enzymes: The Catalysts of Life J. How Cells Are Studied (I) K. How Cells Are Studied (II) L. Membranes: Their Structure and Function M. Transport Across Membranes N. Intracellular Compartments O. Intracellular Traffic P. The Cytoskeleton (I) Q. The Cytoskeleton (II) R. Energy from Chemical Bonds (I) S. Energy from Chemical Bonds (II) T. Energy from the Sun U. The Flow of Information: DNA to Protein V. RNA Transcription and Ribosome Assembly W. Ribosome, mRNA, and tRNA Direct the Synthesis of Proteins X. Recombinant DNA Techniques Y. Gene Regulation (I) Z. Gene Regulation (II) AA.DNA Packing and Organization BB.Cell Cycle and Division CC.Cell Signaling (I) DD.Cell Signaling (II) EE.Cell Junctions, Cell Adhesion & ECM (I) FF.Cell Junctions, Cell Adhesion & ECM (II) GG.Nervous System (I) HH.Nervous System (II) II. Immune System (I) JJ. Immune System (II) KK.Cancer (I) LL.Cancer (II)

The Chemistry of the Cell: Cellular Chemistry

Why Chemistry? Biology in general and cell biology in particular depend heavily on both chemistry and physics. Simply, cells and organisms follow all the laws of the physical universe, and biology is really just the study of chemistry in systems that happen to be alive. In fact, everything cells are and do has a molecular and chemical basis. Therefore, we can truly understand and appreciate cellular structure and function only when we can describe that structure in molecular terms and express that function in terms of chemical reactions and events. 5 themes in the chemistry of the cell 1. Carbon: biology deals with carbon containing molecules Valence of four and covalent bond Carbon containing molecules are stable Carbon-containing molecules are diverse Carbon-containing molecules can form isomers 2. Water: Cellular world is an aqueous world Water molecules are polar Water molecules are cohesive Water is an excellent solvent Hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules 3. Selectively permeable membrane: Separation of two water environments Amphipathic molecules Membrane bilayer Movement across the membrane 4. Polymerization: Addition of molecular building units Monomers and polymers Biological polymers: proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides and lipids(fat) Condensation reaction Directionality 5. Self-assembly: spontaneous assembly of the parts Characteristics Driving forces Protein assembly Reading Assignments: Text pages 41-78.

Questions: 1. Which of the following statements is false? MM.The molecules of liquid water are extensively hydrogen-bonded to one another NN.When exposed to an aqueous environment, amphipathic molecules undergo hydrophobic interactions OO.The water molecule is polar because it has an asymmetric charge distribution PP. The carbon-carbon double bonds are less stable than the single bonds and therefore result in a bend or kink in the unsaturated fatty acid QQ.None of above (all are true) 2. Hydrogen bond is a covalent bond. True___ False____ 3. Why are the carbon containing molecules are stable? 4. What is the currency of the biological energy? 5. Why is the polarity of water the most important chemcial property? 6. Hydrophobic interaction is _________________________ 7. Amphiphatic molecules are _________________________ 8. Condensation is __________________________________ 9. Self-assembly is _________________________________

Carbohydrates and Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides: they usually consist of a single kind of repeating unit, or sometime a
strictly alternating pattern of two kinds.

Monomers :Monosaccharides
1. Either consists of aldehyde or ketone functional group 2. 2 or more -OH' groups 3. Formula: CnH2nOn, where n= 3 to 7 Triose, n=3 glyceraldehyde dihydroxyacetone Pentose, n=5 ribose deoxyribose Hexose, n=6 glucose fructose galatose 4. Ring form and chair form 5. and configuration 6. Sugar derivatives

Oligosaccharides: consist of 2 to 20 monosaccharides covalently linked together

1. Glycosidic bond: covalent bond and linkages 2. Disaccharides maltose lactose sucrose 3. Complex oligosaccharides glycoproteins glycolipids

Polysaccharides
1. Storage polysaccharides starch: storage polysaccharides in the plant cells amylose amylopectin glycogen : storage polysaccharides in animal cells 2. Structural polysaccharides cellulose: structural polysaccharides found in the plant cells chitin

Secondary structure of polysaccharides

1. Determining factors linkage configuration

branching degree 2. Types Loose helices Rigid, liner rods

Glycosaminoglycan chains and proeoglycans in the extracellular matrix of animals

Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) Protroglycans

Lipids: any discussion of cellular structure and chemical components would be incomplete without reference to this important group of molecules. Especially, they are frequently associated with the macromolecules, i. e. proteins.
1. Hyprophobic nature 2. Amphipathic Triglycerides are storage lipids 1. Ester bonds 2. Fatty acids 3. Fats 4. Vegetable oils Phospholipids are important in membrane structure 1. Phosphatidic acid 2. Phosphoester bonds Sphingolipids are also found in membranes 1. In animal membranes 2. Sphingosine 3. Amide bonds Steroids are lipids with a variety of functions 1. Ring structures 2. Steroids play in a variety of roles in the cells of higher organisms but not present in bacteria 3. Some mammalian hormones are steroids Adrenocortical hormones Sex hormones 4. Bile acids 5. Cholesterol

Proteins and Polypeptides

Monomers amino acids carbon Families of amino acids Hydrophilic amino acids Non-polar amino acids Hydrophobic amino acids Basic amino acids Acidic amino acids Non-charged polar amino acids Primary sequence Peptide bonds Primary sequences determine their higher organization Driving forces for the higher organization of proteins (polypeptides) Non-covalent bonds Hydrogen bonding Ionic interactions Hydrophobic interaction van der Waals interaction Covalent bonds Disulfide bonds Secondary structure Driving force: hydrogen bonds helix pleated sheets

Tertiary structure Driving forces Non-covalent bonds Hydrogen bonding Ionic interactions Hydrophobic interaction van der Waals interaction Covalent bonds Disulfide bonds The chemistry of amino acid side chain (R groups) is the determining factor Quaternary structure Driving forces Non-covalent bonds Hydrogen bonding Ionic interactions Hydrophobic interaction van der Waals interaction Covalent bonds Disulfide bonds Multimeric protein structure Protein modification: post-translational modification Phosphorylation Tyrosination Acetylation Classifications of proteins Fibrous proteins versus globular proteins Membrane proteins versus cytosol proteins Structural proteins Glycoproteins Proteoglycans Reading Assignments: Text pages 56-57; 111-128

Questions: 1. Which amino acid is always found on the outside of protien molecules? cluster together inside of protein molecule? within plasma membrane? 2. The shape of a protein molecule is determinedby its amino acid sequence. True____ False____ 3. What is a peptide bond? 4. What is a difulfide bond? Which amino acid is involved? 5. What is -carbon in an amino acid? 6. List 3 globular proteins and 3 fibrous proteins. 7. What is the tertiary of a protein? What is the quarternary structure of a protein?

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids play the roles in the storage, transmission and expression of genetic information. DNA RNA mRNA tRNA rRNA Monomers Nucleotides (4 different basic nucleotides for DNA and RNA, respectively) 3 chemical groups a pentose DNA: -D-deoxyribose RNA: -D-ribose a phosphate group a nitrogen containing base (purine and pyrimidine) DNA: A, G, C, T RNA: A, G, C, U Other functional roles of nucleotides energy providers enzyme cofactors signaling molecules in intracellular signal transduction Polynucleotide formation: 3, 5-phosphodiester bonds Condensation reaction Sugar-phosphate is the backbone Intrinsic directionality (5 3) Require energy and information Hydrogen bonding between bases and complementary base pairing A=T(U) G=C

Double helix of nucleic acids DNA 2 complementary chains of DNA twisted with each other They are in opposite direction Backbone: sugar and phosphate unit Bases are pairing inward Right handed double helix with ~ 10 nucleotide pair per turn RNA Only local region of short complementary base pairing What does the DNA helix tell us? Quantitative biochemistry [A]=[T] and [G]=[C] Explain heredity DNA replication process is semiconservative RNA serves as an informational carrier intermediate between DNA and protein Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Enzymes: Biological Catalysts

The law of thermodynamic spontaneity All reactions that occur spontaneously result in a decrease in the free energy content of the system In the cells: 1) Some reactions are thermodynamic feasible but do not occur at appreciable rates 2) The only reactions that occur at appreciable rates are those from which an enzyme is present 3) All reactions are mediated by the biological catalysts called enzymes Activation energy How to overcome the activation energy barrier 1) Heat 2) Lower the activation energy: catalysts Properties of catalysts 1) Increase rates of reaction by lowering activation energy to allow more molecules to react without use of heat 2) Form transient complexes with substrates in a fashion that facilitates reaction 3) Only change rate at which reaction equilibrium is achieved, has no effect on the position of the equilibrium Enzyme Structure Proteins Tertiary or quaternary proteins Active sites Prosthelic groups RNAs Ribozyme Enzyme Specificity Enzyme mechanisms 1).Random collisions 2) Driving forces 3) Induced fit 4) Form temporary covalent bonds Enzyme sensitivity to environment Temperature pH Enzyme kinetics Michaelis-Menten kinetics Vmax and Km

Enzyme Regulations Allosteric regulation Negative regulation Feedback inhibition Positive regulation Subtract activation Enzyme inhibitors Reversible inhibitors Irreversible inhibitors Definitions Allosteric effector Small molecule that cause a change in the conformation of an allosteric protein (or enzyme) by binding to a site other than the active site. Allosteric protein (allosteric enzyme) Regulatory protein that has two alternative conformations, each with a different biological property; interconversion of the two conformations is mediated by the reversible binding of a specific small molecule to the effector site. Allosteric regulation Control of a reaction pathway by the effector-mediated reversible interconversion of the two conformations of an allosteric enzymes in the pathway.

How Cells are Studied I

Optic techniques for cellular and subcellular architecture The Light Microscopy Limit of resolution Scale of cell biology m, nm, and A Compound microscopy Types of light microscopy Brightfield microscopy basic form inexpensive and easy for color and fixed specimen and not for living species Phase-contrast microscopy phase plate good for living, unstained specimen Dark field microscopy Fluorescence microscopy fluorescent compounds exciter filter barrier filter Differential -interference -contrast microscopy (DIC) (Nomarski) polarizer analyzer Wollaston prism to produce 3-D image Confocal microscopy to produce 3-D image from a collection of optic sections Sample preparation techniques in light microscopy Fixation Cryoprotection Embedding and sectioning Staining Labeling radioisotope immunolabeling

The Electron Microscopy Use a beam of electron to produce an image Two major types of electron microscopy Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Vacuum system Electron gun Electromagnetic lenses and image formation Photographic system Sample preparation techniques in TEM microscopy Fixation Embedding, Sectioning, and poststaining Electron microscopic autoradiography Negative staining Shadowing Freeze-fracturing Freeze-etching Scanning electron microscopy (SEM): 3 D images Second electrons Sample preparation techniques in SEM microscopy Fixation Postfixation Dehydration Poststaining Mounting Coating with a layer gold or a mixture of gold and palladium.

How Cells are Studied II

Biochemical Techniques for Cellular and Subcelllular Functions Isolation of cells Source for the best yield fetal or neonatal tissue Disrupting the extracellular matrix and intercellular junctions Proteolytic enzymes Chelating agents Approaches to separate cell types Centrifugation Cell sorter: fluorescence-activated cell sorter What to do with a uniform population of cells For biochemical analysis For cell culture Fractionation of organelles and macromolecules Cell disruption: homogenate Centrifugation Separation by size Separation by size and shape Separation by buoyant density Cell-free system Isolation Reconstitution Chromatography Partition chromatography Column chromatography Ion-exchange chromatography Gel-filtration chromatography Affinity chromatography HPLC Electrophoresis Proteins usually have a net positive or negative charge that reflects the mixture of charged amino acids they contain. If an electric field is applied to a solution containing a protein molecules, the protein will migrate at a rate that depends onits net charge and on its size and shape SDS-PAGE SDS -mercaptoethanol Coomassie blue Silver stain Western blotting 2-D gel electrophoresis First dimension: isoelectrical focusing Second dimension: SDS-PAGE

Analysis of polypeptides Peptide mapping Amino acid sequena

Membranes: Their Structure and Function

Generalization of membranes They are assembly of lipids and proteins held together by noncovalent interactions. They are dynamic fluid structure. Depending on the source, membranes vary in thickness, in lipid composition and in their ratio of lipid and protein. Functional roles of membranes Define and compartmentalize the cell Serve as the locus of specific functions Control movement of substances into and out of the cell and its compartments Play a role in cell-to-cell communication and detection of external signals Biochemical models of membranes Fluid mosaic model Transmembrane protein structure Three main constituents of membranes Membrane lipids Approximately 50% of mass Lipid bilayers: amphipathic molecules Typical membrane lipids phospholipids glycolipids sphingolipids cholesterol Analysis of membrane lipids Membrane proteins Association with lipids Peripheral membrane proteins and integral membrane proteins Classification of membrane proteins by function Studies of membrane proteins Solubilization, isolation and reconstitution Studies of red blood cell ghosts* Membrane carbohydrates Approximately 2-10 % of mass Confined mainly to the non-cytosolic surface On the extracellular surface of the cells Inward toward the lumen of the compartment Covalent linkage to proteins and lipids Glycoproteins and proteoglycans Glycolipids Analysis of carbohydrate moiety of membranes Lectins Functions of membrane carbohydrates

Membrane asymmetry Asymmetric distribution of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates Diffusion in the membranes Transverse diffusion Lateral diffusion Membrane fluidity Lipid bilayer is a two-dimensional fluid Membrane fluidity depends upon its composition Length of hydrocarbon chain and saturation Cholesterol Regulation of membrane fluidity Mobility of membrane proteins Cell fusion experiment

Transport Across Membranes

Categories of membrane transport Cellular transport It concerns the exchange of materials between the cells and its environment Intracellular transport It evolves movement of substances across membranes of organelles inside the cell Transcellular transport It involves the movement of a substance in on one side and out on the other side Mechanisms of membrane transport for small molecules Passive Transport: It does not require energy; it occurs because of the tendency for dissolved molecules to move from higher to lower concentrations. 1.) Simple diffusion Factors governing diffusion across lipid bilayers size polarity ionization Kinetics for simple diffusion V=kD [X] outside-[X] inside 2.) Facilitated transport Involvement of a membrane transport protein carrier protein channel protein Kinetics for facilitated transport follow Michaelis-Menten kinetics Specificity of transport proteins Examples 3.) Ionophores: They are small hydrophobic molecules that dissolve in lipid bilayers and increase their ion permeability Classes of ionophores mobile ion carriers channel formers

Active Transport It requires energy; it takes place against the electrochemical gradient 1.) 3 major functions - uptakes of fuel molecules and nutrients - removal of waste materials, secretory products and sodium ions - maintenance of a constant, optimal internal environment of inorganic ions 2.) Directionality 3.) Kinetics for uncharged molecules for charged molecules 4.) Involvement of membrane potential 5.) Simple versed coupled transport 6.) Energy source 7.) Examples Cellular transports: exocytosis and endocytosis Both involve the sequential formation and fusion of membranebounded vesicles Exocytosis: 1.) Steps Packing secretory vesicles Response to extracellular signals Fusion with membrane: recognition sites and Ca++ Discharge the contents 2.) Membranes asymmetry is maintained through secretion 3.) Two pathways of exocytosis Constitutive exocytosis continuous secretion in all eukaryotic cells Regulated exocytosis extracellular triggers control the secretion in secretory cells: hormones, neurotransmitters or digestive enzymes

Endocytosis: 1.) Steps: a complementary process of exocytosis 2.) Two types of endocytosis Pinocytosis: cellular drinking ingestion of fluid and solutes via small vesicles in many cell types Phagocytosis: cellular eating ingestion of macromolecules in specified phagocytic cells 3.) Steps with pinocytosis: Begins at clathrin coated pits Form coated vesicles Shed the coats Fused with endosome Lysosome 4.) Receptor-mediated endocytosis Ligands and cell-surface receptors are involved Example: uptake of cholesterol 5.) Transcytosis

Intracellular Transport and Compartments

Road maps of biosynthetic protein traffic (Figure 12-7) Three fundamental mechanisms via gated transporters i.e. transport from cytosol to nucleus via translocators (membrane bound translocators) i.e. transport from cytosol to mitochondria (plastids), ER and peroxisome via transport vesicles i.e. transport from ER to Golgi etc Sorting signals Types of sorting signals (Figure 12-8) signal peptides (Table 12-3) signal patches Ubiquitin- and ATP-dependent protease (Figure 5-39) The fate of protein without sorting signals Ubiquitin-enzyme complex Chain of ubiquitins Proteosome (large protein complex) as a trash can in the cell Transport between cytosol and nucleus Nuclear pore complex mechanism of transport simple diffusion and active transport more active in transcription, more number of nuclear pore Nuclear localization signals rich in positive charge amino acids and have proline signals are not cut off after the transport Export of RNA via specific receptor proteins Transport into mitochondria Matrix target signals 20-80 amino acid residues at amino end signals are removed after transport by protease 2 stages transport Chaperonins in the cytosol and mitochondria hsp70 and hsp60

Transport into ER Types of protein into ER Transmembrane proteins Water soluble proteins Cotranslational mechanism Signal hypothesis ER signal peptide Signal recognition particle (SRP) Specific receptors on ER Translocator protein (hydrophilic pore) Start transfer signal and stop transfer signal.

Cytoskeleton I
A complex network of interconnected filaments and tubules called cytoskeleton extends throughout the cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the inner surface of the plasma membrane. This elaborate array of filaments and tubules forms a highly structured yet very dynamic matrix that helps to establish the shape of the cell and plays important roles in cell movement and cell division.

Major structural elements

Microtubules: Mts Microfilaments: Mf Intermediate filaments: IF

Unique to Eukaryotic cells Microtubules

Two groups of Mts Axonemal Mts The highly organized, stable Mts found in specific subcellular structures associated with cellular movement, including cilia, flagella and the basal bodiesto which these appendages are attached . Cytoplasmic Mts Mts radiate out as lacelike threads toward the periphery of the cell from a Microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) near the nucleus, i.e. centrosome (cell center) Monomers -tubulin and -tubulin Heterogeneity genetic aspects post-translational modification Assembly of Mts Nucleation Tubulin monomers Tubulin dimers Rings Sheet of protofilaments Closed Mts Elongation Structure: Hollow tube with a wall consisting of 13 protofilaments Diameter: outer: 25 nm; inner: 15 nm Polarity: plus end and minus end

Microtubule motor proteins Cell motility Disposition and movement of orgenelles Determination of cell shape Maintenance of cell shape

Cytoskeleton II
Microfilaments (Mfs) Monomers: G-actin actin is single most abundant protein in most cells muscle cell: -actin nonmuscle cells: -actin and -actin actin gene is highly conserved Diameter: 8 nm Assembly of Mfs spontaneous assembly of G-actin monomers into F-actins possible addition of actin monomers to bith ends of the growing filament accompanied with hydrolysis of ATP but not ATP energy required Structure Two intertwined chains of F-actins Treadmilling model Actin-binding proteins length-regulating proteins depolymerizing proteins cross-linking and bounding proteins Spectrin-ankyrin-actin network Myosin and actin muscle striation muscle contraction Functions muscle contraction amoeboid movement cell locomotion cytoplasmic streaming cell division cell shape

Intermediate filaments (Ifs) Monomers Three distinctive domains tissue specific IFs proteins epithelial cells: keratins mesenchymal: vimentin muscle: desmin glial: glial fibrillary acidic protein neurons: neurofilamanet protein nuclear lamina of all cells: nuclear lamains A, B, and C located on the inside surface of the nuclear envelop common to most animal cells They are coded by a single family of related genes Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V Intermediate filament typing to identify the origin of tissues Assembly of Ifs: Ifs are fibrous proteins two IF polypeptides a coiled coil dimer of two intertwined polypeptides a tetrameric protofilament consisting of two aligned coilecoil dimers staggered association of protofilaments into a long rope-like filament final structure of intermediate filament with width of 8 protofilaments (16coiled-coil dimers; 32 monomers) in staggered overlaps Regulation phosphorylation of serine residue and mitosis Functions structure support maintenance of cell shape formation of nuclear lamin and scaffolding strengthening of nerve axon

Energy Conversion I
Mitochondria structure Size Shape Matrix Outer membrane Inner membrane Intermembrane space 5 Stages of respiratory metabolism 1) Glycolysis 2) TCA cycle 3) Electron transport chain 4) Pumping of proton 5) Oxidative phosphorylation The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle: TCA cycle It occurs in mitochondria matrix Substrate: acetyl CoA Products: carbon dioxide and reduced coenzymes, NADH and FADH Reaction involved with TCA cycle Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A decarboxylation and oxidative reaction coenzyme A Entry of acetate into the TCA cycle The oxidative decarboxylation steps of the cycle The ATP generating step of the cycle via the formation of GTP Regeneration of oxaloacetate Regulation of TCA cycle activity 1. NAD+/ NADH ratio 2. ATP/ADP ratio 3. Pyruvate dehydrogenase 4. Phosphofructokinase Summary of TCA cycle 1. Acetate to citrate 2. Decarboxylation 3. Oxidation 4. ATP generation 5. Regeneration of oxaloacetate

Electron Transport Chain Outcome of TCA cycle: reduction of coenzymes electrons are transferred to NAD+ an FAD Definition of electron transport the process of coenzymes reoxidation by transfer of electron to oxygen this process is NOT directly it is through a multiple process and involves a series of reversibly oxidizable electron acceptors: electron transport chain Reduction Potentials Standard reduction potential E: a convention used to quantify the electron transfer potential of oxidation-reduction chain Electron Carriers of the Transport Chain Flavoproteins NADH dehydrogenase Coenzyme A Iron-sulfur proteins NADH dehydrogenase Cytochromes heme and heme A cytochrome b, c, c1, a1, and a3 Organization of Electron Transport Chain NADH dehydrogenase Coenzyme Q-cytochrome c reductase Cytochrome c oxidase Oxidative Phosphorylation ATP production depends upon phosphorylation events that are coupled to oxygen-dependent electron transport Coupling of ATP synthesis to electron transport 2 points: 1) ATP generation depend on electron flow 2) electron flow is possible only when ATP is synthesized Uncoupler: 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) ADP is the respiratory control Sites of synthesis 1) between NADH and coenzyme Q 2) between coenzyme Q and cytochrome c 3) between cytochrome c and oxygen

Chemiosmotic coupling model Each of three sites of coupling along the transport chain involves electron transfer event that is accomplanied by the unidirectional pumping of protons across the membrane where the transport chain is localized Electrochemical proton Gradient Proton motive force (pmf) ATP synthetase and the proton translocator F1 F Summary of respiratory metabolism ATP yield of respiratory metabolism

Energy Conversion II
Review of chloroplast structure size shape inner membrane outer membrane stroma thylakoids, grana and stroma lamellae intermembrane space Phototrophs photoheterotrophs photoautotrophs Photosynthesis: 2 unique reactions Light dependent reactions photosynthetic electron transfer reactions light reactions light driven production of ATP and NADPH Light independent reactions carbon fixation reactions dark reactions conversion of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate Oxygenic phototrophs: use water as an electron donor It needs energy and it comes from sunlight (photon) Light dependent reactions to produce ATP and NADPH Chlorophyll It is the only pigment (light-absorbing compound) that can donate photoenergized electrons to organic compounds Chlorophyll a: common to all oxygenic phototrophs Chlorophyll b, c and d: a second kind of chlorophyll Accessory pigments Carotenoids and phycobilins 2 functional roles: 1.) broad absorption spectrum 2) good agreement between absorption spectrum and action spectrum Reaction centers P680 P700 Photosystem I and generation of NADPH Photosystem I: the cluster responsible for the reduction of NADPH Photoreduction Chlorophyll and Chlorophyll* Photosystem II and the oxidation of water Water is not a good electron donor (E = + 0.86)

Photosystem I: to reach ferredoxin Photosystem II: to reach water Summary of the transfer of electron from water to NADP+ 1.) Photosystem II: receive electron from water 2.) Photosystem II: accept electrons from plastocyanin 3.) Electron carriers link electron acceptor for photosystem II and electron donor for photosystem I 4.) Electron carriers link the electron acceptor for photosystem I with the ultimate acceptor NADP+ ATP synthesis Electron flow downhill results in the proton pumpled across the membrane from the stroma into the intrathylakoid space. Therefore, an electrochemical proton gradient is generated. CF1 CF PMF in the chloroplast is due to the pH gradient Photosynthetic carbon metabolism: The Calvin Cycle Carbon fixation Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase Reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate Carbohydrate synthesis glucose sucrose starch Regeneration of ribulose-1,5-bisphophate Summary: 3 ATP and 2 NADPH are used to fix 1 CO2 The C4 plants Mesophyll cells Bundle sheath cells The Hatch-slack cycle: feeder system

Flow of Information I
The flow of genetic information between generations The expression of genetic information Expression of Genetic Information Protein synthesis: translation RNA synthesis: transcription DNA synthesis: replication DNA replication Chemistry and structure of DNA Hydrogen bonds between G-C and A-T Double-helix B-DNA (Watson-Crick Model) right-handed helix Z-DNA left-handed configuration A-DNA A right-handed helix induced by dehydration of B-DNA Major and minor grooves Polarity Supercoiled DNA Topological isomers The molecules that differ only in their state of supercoiling Enzymes: Topoisomerases Type I Type II : DNA gyrase is a Type II topoisomerase Model of replication of circular DNA Origin of replication Replication is bidirection Theta replication Multiple origins of replication for Eukaryotic DNA

DNA polymerase Multiple DNA polymerizes In E Coli: 3 polymerases DNA polemerase I DNA polymerase III In Eucayrotes Polymerase a Polymerase Polymerase ? Leading and lagging strands Okazaki fragments DNA ligase RNA primer Primase Primosome Replication forks Unwinding the DNA Helicase (unwinding protein) Gyrase Single strand binding protein (Helix destabilizing protein) Summary DNA repair RNA synthesis and processing RNA polymerases E coli: a single kind of polymerase consisting of a core enzyme complex as a2 and a dissociate factor s (sigma) Eukaryotes: 5 polymerases different in location, products and sensitivity to a-amanotin RNA polymerase I RNA polymerase II RNA polymerase III Mitochondrial polymerase Chloroplast polymerase

The Steps of transcription Binding: binding of polymerase to a promoter Promoters E coli: recognition of promotors about 40 nucleotide pairs start site, 6-8 hexanucleotide sequence Eukaryotes: each of the polymerases has its own promotors i.e. TATA box in the promotors for polymerase II Initiation Unwinding of one turn of the DNA doulbe helix As soon as the first two rNTP (N=a, U, G, C) in place, polymerase joint the phosphodiester bond Elongation Polymerase moves up in 3 to 5 direction RNA strand grows in 5 to 3 direction A short DNA-RNA hybrid form DNA return to its double helix form (thermodynamic stability) Termination Termination signal (stop signal) E coli: it is a sequence that fige rise in the RNA product to a hairpin helix followed by a string of Us (the hairpin structure is the factor) ? factor in other region

Processing of RNA Ribosomal RNA rRNA is the most abundant and most stable form of RNA In eukaryotes Processing of 45S to 18S, 28S and 5.8S 5S is a separate product Transfer RNA At 5 end, a short leader sequence is removed At 3 end, the two terminal nucleotide (UU) is replaced with CCA which is a distinguishing characteristic of functional tRNA Methylation Splicing Messenger RNA E coli: transcription and translation are coupled processes Eukaryotes: the compartmentization is associated with the need of mRNA processing (splicing) Transcription unit for mRNA is monocistronic hnRNA (heterogeneous RNA): precusor of mRNA Introns and Exons Splicing Caps and Tails Protein Synthesis Reading Assignments: Text pages: 223-273

Questions: 1. Z-DNA co-exists with B-DNA in the same DNA True________False_________ 2. DNA ligase is a Type II topoisomerase. True________False_________ 3. Primase is accompanied by a large complex of protein called True________False_________ 4. In most vertebrate cells, the clusters of genes encoding 28 s rRNA are transcribed independently True________False_________ 5. Transcription unit is a segment of DNA that is transcribed as a single, continues RNA with a promoter on one end and a termination signal on the other end True________False_________ 6. Which of the following is false about hnRNA (heteronuclear RNA)? A. Contains introns B. Lacks cap and tail C. Can be polycistronic D. Contains exons E. None of the above primosome.

Recombinant DNA Technology

Restriction Enzymes Endonucleases, are present in most bacterial cells Protect the bacterial cell from foreign DNA molecule, particularly those of bacteriophages Part of a restriction/methylation system Foreign DNA is degraded by restriction enzymes, and the bacterial genome is protected by methylation i. e. Ecor RI from E. coli strain R HaeIII from Hemophilus aegyptius Recognition sequences Specificity 4 or 6 nucleotide pairs Palindromes; twofold rotational symmetry of the sequence The recognition sequence has the same order of nucleotides on both strands but is read in opposite directions on the strands because of their antiparallel orientation Restriction fragments With blunt ends With cohesive (sticky) ends Gel electrophoresis of DNA Polyacryamide Agarose Because of the negative charge of their phosphate groups, DNA fragments migrate down the gel toward the anode; the technique separate DNA based on their size Detection of DNA Ethidium bromide Autoradiography Restriction Maps Restriction maps indicate the location of restriction enzyme cleave sites in relation to one another

Recombinant DNA molecules DNA cloning 1) Insertion of DNA into a cloning vector bacteriaphage plasmid antibiotic resistance genes: selectable markers DNA ligase 2) Amplification of recombinant vector molecules in bacterial cells Transduction or transfection 3) Selection of bacterial cells containing recombinant DNA 4) Identification of bacterial colonies containing the DNA of interest Screening Colony hybridization nucleic acid probe Antibody approach expression vectors Genomic and cDNA libraries Genomic library cDNA library reverse transcription of mRNA a cDNA library will contain only those DNA sequences that are transcribed into RNA, presumably the active genes in the tissue from which the mRNA was prepared. PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) Amplification of selected DNA sequences In the test tube Need DNA oligonucleotide primers Heat stable enzyme:The DNA polymerase was first isolated from bacteria able to grow in thermal hot springs (70- 80oC) Procedures 1) reverse transcriptase synthesizes cDNA from mRNA 2) Alkali digestion of mRNA 3) DNA polymerase synthesize double strain DNA 4) Terminal transferase 5) Mix with a cloning vector with a complementary fragment

Genetic Engineering Application of recombinant DNA technology to the practical problems In medicine insulin human growth hormone and hypopituitarism human gene therapy Transgenic animals and plants

Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes

Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Genome Size and Complexity Large genome for eukaryotes Uncoding sequence in eukaryotic genome Genomic Compartmentalization Nuclear envelope serves to screen antibody Transcripts Structural Organization of Genome Highly ordered in packing in eukaryotes Binding of regulatory protein to desired region Regulatory elements Stability of mRNA Greater longevity for eukaryotic mRNA Environmental constancy is not assured for prokaryotes Protein Turnover: What to do with defective and unwanted proteins Proteolytic enzymes Cease cell division Cease synthesis Multiple Levels of Gene Control in Eukaryotes Genomic Control Totipotency of differentiated cells 1) nuclear transplantation in animals 2) tissue culture study in plants Gene amplification Some interesting examples take place, but it does not seem to be a critical control mechanism for most genes. Transcriptional Control Evidence 1) differential transcription of genes 2) nuclear run-on transcription assays Two-Stage Process 1) decondensation of coiled chromatin 2) regulated transcription of uncoiled region Binding of Transcriptional Factors Regulates Transcription Regulatory proteins Consensus binding sites Combinatorial model for gene regulation Cis-Acting Elements: Eukaryotic Promoters and Enhancers Promoters Upstream promoter region Enhancers Deletion mutant technique

Trans-Acting Factors: Regulatory Proteins Bind to Promoters and Enhancers 2 Structural Domains 1) DNA binding domain 2) transcription activation domain 3 Common Structural Motifs 1) Helix-turn-helix 2) Zinc finger 3) Leucine zipper Mechanisms of Action of Enhancers and Transcriptional Factors Long range chromatin effect Gateway for liner diffusion Looping/interaction Possible Role of DNA Methylation in Regulating DNA Availability Methylation of cytosine DNA of inactive gene tends to have more methylation. Methylation Posttranscriptional Control RNA Processing and Translocation Alternative splicing Translational control 1) Selective utilization of specific mRNA 2) Variation in rates of mRNA degradation 3) Availability of tRNA and tRNA synthetase 4) Prosthetic group availability example: regulation of transcription by Hemin in red blood cells Posttranslational Control Permanent Modification Glycosylation Proteolytic actions Reversible structural modification phosphorylation Responses to Intracellular Elements Ca++, cAMP, IP3

Cell Signaling
Cell-cell communication in animal cells Via secreted molecules paracrine signaling endocrine signaling synaptic signaling Via plasma-membrane-bound-molecules Cell adhesion, cell junction and extracellular matrix Receptors and hydrophobicity of signaling molecules Cell surface receptors and hydrophilic signaling molecules Intracellular receptors and hydrophophobic molecules Intracellular receptors Diffusion into the cells Binding to the intracellular receptors Inducing the conformational change of receptor The activated receptor comples enters into the nucleus Binding to the response element (i.e. hormone response element) Cell surface receptors Types of cell surface receptors First messenger Second messenger Cyclic AMP (cAMP) as a second messenger G proteins and cAMP synthesis Regulation of G proteins cAMP and glycogen degradation Ca++ as a second messenger Calcium binding protein Calmodulin Inositol Triphosphate (IP3) and Diacylglycerol (DAG) as second messengers Third messengers Protein and protein phosphatase Fourth messengers Transcriptional factors (messengers in nucleus) Signaling amplification Cascade of intracellular events and amplification of extracellular signals Rapid turnover of intracellular mediators "All or none" effect of chemical signals Cooperativity Activation of one enzyme and inhibition of another one with opposite reaction

Target cell adaptation Mechanisms Down-regulation of receptors Receptor sequestration Receptor degradation Receptor mediated endocytosis Inaction of receptors Inaction of none-receptor prot

Cell Junction, Cell Adhesion and Extracellular Matrix

Cell Junctions Three functional types Occluding junctions Anchoring junctions Comunicating junctions Tight junctions: occluding function Function Features Intermembrane space Associated structures Molecular structure Anchoring junctions Function Forms Adherens junction Desmosomes Hemidesmosomes Associated structures Intermembrane space Features Gap junctions Function Features Intermembrane spaces Associated structure Cell Adhesion Mechanisms Homophilic binding Heterophilic binding Through an extracellular linker molecule Neural Cell Adhesion Molecules (N-CAM) Cardherins

Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Connective tissues Fibroblasts Chondroblasts Osteoblasts Components of ECM Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) Fibrous proteins Collagen It is the major protein of ECM It is also the most abundant protein in the animal cells At least 10 types of collagen have been determined, 4 will be studied Type I Type II Type III Type IV Elastin It is a hydrophobic protein It is not a glycoprotein Forms a network of elastic fibers in ECM Adhesive components Fibronectin It is a glycoprotein It helps to mediate cell-matrix adhesion Alternative RNA splicing produces the multiple forms of fibronectin Laminin One of the components of basal lamina Basal laminae are continuous thin mats of specialized ECM that underlie all epithelial cell sheets and tubes and also surround the other cells ECM receptors Matrix receptors Low affinity binding and high concentration presence Fibronectin receptor Integrins

The Nervous System

CNS and PNS The Cells Neurons Cellular structures Cell body Axon Dendrite Different types of neurons Glial cells Central nervous system Oligodendrocyte Microglia Ependymal cells Astrocytes Peripheral nervous system Schwann cells Blood-brain barrier Transport Mechanisms Fast transport and slow transport Anterograde transport and retrograde transport Synaptic Transmission Synapses Electrical synapses Chemical synapses Chemical Synapse Neurotransmitters Criteria to be a neurotransmitter It must elicit the appropriate response upon microinjection into the synaptic cleft It must be found to occur naturally in the presynaptic axon It must be released at the right time when the presynaptic membrane is stimulated Neurotransmitters are released by exocytosis Neurotransmitter release is quantal and probabilistic Excitatory effects and inhibitory effects Excitation Inhibition Structure of chemical synapse Synaptic cleft presynaptic membrane Synaptic vesicles Postsynaptic membrane

Mode of action of acetylcholine Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter Structure synthesis and hydrolysis of acetylcholine The acetylcholine receptor Other neurotransmitters GABA and glycine are inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA: -aminobutyric acid GABA receptors Tranquilizers act on GABA receptors Benzodiazepines Catecholamines and aderenergic synapses Catecholamines are derivatives of tyrosine Dopamine Norepinephrine Epinephrine Monoamine oxidase inactivates catecholamine Neurotoxins Strychnine Curare

Cellular Aspects of the Immune Response

Innate immunity and adaptive immune system The immune response Antigen and antigenic determinants Characteristics of the immune response Types of immune responses Cell-mediated immune responses Humoral immune responses Cellular basis of the immune response Lymphocytes T cells and B cells Development of lymphocytes Clonal selection Antigen receptors Formation of clones and their selection by antibodies Antigen-independent differentiation Antigen-dependent differentiation Immunological memory Primary and secondary responses Effector cells and memory cells Production of memory cells Differentiation markers B cells: immunoglobulins T cells: CD3 complex Th cells Tc cells Lymphocyte activation pathways Graft rejection The major histocompatibility complex The MHC gene expression Classes of MHC antigens Class I antigens Class II antigens Pathways of the Immune response Antigen processing and presentation Th cell activation Tc cell activation B cell activation

The structure and function and antibodies The antibody molecule Variable domains and constant domains Antigen binding sites and effector sites Classes of immunoglobulins in mammals IgG IgM IgA IgD IgE Antibody valence Monoclonal antibody

Cellular Aspects of Cancer

Cancer: lost of normal growth and positional regulation Neoplastic transformation Classification of neoplasm (tumor) Causes of neoplastic transformation Chromosomal alteration Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) and Philadelphia chromosome Oncogenic Viruses: RNA tumor viruses in the retrovirus family replication cycle of retrovirus How to demonstrate a viral etiology for a specific tumor Patterns of infection Horizontal transmission Vertical transmission Environmental carcinogens Physical factors Chemical carcinogens Metabolic conversion of the procarcinogen to ultimate carcinogen Mixed-function oxidase or aryl hydroxylase Chemical carcinogens act by producing genetic mutations Ames test is a mutagenesis assay The genetic basis of neoplasia Oncogene Definition Proto-oncogene Alternation of proto-oncogene to oncogene Dosage effects Gene mutation Tumor-suppresser genes Dominant character of the oncogene Recessive character of spontaneous tumors rbl human gene: Inactivation of rbl gene is associated with the inherited tumor bilateral retinoblastoma

Tumor Dissemination Tumor invasion Dissemination to nearby tissue Process contribute to tumor invasion release of degradative enzymes loss of contact paralysis Metastasis Dissemination to distant organs It can occur in 4 systems peritoneal cavity neural canal lymphatic system vascular system Vascular metastasis Establishment of a vascular supply