Electrical Systems

What is Electricity?
• Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary energy source
which means that we get it from the conversion of other sources of energy, like
coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called
primary sources. The energy sources we use to make electricity can be renewable
or non-renewable, but electricity itself is neither renewable or non-renewable.
• Electricity is an apparent force in nature that exists whenever there is a net
electrical charge between any two objects.
• Electricity is a form of energy produced by the movement of electrons.
• All matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are made up of smaller particles. The
three main particles making up an atom are the proton, the neutron and the
electron.

Electricity Generation
Whether from fossil fuels, nuclear, renewable fuels, or other sources - is usually* based
on the fact that:
"When magnets are moved near a wire, an electric current is generated in that wire."

Brief History
Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of our most widely used forms of energy.
Many cities and towns were built alongside waterfalls (a primary source of mechanical
energy) that turned water wheels to perform work. Before electricity generation began
slightly over 100 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene lamps, food was cooled in
iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning or coal-burning stoves.
• Beginning with Benjamin Franklin's experiment with a kite one stormy night in
Philadelphia, the principles of electricity gradually became understood.
• In the late-1800s, Nikola Tesla pioneered the generation, transmission, and use of
alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be transmitted over much greater
distances than direct current.
• Tesla's inventions used electricity to bring indoor lighting to our homes and to
power industrial machines.
• Thomas Edison helped change everyone's life -- he perfected his invention -- the
electric light bulb.
• Prior to 1879, direct current (DC) electricity had been used in arc lights for outdoor
lighting.
Kinds of Electricity
Static electricity - Stays in one place and doesn't move like current electricity. Lightning is
the most spectacular example of static electricity. This is a huge spark that flows between
positive charges in the top of a thunder cloud and negative charges in the bottom.
Current electricity - Is the flow of electric charge through a substance that conducts
electricity.

Measuring Electricity
Unit of electric current – the ampere
Electricity flowing in a conductor is called current, which is measured in amperes
(amp/amps/A). When current is used in an equation, it is usually represented by the letter
I or i.

Unit of electric potential – the volt

The volt (symbol: V) is the SI derived unit of electric potential difference or electromotive
force, commonly known as voltage. A volt is defined as the potential difference across a
conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power.

Unit of electric resistance – the ohm

The flow of current in an electric circuit is resisted by “resistance,” which is the electrical
term for friction. In a dc circuit this force is called resistance (R); in an ac circuit it is called
impedance (Z). the unit of measurement is the ohm.

Watt - a measure of the power of electricity

Kilowatt-hour - a measure of electric energy

Ohm’s Law
• The current I that will flow in a dc circuit is directly proportional to the voltage V and
inversely proportional to the resistance R of the circuit. Expressed as an equation,
this is the basic form of Ohm’s Law:
• I = V/R
 • In an ac circuit, the same relation holds true except instead of dc resistance we
use ac impedance.

Electrical Circuit
An electrical circuit is a closed loop formed by a power source, wires, a fuse, a load, and
a switch. When the switch is turned on, the electrical circuit is complete and current flows
from the negative terminal of the power source, through the wire to the load, to the positive
terminal. Any device that consumes the energy flowing through a circuit and converts that
energy into work is called a load. A light bulb is one example of a load. It consumes the
electricity from a circuit and converts it into work — heat and light.

Types of Circuit
There are three types of circuits:
• A series circuit is the simplest because it has only one possible path that the
electrical current may flow. If the electrical circuit is broken, none of the load
devices will work.
• A parallel circuit has more than one path, so if one of the paths is broken, the other
paths will continue to work.
• A series-parallel circuit attaches some of the loads to a series circuit and others to
parallel circuits. If the series circuit breaks, none of the loads will function, but if
one of the parallel circuits break, that parallel circuit and the series circuit will stop
working, but the other parallel circuits will continue to work.

The following rules apply to a series circuit:

 The sum of the potential drops equals the potential rise of the source.

 The current is the same everywhere in the series circuit.

 The total resistance of the circuit (also called effective resistance) is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.
The following rules apply to a parallel circuit:
 The potential drops of each branch equals the potential rise of the source.

 The total current is equal to the sum of the currents in the branches.

 The inverse of the total resistance of the circuit (also called effective resistance)
is equal to the sum of the inverses of the individual resistances.

Other things so note in a circuit are:

Short circuit - When a conductor is placed from positive directly to negative, the flow of
electron takes the easiest path and bypasses the load, going through the conductor. At
best all your power will be drained away very quickly through the wire as there is no
resistance to the flow. At normally they will destroy you components and wire burning
them out. On the more negative side the insulation and other parts can catch fire due to
the excess heat produced.
Ground - ground is the base voltage or 0 volt for a circuit. When you are using batteries
this is the negative terminal. With mains power is normally a metal rod that goes into the
ground or earth.
AC & DC
Alternating Current (AC)
• Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the other way, continually reversing
direction.
• An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-).
• The rate of changing direction is called the frequency of the AC and it is measured
in hertz (Hz) which is the number of forwards-backwards cycles per second.
• An AC supply is suitable for powering some devices such as lamps and heaters
but almost all electronic circuits require a steady DC supply.

AC from a power supply

This shape is called a sine wave.

Direct Current (DC)

• Direct Current (DC) always flows in the same direction, but it may increase and
decrease.
• A DC voltage is always positive (or always negative), but it may increase and
decrease.
• Electronic circuits normally require a steady DC supply which is constant at one
value or a smooth DC supply which has a small variation called ripple.
• Cells, batteries and regulated power supplies provide steady DC which is ideal for
electronic circuits.
• Power supplies contain a transformer which converts the mains AC supply to a
safe low voltage AC. Then the AC is converted to DC by a bridge rectifier but the
output is varying DC which is unsuitable for electronic circuits.
• Some power supplies include a capacitor to provide smooth DC which is suitable
for less-sensitive electronic circuits, including most of the projects on this website.
• Lamps, heaters and motors will work with any DC supply.
 Varying DC
from a power supply without smoothing,
this is not suitable for electronics.

Smooth DC
from a smoothed power supply,
this is suitable for some electronics.

Steady DC
from a battery or regulated power supply,
this is ideal for electronic circuits.
Sources of Energy
Electric power is generated from several sources of energy: wind, water, nuclear, fossil
fuel, solar (photovoltaic), and solar energy directly into an electric current. All other energy
sources are harnessed to produce a rotary mechanical motion that drives electrical
generators. The generators convert movement into electricity. Transformers are used to
"step up" (increase) the electrical power to very high voltages (hundreds of thousands of
volts) for transmission by wires over long distances. Wherever the transmission lines
enter an industrial or residential community for local power distribution, large transformers
are used to "step down" the voltage to a few thousand volts. Smaller transformers set on
poles or in underground vaults are used for final distribution to small groups of ho8uses
or individual factories. Usually, 110 and 220 volts are delivered to residences.

Distribution and Use of Electricity

In a power plant, electricity is produced by generators, which are driven by turbines.
Turbines may be powered by water, as in a hydroelectric plant, by wind, or by steam, as
in a nuclear or fossil fuel plant.

Generator
The generator is directly connected to the turbine, so when the turbine spins, the
generator also spins. It transforms the mechanical energy (provided by the spinning
turbine) into electrical energy. Electricity is produced by rotating a conductor through a
magnetic field or by rotating a magnetic field around the conductor. Each time the
conductor travels, or cuts, through the magnetic field, a voltage is created (induced). After
leaving the generator, the electricity travels to the plant's substation where transformers
are located. The transformer increases the voltage of the electricity so it can travel
through the distribution lines efficiently. Then, in local areas, the electricity travels to
another substation where transformers reduce the voltage again for consumer use. All
this happens at the speed of light.
• The generator is based on the principle of "electromagnetic induction" discovered
in 1831 by Michael Faraday, a British scientist. Faraday discovered that if an
electric conductor, like a copper wire, is moved through a magnetic field, electric
current will flow (or "be induced") in the conductor. So the mechanical energy of
the moving wire is converted into the electric energy of the current that flows in the
wire.
Boiler
The boiler in a power plant has two basic functions: to burn fuel to produce heat and to
use the heat to turn water into steam. Fuel enters the boiler's furnace and is ignited,
producing heat. Inside the walls of the boiler are long, vertical tubes that contain water.
As the temperature inside the boiler increases, the water begins to boil, forming tiny steam
bubbles. The steam rises to the top of the boiler to a steam collection drum. From there,
the steam travels through pipes to the turbine.

Turbine
The turbine transforms the thermal energy in the steam into mechanical energy. It
provides the mechanical motion necessary for the generator to do its job. A turbine is
constructed of a long shaft to which a series of blades are attached. This is called the
rotor. As steam enters the turbine, it is directed through the sets of blades. The force of
the steam against the blades causes the rotor to spin. It is similar to blowing on a
pinwheel, but much faster. Steam turbines spin at 3,600 revolutions per minute (60
cycles per second or 60 Hz).
• To solve the problem of sending electricity over long distances, William Stanley
developed a device called a transformer. The transformer allowed electricity to be
efficiently transmitted over long distances. This made it possible to supply
electricity to homes and businesses located far from the electric generating plant.
• After electricity is produced at power plants it has to get to the customers that use
the electricity. Our cities, towns, states and the entire world are criss-crossed with
power lines that "carry" the electricity.
How Electricity Gets To Your Home
• After the generator produces the electrical charge, the current is sent through a
transformer to make it the right voltage. This gives the electricity enough pressure
to travel long distances.
• High-voltage transmission lines carry the electricity over hundreds of miles to your
city or neighborhood.
• It reaches a substation, where the voltage is lowered to make it safe for residential
use.
• The electricity travels through smaller distribution lines to your street.
• The power passes through a service drop and into the outdoor electric meter.
• From there, it reaches the service panel, where it branches off into separate circuits
for each area of your home.
• All the distribution lines throughout the country are interconnected. This enables
the utility companies to form "power pools" so that electricity can be distributed
where it is needed, which means a power plant may, or may not, be supplying
power to a local area.

Service Entrance
• Power is supplied to a building through a service entrance. Three heavy wires,
together called the drop, extend from a utility pole or an underground source to the
structure. These wires are twisted into a cable. At the building, overhead wires are
fastened to the structure and spliced to service entrance wires that enter a conduit
through a service head.
 • In planning overhead service drop paths, minimum height requirements for
connector lines must be carefully followed. If these distances cannot be
maintained, rigid conduit, electrical metallic tubing, or busways (channels, ducts)
must be used.
• If the service is supplied underground, three wires are placed in a rigid conduit. An
underground service conduit is brought to the meter socket. An underground
service entrance includes a watt-hour meter, main breaker, and lightning
protection. Automatic brownout equipment is also required by many codes for new
construction. All electrical systems must be grounded through the service
entrance.

Branch Circuits
• From the distribution panel, electricity is routed to the rest of the building through
branch circuits. A circuit is a circular path that electricity follows from the power
supply source to a light, appliance, or other electrical device and back again to the
power supply source. If the electrical load for an entire building were placed on
one circuit, overloading 3would leave the entire building without power. Thus
branch circuits are used. Each circuit delivers electricity to a limited number of
outlets or devices.
• Each circuit is protected with a circuit breaker. A circuit breaker is a device that
opens (disconnects) a circuit when the current exceeds a certain amount. Without
a circuit breaker, excessive electrical loads could cause the wiring to overhead and
start a fire. When a breaker opens, or "trips," the power to the branch circuit is
disconnected. Similarly, if the sum of the current drawn by the branch circuits
exceeds the rating of the main circuit breaker, the main breaker will trip. This
protects the service-entrance wires and equipment from overheating and damage.
Older homes often have ruses instead of circuit breakers. They serve the same
purpose, but overloaded fuses must be replaced. Circuit breakers that trip can be
reset.
• Branch circuits are divided into three types by the National Electrical Code: lighting
circuits, small-appliance circuits, and individual circuits.
Types of Switches
• Small-appliance circuits and individual circuits are usually "hot," meaning that
electricity is available in the outlet at all times. Lighting circuits, however, may
be either hot or controlled by switches. Single-pole switches control one fixture,
device or outlet. To control lights from two different switches a three-way switching
circuit (three wires and two switches) is used. A three-way switching circuit is often
installed for the top and bottom of stairways. Many types of switch mechanisms
are used to control.

Switch Locations
Switch symbols are located on floor plans. Connections to the outlet, fixture, or device
each controls are shown with a dotted line. Use the following guidelines in planning switch
locations:
• Include a switch for all structural fixtures and devices that need to be turned on or
off.
• Indicate the height of all switches (usually 4' above floor level)
• Locate switches on the latch side of doors, no closer that 2 1/2" from the casing.
• Exceptions to the standard should be dimensioned on the plan o5 elevation
drawing.
• Select the type of switch, switch mechanism, switch plate cover, and type of finish
for each switch.
• Plan a switch to control at least one light in each room.
• Use three-way switches to control lights at the ends of stairwells, halls, and
garages.
• Locate garage door-closer switches at the house entry and within reach inside the
garage door.
• Control bedroom lights with a three-way switch at the entry and at the bed.
• Use time switches for garage general lighting, bathroom exhaust fans, and heat
lights.
• Use three-way switches for all large rooms that have two exits. Use four-way
switches for rooms with more than two exits.
• Use automatic switches on closet and storage areas.
• Specify timer switches for pool motors.
• Locate safety alarm switches for a security system in the master control unit and
in the master bedroom.
• Switches for outdoor security lighting (motion detector lights) should be installed
on all levels.
• Locate switches in all rooms to ensure that a person need not enter or leave a
room in the dark.
Electrical Conductors
• Wires used to conduct electricity are classified by the type of wire material, the
insulation ma6terial, and the wire size. The size of the wire used in a circuit
depends on the current to be carried by the circuit. Although the meter voltage is
120V and 241V, wiring resistance reduces the voltage at the receptacles to
approximately 110Va and 220V. Sizes 6 through 2/0 are used for 240-vold (240V)
service entrance and circuits. The exact size depends on the capacity of the
service panel. Sizes 10 through 14 are used for 120V and 240V lighting and small
appliance circuits. Sizes 16 and 18 are used for low voltage items such as
thermostats and doorbells.

National Electrical Code

• Electrical power systems shall have a minimum capacity for various types of
building occupancy.
• Alternating current systems of 50 to 600 volts shall be grounded wherever possible
such that the maximum voltage to ground on the ungrounded conductors does not
exceed 150 volts. Exceptions to this general rule include special systems in health
care and industrial facilities.
• Only wires listed in the code shall be used in buildings. Application of the wires
should not exceed the temperature and voltage ratings of their insulation for
approved dry or wet locations.
• The feeder capacity and the number of branch circuits shall not lower than either
the actual demand loads or the calculated demand loads given under Articles 200,
210, 215, and 220, whichever is greater.
• There are numerous code-approved insulated wires and cables. Most of these
shall be installed in protective raceways, such as conduits, wireways, or cable rays.
For practical purposes all commercial, institutional, and industrial buildings are
designed for using wires in raceways, primarily in EMT or rigid conduits (heavy
walls).
• The allowable ampacities of insulated conductors are given in NEC Article 310,
including the derating factors for ambient temperatures and when there are more
than three conductors in the raceway. Unless otherwise stated, all references are
based in copper conductors.
• Non metallic sheathed cables, types NM and NMC, may be used without raceways
in one family or multiple family dwellings and other structures, except when any
dwelling or structure exceeds three floors above grade.
• All connections or splices of wires and cables must be made within code-approved
boxes that are accessible for inspection and service.
 • All wires and equipment should be protected from abnormal situations by the
proper installation of overcurrent, overvoltage, and overload protection devices,
such as relays, fuses, or circuit breakers.
• Feeders, branch circuits, and equipment shall be provided with proper means of
disconnection or isolation switches to disengage them from the electrical system
for service and repair. The means of disconnection shall be readily accessible and
in sight of the equipment being disconnected.
• Motors and electrical equipment shall be provided with means of disconnection,
branch circuit protection, controllers, and overload protection. The means of
disconnection shall in sight of the equipment or shall be capable of being locked in
an open position for the safety of service personnel.
• To avoid the build up of heat and to facilitate pulling wires into the conduit, wires
shall occupy only a small portion of the conduit. In general, the overall cross-
sectional area of all conductors shall not exceed 40 percent of the cross-sectional
area of the conduit when there are three or more conductors in the conduit.

Design Procedure
• Make an electrical load estimate based on areas involved, building data, and any
other pertinent data.
• In cooperation with the local electric utility, decide on the point of service entrance,
type of service run, service voltage, metering location, and building utilization
voltage.
• Determine with the client the proposed usage of all areas and information about
all client furnished equipment (including specific electric ratings and service
connection requirements).
• Determine from other consultants, such as for HVAC, plumbing, elevators,
kitchens, and the like, the exact electrical rating of all the equipment in their realm
of design.
• Determine the location and estimate the size of all required electric equipment
spaces including switchboard rooms, emergency equipment spaces, electric
closets, and so forth.
• Design the lighting for the facility.
• Depending on the type of facility, it may be necessary to separate the lighting layout
from the layout plan(s) for other devices such as signalling, low-tension systems,
and receptacles.
• On the plan(s), locate all electrical apparatus including receptacles, switches,
motors, and other power-consuming apparatus. Underfloor, under-carpet, and
over-ceiling wiring and raceway systems would be shown at this stage, in general
on a separate plan.
• On the plan(s), locate data-processing and signal apparatus such as
telecommunication outlets, network connections, phone outlets, speakers,
microphones, TV outlets, fire and smoke detectors, and so on.
• Circuit all lighting, devices, and power equipment to the appropriate panels and
prepare the panel schedules. Include in this step the circuitry for emergency
equipment.
• Compute panel loads.
• Prepare the riser diagram. This includes the design of distribution panels,
switchboards, and service equipment.
• Compute feeder sizes and all protective equipment ratings.
• Check the preceding work.
• Coordinate the electrical work with the other trades and with the architectural
plans.
Definition/basic concepts - solis

How do electrical systems work?

Circuit - circuit is a path for the electricity when electricity flows from one point to another along
a path such as a wire amps. a circuit is a complete circular path that electricity flows through.

Amps/Current
- Electricity flowing in a conductor is called current, which is measured in amperes
- is the directed flow of electrons through the circuit

Volts
-It is the force that drives he current-the more the volts the more the current flows
-is the electrical pressure that causes the electrons to flow.

Watts
- A Watt is the unit of electrical power equal to one ampere under the pressure of one volt. One
Watt is a small amount of power.

The electricity that we use is a secondary energy

The electricity that we use is a secondary energy source because it is produced by converting
primary sources of energy such as coal, natural gas, nuclear energy, solar energy, and wind
energy, into electrical power.Electricity is also referred to as an energy carrier, which means it
can be converted to other forms of energy such as mechanical energy or heat. Primary energy
sources are renewable or nonrenewable energy, but the electricity we use is neither renewable
nor nonrenewable.

Insulators
- A material which does not easily allow heat and/or electricity to pass through
Alternating current
- Alternating Current (AC) is a type of electrical current, in which the direction of the flow of
electrons switches back and forth at regular intervals or cycles.
Direct current
- is electrical current which flows consistently in one direction. The current that flows in a
flashlight or another appliance running on batteries is direct current.
Basic System Requirements
Every electrical system requires 3 basic components and usually 2 accessory components.
1: Power Source
2: Load Device
3: Conductors “Accessory Components.”
4: Switch
5: Fuse

SERIES CIRCUIT
In a series arrangement the elements are connected
one after another, that is, in series. Due to the arrangement of components
in a series circuit, the current is the same in all
CHARACTERISTICS
1: The current is constant through out the circuit.
2: The current must pass through each component in the circuit.
3: The total resistance of the circuit controls the current in the circuit.
4: The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of all the resistance’s in the circuit.
5: The sum of the voltage drops across the resistors will equal the applied voltage.

PARALLEL
A parallel circuit is a circuit that has two or more loads connected so that current can divide and
flow through the load. Most electrical circuits are parallel.
Characteristics of a parallel circuit:
1: The current has many paths.
2: The resistance in each load will determine the current flow for that resistance.
3: The total resistance will always be less than the smallest resistance in the circuit.
4: The voltage drop across all loads will be battery voltage. The formula for calculating
resistance in a parallel circuit is:

Types and classification - Santiago

Electrical systems
● Power Generation and Distribution Systems:
○ This system is responsible for distributing electrical power from the source (such
as a power grid or generator) to the loads (such as buildings or machines) that
require it. It includes various components such as transformers, switchgear, and
distribution panels.

● Lighting Systems:
 ○ This system provides artificial lighting for indoor and outdoor spaces in buildings.
It includes various types of light fixtures, lamps, and controls to adjust the level
and color of light.

● Communication and Control Systems:

○ This system provides communication and control capabilities for building
occupants and managers. It includes intercoms, security systems, fire alarms,
building automation systems, and other similar components.

● Life Safety Systems:

○ This system is designed to protect occupants from fire, smoke, and other
hazards. It includes components such as fire alarms, smoke detectors, sprinkler
systems, and emergency lighting.

● Electrical Transportation Systems:

○ These systems provide transportation for people and goods, and can include
elevators, escalators, and moving walkways.

● Special Systems:
○ These systems are designed for specific applications, such as audiovisual
systems, medical equipment, and laboratory equipment, and can include
specialized power sources, grounding, and shielding requirements.

Equipment and components - Sangalang

Circuit-Protective devices:

· Fuse – is a simple safety device that operates to provide overcurrent protection of an

electrical circuit.
· Circuit breakers – These have the same function with a fuse, and in addition acts
as a switch. Most of these are equipped with both thermal and magnetic trips, with
the thermal trip acting on overloads, and the magnetic on short circuit.
· Panelboard – or electrical distribution panel, divides an electrical power feed into a
branch of circuits, while providing a protective circuit breaker or fuse for each one.
· Switchboard – shares similar function with the panelboard, only in a larger scale. It
is a free-standing assembly of switches and fuses that serves to distribute bulk
power into small packages.

Service equipment:

· Transformers – are static electrical devices used to change or transform an

alternating current of one voltage to alternating current of another voltage. These can
 be installed in either outdoor or indoor spaces, with each having their own
considerations and advantages. Outdoor installed transformers reduce noise, has
lower costs, and is easy to maintain, while for indoor ones, its heat-generating
properties should be considered before installing.
· Switches – are both service and wiring devices. These are manually-operated
components that can break or open an electrical circuit. There are different types:
wall switches, level switches, magnetic ones, pushbutton, rotary, membrane, etc.
· Relay – is a switch that also open and close circuits. This differs from the traditional
switch for instead of a manual operation, it receives electrical signals to control an
electromagnet, which in return, controls another circuit.
· Contactors –are used to switch a power circuit. It is similar to a relay but with higher
current ratings. It uses contact blocks of silver coated copper to open or close a
circuit.

Wiring devices:

· Receptacles – also known as electric outlets or wall outlet, is a socket that allows
electrical equipment to connect to the electrical grid.
· Conductors – or electrical wires, are the means by which current is conducted
through the electrical system. These are mostly made from copper and aluminum
since both exhibit low electrical resistivity.
· Cables – are group of conductors used for transmission and power distribution.
These are extensively used in building wiring, particularly in lighting, power, and
control circuits.
· Conduit – a tube or raceway used to house electrical wires within a building or a
structure. These are commonly made from aluminum, flexible metal, and nonmetallic
materials.

Architectural considerations(building laws, design implication) other factors Legal,structural,

electrical factors - Ranah, Virtucio, Roldan

Architectural Considerations

Building Laws
NATIONAL BUILDING CODE
SECTION 1301. Electrical Regulations All electrical systems, equipment and installation
mentioned in this Code shall conform to the provisions of the Philippine Electrical Code,
as adopted by the Board of Electrical Engineering pursuant to Republic Act No. 184
otherwise known as the Electrical Engineering Law

NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Requirements for Electrical Permit
a) An application form (DPWH form No. 77-001-E) shall be accomplished, signed and
submitted by a duly registered Professional Electrical Engineer. However, if the installation
does not exceed 20 lighting and/or receptacle outlets or 4000 volt-amperes, 230 volts, the
application may be prepared, signed and submitted by a duly registered electrical engineer
or master electrician.

b) The application shall include additionally, the name and signature and seal of the
electrical practitioner who will take charge of the installations as well as the signature of the
owner or his authorized representative.

c) Five (5) sets of plans and specifications bearing the signature and seal of the responsible
Professional Electrical Engineer shall be submitted together with the application. However,
if the installation does not exceed 20 lighting and or receptacle outlets or 4,000 VA, 230 V;
five (5) sets of sketches and bill of materials may be prepared signed and submitted by the
responsible Registered Electrical Engineer or Master Electrician.

According to P.D. 1096, no plans is required for building made of indigenous materials or
which cost is not more than P15,000.00.

FEEDERS AND MAIN

Essential considerations being adapted or followed.
1. On large installation, one feeder is provided for each floor.
2. In small installations, one or two feeders is satisfactory.
3. Feeder for motor must be separate and independent from the light circuits.
4. Feeders requiring more than 50 mm diameter conduit should not be used.
5. Feeders should be subdivided if there are several bends or offsets because a 50
mm conduit is the largest that could be economically used.
6. Feeders radiating from the distributing panel should be provided each with a
properly rated switch and circuit breaker.
7. Good practice dictates that feeders and main shall be installed inside a conduit
pipe as it carries high voltage that should be well protected.

ARTICLE 2.10
(a) Lampholders. Where connected to a branch circuit having a rating in excess of 20
amperes, lampholders shall be of the heavy-duty type. A heavy-duty lampholder shall
have a rating of not less than 660 watts if of the admedium type, or not less than 750
watts if of any other type.

ARTICLE 2.20
(b) Inductive Lighting Loads. For circuits supplying lighting units that have ballasts,
transformers, or autotransformers, the calculated load shall be based on the total
ampere ratings of such units and not on the total watts of the lamps.
ARTICLE 4.10
4.10.10.1 Bases, Incandescent Lamps. An incandescent lamp for general use on lighting
branch circuits shall not be equipped with a medium base if rated over 300 watts, or with
a mogul base if rated over 1 500 watts. Special bases or other devices shall be used for
over 1 500 watts.

ARTICLE 5.20
5.20.4.3 Overcurrent Protection. Circuits from portable switchboards directly supplying
equipment containing incandescent lamps of not over 300 watts shall be protected by
overcurrent protective devices having a rating or setting of not over 20 amperes. Circuits
for lampholders over 300 watts shall be permitted where overcurrent protection complies
with Article 2.10.

ARTICLE 5.30
(g) Lighting. Work lights, stand lamps, and luminaires (fixtures) rated 1000 watts or less
and connected to dc plugging boxes shall be by means of plugs containing two cartridge
fuses not larger than 20 amperes, or they shall be permitted to be connected to special
outlets on circuits protected by fuses or circuit breakers rated at not over 20 amperes.
Plug fuses shall not be used unless they are on the load side of the fuse or circuit
breakers on the location boards,

ARTICLE 3.30
3.30.3.1 Conductors. The conductors shall be of copper, aluminum, or copper-clad
aluminum, solid or stranded. The minimum conductor size shall be 18 AWG copper and
3.5 mm2 (2.0 mm dia.) aluminum or copper-clad aluminum.

ARTICLE 4.8
(b) Power Panelboard Protection. In addition to the requirements of 4.8.3.1, a power
panelboard with supply conductors that include a neutral, and having more than 10
percent of its overcurrent devices protecting branch circuits rated 30 amperes or less,
shall be protected by an overcurrent protective devic.e having a rating not greater than
that of the panelboard. This overcurrent protective device shall be located within or at
any point on the supply side of the panelboard.

ARTICLE 4.8
4.8.2.2 Location Relative to Easily Ignitible Material. Switchboards shall be placed so as
to reduce to a minimum the probability of communicating fire to adjacent combustible
materials. Where installed over a combustible floor, suitable protection thereto shall be
provided.

ARTICLE 4.10
(d) Bathtub and Shower Areas. No parts of cord-connected luminaires (fixtures), chain-,
cable-, or cord-suspended-luminaires (fixtures), lighting track, pendants, or
ceiling-suspended (paddle) fans shall be located within a zone measured 900 mm
 horizontally and 2 400 mm vertically from the top of the bathtub rim or shower stall
threshold.

ARTICLE 4.10
4.10.2.3 Luminaires (Fixtures) Over Combustible Material. Lampholders installed over
highly combustible material shall be of the unswitched type. Unless an individual switch
is provided for each luminaire (fixture), lampholders shall be located at least 2 400 mm
above the floor or shall be located or guarded so that the lamps cannot be readily
removed or damaged.

ARTICLE 4.11
Lighting Systems Operating at 30 Volts or Less. A lighting system consisting of an
isolating power supply operating at 30 volts (42.4 volts peak) or less under any load
condition, with one or more secondary circuits, each limited to 25 amperes maximum,
supplying luminaires

ARTICLE 4.10
4.10.15.4 Heavy-Duty Lighting Track. Heavy-duty lighting track is lighting track identified
for use exceeding 20 amperes. Each fitting attached to a heavy-duty lighting track shall
have individual overcurrent protection.

CHAPTER 2

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS IN BUILDING

No. of Service - A building or other structure served shall be supplied by only one
service.

EXCEPTIONS

1. For fire pump where a separate service is required.

2. For emergency electrical system where a separate service is required.

3. Multiple-Occupancy building

4. Capacity Requirements. Two or more services shall be permitted:

a) Where the capacity requirements are in excess of 2,000 amperes at a supply voltage
of 600 volts or

less; or

b) Where the load requirements of a single-phase installation are greater than the
serving agency normally supplies through one service; or
5. Building of Large Area ( 10,000 m2 or more Total Area ).

6. For different voltage characteristics, such as for different voltage, frequencies, or

phases, or for different uses, such as for different rate schedules.

2.30.1.3 One Building or Other Structure Not to Be Supplied Through Another.

Service conductors supplying a building or other structure shall not pass through the
interior of another building or other structure.

2.30.8 Services Exceeding 600 Volts, Nominal

Service conductors and equipment used on circuits exceeding 600 volts, nominal, shall
comply with all the applicable provisions of the preceding sections of this article and with
the following sections that supplement or modify the preceding sections. In no case shall
the provisions of Part 2.30.8 apply to equipment on the supply side of the service point.

SERVICE - ENTRANCE CONDUCTORS

- No. of Service-Entrance Conductor Sets
Each service drop or lateral shall supply only one set of service-entrance conductors.

EXCEPTIONS:
1. Buildings with more than one occupancy.
2. Where two to six service disconnecting means in separate enclosures are grouped at
one location and supply separate loads from one service drop or lateral.

Minimum Size and Rating.

The ampacity of the service-entrance conductors before the application of any
adjustment or correction factors shall not be less than either (a)(1) or (a)(2). Loads shall be
determined in accordance with Article 2.20. Ampacity shall be determined from 3.10.1.15.
The maximum allowable current of busways shall be that value for which the busway has
been listed or labeled.

(1) The sum of the noncontinuous loads plus 125 percent of continuous loads

(2) The sum of the noncontinuous load plus the continuous load if the
service-entrance conductors terminate in an overcurrent device where both the
overcurrent device and its assembly are listed for operation at 100 percent of their
rating
DISCONNECTING MEANS

NUMBER OF DISCONNECTING MEANS:

The service disconnecting means for each set or each subset of service entrance conductor
shall consist of not more than six switches or six circuit breakers mounted in a single enclosure, or in
a switchboard.

LOCATION:

The service disconnecting means shall be installed either inside or outside the building or
other structure at a readily accessible location nearest the point of entrance of the service entrance
conductor

RATING:

The service disconnecting means shall have a rating of not less than the load to be carried.
In no case shall the rating be lower than specified through:

1. One circuit installation -- The service disconnecting means shall have a rating of not less than 15

amperes.

2. Two circuit installation -- The service disconnecting means shall have a rating of not less than 30

amperes.

3. One family dwelling -- The service disconnecting means shall have a rating of:

60 A -- where the initial computed loads is 10 kVA or more

100 A -- where the initial installations consist of six or more 2-wire branch circuit.

4. Others -- For all other installations, the service disconnecting means shall have a rating of not less

than 40 amperes.

THE OVERHEAD SERVICE-DROP CONDUCTOR

This is the overhead service conductor from the last pole or other aerial support to and
including the splices if any, connecting the service entrance conductors at the building or
other structure.

SIZE AND RATING:

a) General. Service drop shall have sufficient ampacity to carry the load without a
temperature rise detrimental to the covering or insulation of the conductors and shall
have adequate mechanical strength.
b) Minimum Size. The conductors shall not be smaller than 8 mm2 copper, 14 mm2
aluminum or copper-clad aluminum

CLEARANCES:
a) Above Roofs. Conductors shall have a vertical clearance of not less than 2,500 mm
from the roof surface.
b) Vertical Clearance from Ground.3,100 mm - at the electric service entrance to
buildings, or at the drip loop of the building electric entrance, or above areas or
sidewalks

3,700 mm - for those areas listed in the 4,600 mm classification when the voltage is
limited to 600 volts to ground.

4,600 mm - over residential property and driveways, and those commercial areas not
subject to truck traffic.

5,500 mm - over public streets, alleys, roads, parking areas subject to truck traffic,
driveways on other than residential property, and other land transversed by vehicles
such as cultivated, grazing, forest, and orchard.

2.30.1.3 One Building or Other Structure Not to Be Supplied Through Another.

Service conductors supplying a building or other structure shall not pass through the
interior of another building or other structure.

BRANCH CIRCUIT
2.10.1.1
Scope. This article covers branch circuits except for branch circuits that supply only
motor loads, which are covered in Article 4.30. Provisions of this article and Article 4.30
apply to branch circuits with combination loads. .

2.10.1.4 Multiwire Branch Circuits.

(a) General. Branch circuits recognized by this article shall be permitted as multiwire
circuits. A multiwire circuit shall be permitted to be considered as multiple circuits. All
conductors shall originate from the same panelboard or similar distribution equipment.

(b) Devices or Equipment. Where a multiwire branch circuit supplies more than one
device or equipment on the same yoke, a means shall be provided to disconnect
simultaneously all ungrounded conductors supplying those devices or equipment at the
point where the branch circuit originates.
 (c) Line-to-Neutral Loads. Multiwire branch circuits shall supply only line-to-neutral
loads. Exception No. 1: A multiwire branch circuit that supplies only one utilization
equipment. Exception No. 2: Where all ungrounded conductors of the multiwire branch
circuit are opened simultaneously by the branch-circuit overcurrent device.

2.10.1.6 Branch-Circuit Voltage Limitations. The nominal voltage of branch

circuits shall not exceed the values permitted by 2.10.1.6 (a) through 2.10.1.6 (e).

(a) Occupancy Limitation. In dwelling units and guest rooms or guest suites of
hotels, motels, and similar occupancies, the voltage shall not exceed 230 volts,
nominal, between conductors that supply the terminals of the following:
(1) Luminaires (lighting fixtures)
(2) Cord-and-plug-connected loads 1440 volt-amperes, nominal, or less or less than
¼ hp

(b) 230 Volts Between Conductors. Circuits not exceeding 230 volts, nominal,
between conductors shall be permitted to supply the following:
(1) The terminals of lampholders applied within their voltage ratings
(2) Auxiliary equipment of electric-discharge lamps
(3) Cord-and-plug-connected or permanently connected utilization equipment
(c) 277 Volts to Ground. Circuits exceeding 230 volts, nominal, between
conductors and not exceeding 277 volts, nominal, to ground shall be permitted to
supply the following:
(1) Listed electric-discharge luminaires (lighting fixtures)
(2) Listed incandescent luminaires (lighting fixtures), where supplied at 230 volts or
less from the output of a stepdown autotransformer that is an integral component of
the luminaire (fixture) and the outer shell terminal is electrically connected to a
grounded conductor of the branch circuit
(3) Luminaires (lighting fixtures) equipped with mogul-base screw shell lampholders
(4) Lampholders, other than the screw shell type, applied within their voltage ratings
(5) Auxiliary equipment of electric-discharge lamps
(6) Cord-and-plug-connected or permanently connected utilization equipment

(d) 600 Volts Between Conductors. Circuits exceeding 277 volts, nominal, to
ground and not exceeding 600 volts, nominal, between conductors shall be
permitted to supply the following:
(1) The auxiliary equipment of electric-discharge lamps mounted in permanently
installed luminaires (fixtures) where the luminaires (fixtures) are mounted in
accordance with one of the following: a. Not less than a height of 6 700 mm on
poles or similar structures for the illumination of outdoor areas such as highways,
roads, bridges, athletic fields, or parking lots b. Not less than a height of 5 500 mm
on other structures such as tunnels
(2) Cord-and-plug-connected or permanently connected utilization equipment other
than luminaires (fixtures)

Exception No. 1 to (b), (c), and (d): For lampholders of infrared industrial heating
appliances as provided in 4.22.2.5.
Exception No. 2 to (b), (c), and (d): For railway properties as described in 1.10.1.19.

Design Implications
Flexibility
Any wiring system should have enough flexibility in the feeders, panels, and branch
circuits to handle all reasonably likely configurations, arrangements, and placements of
electric loads. The amount of flexibility that should be included mostly depends on the
type of facility. So, compared to residential, commercial, and fixed-purpose industrial
structures, labs, research facilities, and tiny educational buildings often require much
greater flexibility. As most facilities will develop, it is important to consider planning for
future building and electric service expansion while designing for flexibility.
both in terms of physical and electrical demand.
 Reliability
The reliability of electrical power within a facility is determined by the incoming utility
service and the building’s electrical system. The service record of the utility should be
studied along with the economic impacts of a power outage to determine whether and to
what extent standby power equipment is justified.

Safety
Although rigid adherence to the requirements of the NEC and other applicable NFPA
codes ensures an initially safe electrical installation, the designer must be alert to the
potential for electric hazards caused by misuse or abuse of equipment or by equipment
failure. Also, attention to the physical size of equipment during design can eliminate the
often‐encountered hazards caused by obstruction of access spaces, passages, closets,
and surfaces with electric equipment. Finally, lightning protection should also be
considered under the heading of safety;

Economic Considerations
This area of concern can readily be divided into two frequently interrelated items: first
cost and life‐cycle cost. All other factors being equal, the first cost depends primarily
upon whether an owner is interested in the minimum first cost or the minimum overall
ownership cost. These two costs frequently stand in inverse relationship to one another.

Energy Considerations
These concerns are complex, involving consideration of energy codes and budgets,
energy conservation and energy efficiency techniques, and energy control approaches.
Buildings designed under a number of scenarios may be effectively subject to energy
budget limitations (expressed in Btu/ft2/yr [kWh/m2 per year]). Although the lion’s share
of this budget is taken by heating/cooling and lighting systems, the electrical distribution
system is also subject to limits in some codes/standards.

Space Allocations
The general impression that electrical equipment is small and easily concealed is
accurate only for wire and conduit. Panels, motor control centers, bus duct, distribution
centers, switchboards, transformers, and so on can be large, bulky, noisy, and highly
sensitive to tampering and vandalism. Thus, space allocations must be concerned with
ease of maintenance, ventilation potential, expandability, centrality (to limit the length of
distribution runs), limiting access to authorized personnel, and noise control, in addition
to the fundamental consideration of space adequacy.

Legal Factors - ROLDAN

In electrical systems, there are several architectural considerations that need to be taken into
account, including legal factors. These factors ensure that the electrical system is safe, reliable,
and in compliance with local and national regulations.
Electrical safety standards

Electrical safety standards specify the requirements for the design, installation, and
maintenance of electrical systems to ensure their safe operation. Compliance with these
standards is essential to prevent electrical shocks, fires, and other hazards. Electrical safety
standards are guidelines and requirements that are established to ensure the safety of electrical
systems and equipment. These standards provide a framework for the design, installation, and
maintenance of electrical systems to prevent electrical hazards and accidents, such as electric
shocks, burns, and fires. Compliance with these standards is essential to protect people and
property from electrical hazards and to ensure the safe and reliable operation of electrical
systems.

Environmental regulations

Environmental regulations specify the requirements for the disposal of electrical equipment and
hazardous materials. Compliance with these regulations is important to protect the environment
and ensure that electrical waste is disposed of safely. Electrical systems can have a significant
impact on the environment, both during their operation and at the end of their useful life.
Environmental regulations help mitigate these impacts by setting standards and requirements
for the use, disposal, and recycling of electrical equipment and materials.

Intellectual Property Laws

Intellectual property laws protect the rights of designers and manufacturers of electrical
equipment. These laws cover aspects such as patents, trademarks, and copyrights. Intellectual
property laws provide legal protection for inventions, designs, and creative works. The following
are some of the key aspects of intellectual property laws in electrical systems:

● Patents
● Copyrights
● Trademarks

Contractual obligations

Contractual obligations specify the responsibilities of parties involved in the design,

installation, and maintenance of electrical systems. These obligations may include
warranties, guarantees, and service agreements. Contractual obligations are also an
important legal consideration in electrical systems. Contracts can be used to establish
the terms and conditions of the relationship between parties involved in the design,
manufacture, and installation of electrical systems.

Structural Factors
Structural factors are important architectural considerations in electrical systems as they can
affect the safety, reliability, and performance of the system. Structural factors refer to the
physical components and materials used in the construction of the electrical system, including
the electrical panels, enclosures, wiring, and supports.

Material selection

The selection of materials for electrical components must consider their mechanical,
electrical, and environmental properties. The materials must be able to withstand the
expected mechanical and environmental stresses and provide the required electrical
performance. Choosing the right materials is essential for electrical wiring as they must
be able to withstand the expected mechanical, electrical, and environmental stresses.
The materials selected should have good electrical conductivity, be able to withstand
the required voltage and current, and have excellent mechanical and thermal properties.
For instance, copper is a common choice for wiring as it is a good conductor of
electricity, has a high melting point, and is easy to work with.

Wiring and conduit

The wiring must be properly sized to ensure it can carry the required electrical current without
overheating, which can lead to fire hazards. The wiring should also be installed in a neat and
organized manner to facilitate easy troubleshooting and maintenance. Conduit is used to
provide mechanical protection and prevent damage from environmental factors such as
moisture, dust, and temperature extremes. Proper installation of wiring and conduit is essential
to ensure the safe and reliable operation of the electrical system.

Supports and mounting

The supports and mounting structures must be designed to provide adequate strength and
stability for the electrical components. The supports must be able to withstand the weight of the
components and any external forces, such as wind or earthquakes.

Accessibility and maintenance

Electrical components must be easily accessible for inspection, testing, and repair.
Proper labeling and documentation of the wiring and components can help facilitate
easy identification and maintenance. Routine inspections and maintenance can help
identify potential issues before they become major problems, ensuring the safe and
reliable operation of the electrical system.
Sample Projects/Best Practices -Czarina, Eunice

SAMPLE PROJECTS
1. ISLAND COVE SUBSTATION

To support the industrial expansion and growing energy demand of communities

in Kawit, Cavite, Meralco has begun the development of a new substation. Solutions
provider FOIVC and the key officials from Meralco had an agreement to construct a
Gas-Insulated Switchgear (GIS) substation on a 2,377-square meter land bank in Island
Cove that will house three transformer banks, each with a capacity of 83 megavolt
amperes (MVA), for a total capacity of 249 MVA.

Gas-Insulated Switchgear (GIS) is a composite device enclosed in a solid metal

frame houses various electrical appliances such as circuit breakers. It is to switch,
separate, transform, measure, and distribute electrical energy in power systems.

The project will address the whole power condition of the island and enhance the
voltage regulation that will ensure working switching flexibility when needed. In addition,
it will accommodate new load applications and lessen the critically loaded circuits in the
area.

2. VERMOSA ESTATE SUBSTATION

 To guarantee an effective contribution of electrical service within the Vermosa
estate in Imus, Cavite, the Ayala Land, Inc., has begun to construct a 115 kV-34.5 kV
substation within 725 hectares of land of mixed-use development. It will accommodate
three (3) transformer banks.

A transformer bank is connected via secondary mains, which are powered by a

similar primary feeder. It provides enhanced average voltage across the secondary lines,
requires minimal capacity, lowers lamp flicker, and is more adaptive to load expansion.

Each bank can generate a power of eighty-three (83) megavolt amperes or

MVA or a joint size of 249 MVA. This will allow the substation to hold further load
applications in the specified location, resulting in a stable electricity flow for the residents
in all residential, commercial, and industrial structures. In addition, this can also ensure
flexibility in practical switching whenever emergencies occur and better voltage
management for some of its locators.

BEST PRACTICES
1. Employee Training
Training is a critical component of any electrical safety program. Employees at all
levels, from licensed electricians to entry-level workers, must receive training to educate
them on risk and exposure and how to avoid on-the-job injury.
2. Electrical Safe Work Practices
It is required for employers and is frequently the focal point of an electrical safety
program to prevent shock or injuries from contact (direct or indirect) with electrically
charged equipment or circuits. The program's practices and procedures must be
communicated to the workforce.

3. Damaged Equipment
Inspecting electrical equipment regularly, including extension cords, power bars,
and electrical fittings, is critical. Equipment should be inspected before use as part of a
routine preventative maintenance program. An example is if a cord has an exposed wire
or a missing prong, notify the customer that it needs to be replaced.

4. Lockout/Tagout (LOTO)
The LOTO process employs equipment to control hazardous energy sources to a
piece of equipment being worked on or removed from service. It assists in keeping
personnel safe from electrical hazards by providing a system (locks and tags) that
communicates the presence of electrical hazards. These devices should warn affected
employees working in the area.

5. Safety Signage & Labeling

Hazard communication is critical in preventing employees from approaching a
potentially hazardous situation. Employees should be trained to recognize and obey
safety signage (including symbols), identify hazards, and establish safe boundary limits,
among other things. A company's electrical safety program must include electrical
conductors and equipment labelings, such as electrical cabinets and voltage lines.

6. Arc Flash Awareness

Suppose there is an electrical breakdown among conductors and a high-voltage
gap. In that case, the outcome is an arc flash, which is a rapid discharge of electrical
energy in the air. It produces thermal heat radiation and a blazing, powerful light, causing
burns and other types of injuries. An arc flash can occur accidentally by merging
electrical connections with a conducting material, or it might happen unpredictably. Other
contributing factors include rust, dropped tools, and conductive dust accumulation.
It is essential to be aware of an arc flash because its pressure burst can hit and
penetrate a person's body since high-voltage arcs can create pressure waves through
rapid air heat that results in a blast.

7. De-energizing
The threat of harm and death significantly increases when operating on electrical
components. De-energizing the handled equipment is an efficient strategy to avoid
electrical accidents and fatalities. It is essential to be precautionary in disconnecting
power supplies or machinery as soon as possible and take measures to maintain the
workplace safe.
 8. Proper Safety Equipment
Employees may encounter circumstances where they might be at risk from
hidden electrical threats, especially when they are not fully protected in case there is a
sudden electric arc, flash fire, or proximity to charged equipment. That is why wearing
personal protective equipment is crucial since ordinary work clothing can still ignite and
continuously burn.
Examples are gloves, hard hats, goggles, flame-resistant shirts and pants, safety
shoes, fall protection equipment, safety glasses, and more. This equipment should also
be maintained and adequately worn as the outmost layer and should be suitable for the
hazard.

9. Beware of Standing Water

Standing water may produce an unsafe environment in areas that are typically
wet, such as the kitchen, laundry rooms, and bathrooms. With this, it is critical to
consider and ensure that exits are situated above the surface of the water level. The
potential of electric shock is avoided in this manner.

10. Scheduling Maintenance Regularly

The fundamental key to an effective and secured electrical system is regular
maintenance; thus, it is crucial to consistently schedule electrical maintenance. This
procedure covers a careful assessment of the system, tests running, and repair. If
maintenance is disregarded, there is a potentially significant increase in the danger of
electrical shocks and other problems.

Issues, challenges, latest trend, others (?) - Jewel, Samantha

1. Transients [Surges]
Transients, which are commonly known as surges, are the lighting-fast striking of light. These
are caused by high-voltage disruptions in the flow of electricity. Transients can damage any
electronic devices that are connected at the moment.

2. No RCCB or RCD
An RCCB (Residual Current Circuit Breaker) or RCD (Residual Current Device) is a separate
device used for detecting and preventing low voltage circuit if there is a current leak. The device
will automatically turn off the switch if it detects a leakage while the current is flowing
abnormally.
It is a must to have an RCCB device at home because it reduces the chances of electrical
shocks.

3. Circuit Breaker Keeps Tripping

If your circuit breaker keeps on tripping, chances are they have detected some issues in the
current circuit.
That is where they get the name ‘circuit breakers’ because they break up circuits when they
sense that there is something wrong with the flow of current.
 4. Frequent Bulb Burnouts
There are a lot of reasons why bulb lights burn out much frequently. It can be due to high
voltage, tightly fixed bulb, improper air circulation, and so on.
5. Wires Sticking Out from Outlets
When houses are old, everything in it also becomes aged, including wires. Wires fall off from
outlets because they are excess wires or due to inefficient wiring. This can also happen in any
other building, not just old houses.
If the wires are taped securely, it reduces potential damages. Still, you cannot totally rely on the
temporary protection of tapes because when it loses its adhesiveness, as it will peel off.
Therefore, it brings forth again the chances of a fire; especially if the socket is combustible.

6. Backstabbed Outlets/Wires
Backstabbed outlets/wires are simply wires that have cuts or holes on them, hence, exposing
live wires which makes electrocution possible when in direct contact with them. It also means
that the wires are shoved into small openings in the back of the outlet, instead of being
properly secured by screws.

7. No GFCIs
A GFCI which is also known as a ground fault circuit interrupter is another device that prevents
electric shocks. It detects human contact with electricity and shuts down the power immediately.
Without this device, there is a high chance of electrocution.
At home, it is safe for kids whenever they loiter around when you’re not around to keep a watch
on them.

8. Aluminum Wiring
In the past, aluminum wiring was very common but ever since it became the cause of many
house fires, copper wires are widely used in the present day.
The reason aluminum wires are not preferable today is that aluminum as a metal is more
susceptible to oxidation when conducting electricity. As such, if it comes in contact with wood,
plastic or other combustible materials, it poses a high risk of an electrical fire.

9. Ungrounded Outlets
Ungrounded connections are ones which do not have a grounding electrical system as an
added failsafe. What grounding does is provide a pathway to excess electricity in the event of a
problem with the wiring, such as a short circuit.
In the event a grounding pathway is unavailable, the excess current may flow through other
materials such as wood, metal or other materials.
Additionally, many electric appliances also have a grounding pin on their plugs, to prevent users
from shock or electrocution in the event of a malfunction in the appliance. Not having a ground
connection poses a risk to your appliances as well as someone using them.

Solution
The workaround to such hazards is having a grounding connection and wiring installed by
professionals across your home so that every outlet you use, comes with the added safety of a
grounded connection ensuring all-round safety for your home, your appliances, and your loved
ones.

10. Sags and Dips

What causes sags and dips in power?
The reason lies in the devices you use. Sags and dips are very similar to transients/surges. The
difference is that when you use cheap or underrated power grids and you turn on your switch, it
draws more power than what the device can handle. Hence, that causes sags and dips.
If the problem persists, it is likely because your power controlling device has gone outdated or is
worn out.
Solution
If you wish to experience improved lighting or power use, you can have your power checked
and your old device replaced with a new one.

11. Dysfunctional Switches

If you find that your dimming or ON/OFF switches are not functioning as you expect them to,
there is a chance that the switch may have been overridden. Another cause might be because
of improper wiring and circuit faults. It also can be as simple as the switch getting damaged
because it is old.
Solution
Talk with an electrician to see what the problem is and get the dysfunctional switch replaced
with a new one so you won’t have to face any issue afterward.

12. Getting High Electricity Bills

Are your electricity bills rising even when you consumed lesser power than it should be?
There are a lot of causes that make your bills go up. Few of those are:
● Wiring and circuit in your house may have been damaged
● Your power supplier might not be cost-effective
● Outdated electrical devices in your home that consume more power
● Leakage in electrical systems
The best thing that you can do from your side is to keep a check on how you utilize electricity.
Sometimes, we can forget to turn off electrical appliances after use. This is another main reason
why your electricity bills are rising.
Solution
To ensure that your bills drop down, you can economize electricity usage in your home.
If that is still not helping, consult with professionals to see where the problem lies so they can
suggest to you what to do next.

13. Lighting is either too bright or too dim

When you notice that some lights burn brighter while some seem to be too dim, then you are
experiencing either one of the two problems:
First, it can simply be because some bulbs consume different wattage of power.
Second is that the main power panel is having technical problems
Solution
Check or ask whether the bulbs you use are of the same wattage or not.
In case they are and you still experience either too bright or too dim lighting, you can ask a
professional to get it fixed.

14. Uncovered Junction Box

Junction boxes are made to separate one section of wires from another. They also protect the
wires from external forces that can damage them.
In large buildings, the use of junction boxes is extremely important. This is because when there
is an electrical problem occurring in one part of a building, the wires to that building can easily
be located in the junction box.
If your junction box is not covered, it will become harder to locate which set of wires have
problems. Moreover, a junction box can prevent chances of electrocution.
Solution
To prevent all the potential problems and damages that an uncovered junction can cause, you
can get it installed/covered by a professional.

15. Over-lamping
Over-lamping is a result of attaching a bulb that has higher wattage to a holder/fixture that
endures lesser wattage.
What happens when you fit a much higher wattage bulb to it? The socket will heat up (during
prolonged usage) and eventually burn out, leading to damage, expenses, and dangers at times.
Solution
In order to avoid the risks of scorching and potential house fires, make sure you fit a bulb that is
required to stay within a wattage limit. If you are not sure, you can inquire about bulb wattage
first. Another action you can take is to get your sockets changed if you need brighter and better
lighting.

16. Electrical Shocks

At some point in your life, you may have got a taste of what electrical shocks feel like – be it for
a split second static shock. And yes, an electrical shock is an unpleasant experience that
nobody wants to encounter.
There are innumerable causes that people will encounter electrical shocks. But if we speak from
an electrical point of view, it can be because of backstabbed wires, fault on appliances, power
leakage, and so on.
Solution
If you want to know what causes electric shocks in your home and appliances, it is crucial to
have it tested by an electrician. It can become highly risky when you test it by yourself without
knowing the root cause of it.

LATEST TREND
SMART GRID TECHNOLOGY
A smart grid is a modern electric grid with a two-way flow of electricity and data between power
utilities and consumers. Unlike a conventional electric grid, a smart grid is a digital
technology-based electricity network driven by automation, communication and connectivity.

The rise of the smart grid is due to its potential to improve grid resilience, energy independence,
and reliability, among other factors. It is a vital component of the global energy transition
because a smart grid helps in providing clean energy and sustaining long-term economic growth
while enabling us to achieve our carbon emission reduction goals.

A smart grid uses smart metering to identify, measure and transmit the energy consumption
details of homes, businesses, etc. Enabling direct communication with a utility company
eliminates the practice of estimated bills. It connects every component of the electricity grid
across various stages-from power generation, transmission, storage, and distribution to
electricity consumption. Integrating each device on a plug and play basis creates an integrated
data and energy grid.

Additional Benefits of a Smart grid

Detect fraud and electrical network faults early for incident prevention
Enable utilities to regulate electricity usage and lower operating costs
Increase the safety of grid staff and suppliers
Initiate a timely demand response
Prevent electricity theft through meter tampering
Reduce pollutant emissions such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
 SIGNAL & COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Definitions & Basic Concepts

● Communication refers to the exchange of information between two points. The

transmitter, the medium, and the receiver, who will receive the information on the
other end, are the three essential components required for communication.
- Transmitters generate radio frequencies in order to send data.
- A medium in communication is a system or channel through which radio
waves from a transmitter and receiver pass through.
● A receiver is a device that receives the signals sent/ transmitted by the senders
and decodes them into a form that is understandable by humans.
● Signal equipment - includes all communication and control devices whose
purpose is to help ensure proper building functioning. These include:
➔ Surveillance equipment - fire and access control
➔ Audio and visual communication equipment - telephone, intercom, and
television
➔ Timing devices - clock and program equipment (all types that have
time-based controls)

Signal equipment is usually accustomed to:

- hospitals and health care facilities,
- retirement villages,
- large office buildings,
- hotels and residential apartments,
- stadiums and convention centers,
- education facilities and university campuses, and
- airports and transport hubs such as railway stations.

● Clock and program equipment - usually incorporated in schools/institutions and

several industrial facilities; however, it is now integrated into building mechanical
equipment control systems.
● Communication Systems is a system model that describes a communication
exchange between two stations, transmitter and receiver.
● Information Systems - According to Davis and Davidson (2020 Vision, 1991) all
information can be expressed by one or more forms and functions. There are four
forms and four functions:

Forms
• Data numbers, quantitative values
• Text written language
• Sound voice, signal, or music
• Image video, motion, or still

1
 Functions
• Generation creating information in various forms
• Processing editing, calculating, analyzing, synthesizing, expanding,

interpolating or extrapolating information

• Storage keeping, filing, or memorizing information for retrieval
• Transmission sending, or receiving information

● Comparison of How Communication Systems Work Between Telephone and

People
➔ People
1. Information or signals go across a channel from source to destination.
It illustrates how the signal employs it as it travels from a source to its
destination.
2. Signals are then processed before being transmitted in a
communication system. This processing should start with signal
representation and continue through signal shaping, encoding, and
modulation.
3. The prepared sent signal is then passed to the channel's transmission
line. This medium's limitations on signal transmission include noise,
attenuation, and distortion.

➔ Telephone
1. A telephone system generates and transmits sound.
2. A phone with an answering machine generates, transmits, and stores
sound.
3. A phone with fax also stores text and transmits data, text, and images.

2
 4. A desktop videoconferencing with an answer and a fax machine add
images to its form and function.
5. A computer-phone interface adds processing capability.
6. The networking of computers and telecommunications can perform all
forms and functions.
7. The ultimate information systems will increase in intelligence until they
may supersede that of human beings.

Wireless and Wired Communication Systems

Wireless Communication System

- In order to communicate from one point to another, wireless communication

systems use radio waves, electromagnetic waves, and infrared waves, whereas wired
communication systems use wire and optical fiber that utilizes the phenomena of total
internal reflection.

Wired Communication System

- Any data transfer that takes place over a wired link is referred to as wired
communications. Ethernet, fiber-optic cable for phones and other applications, cable for
television and Internet systems, the public switched telephone network (PSTN), and
CAN (Controller Area Network) systems in automobiles are examples of wired
connections. In the era of wireless communications, the reliability and clarity of wired
connections keep the wire relevant.

Types and Classifications

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF AUXILIARY OR INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Several characteristics common to all systems are helpful in planning building systems:

1. Auxiliary systems do not require heavy electrical power. Most auxiliary systems'
power demand is usually less than a few kilowatts. In many, it is as low as a fraction of a
watt.
2. Most auxiliary systems operate on 30 volts or less, either AC or DC. These
systems are frequently described as low-voltage or extra-low-voltage systems. At this
voltage level, wiring may be installed without raceways, although raceways or cable
trays are often used to facilitate installation and avoid tampering.
3. Auxiliary systems do not require a large space for equipment. The required
space is easier to accommodate than that required for electrical power and HVAC
systems. Except for operating consoles and signal devices, equipment may be located

3
anywhere in a building with little effect on overall system performance. Whenever
practical, it is desirable to centralize all equipment in head-end rooms to facilitate
maintenance of the equipment.
4. Manufactured products usually contain proprietary features. It may thus be
desirable to bid these systems as separate packages or on a performance basis.

Types of Communication Systems

1. Telecommunication - a communication system that makes use of electromagnetic

signals to transmit information from one point to another. It can be through wire,
radio, visual, or other electromagnetic systems.
2. Analog transmission - the transmission of a continuously variable signal a- long
both amplitude and frequency, as opposed to a discretely variable one.
3. Digital transmission - the transmission of signal wherein all information to be
transmitted is first converted into digital form and then sent down as streams of
pulses.
4. Internet - the electronic communications network which connects computer
networks and organizational computer facilities around the world.

Types of telephone system

1. Multi-line phone system - this phone system has the ability to wait, hold and
transfer calls so as to host conference calls and support voicemail. It relies on a
landline phone network that are less flexible and portable and solving this issue
can be costly.
2. PBX - pbx or private branch exchange is a private phone network that has all the
features of a multi-line and more. It makes use of pure voice control and
switching technologies to operate a voice isolated network of 40 or more
terminals.
3. VOIP - voip or voice over internet protocol is a phone service that works because
of the internet and can either be used over virtual or physical interfaces. It is a set
of instructions that treat an online transaction for it to send and receive a voice
transaction over public and proprietary internet services.
4. ISDN - isdn or integrated services digital network is a system that utilizes data
lines to simultaneously transfer video, voice, and data.
5. PABX- pabx or private automated branch exchange is similar to the pbx system,
but this allows the users to select which lines are outbound and these are
designed for larger voice networks.
6. IPPBX - ippbx or internet protocol private branch exchange isa hybrid set up that
is inspired by the pbx systems. It runs on an ethernet network using data
standards to encrypt the voice communication along with data protocols.
7. Key system - this system is the cheaper alternative for the pbx systems which
works well with up to 40 users on the network. These are normally programmed
by the users due to the lack of universal support.

4
CLASSIFICATION OF AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
There are two major groups of auxiliary systems:

1. Communication systems
● Audio public address, intercom, music, radio, etc.
● Video TV, CCTV, SATV, etc.
● Telephone public-private exchanges (PAX, PBX), etc.
● Data modem, local area network, wide area network, etc.
● Signals time, program, signals, etc.
● Multimedia combination of audio/video/telephone and data, such as
video-conferencing and distance learning systems.

2. Building operational systems

● Safety fire alarm, sprinkler alarm, emergency evacuation, etc.
● Security access control, intrusion detection, etc.
● Automation BAS, BMS, BMAS, etc.
● Specialty sound masking and systems unique for special building
occupancies such as hospitals, defense, retail stores, food services,
theatrical, etc.

Functional Aspects of BAS

5
 Characteristic Impedance

Most telecommunication systems operate at much higher frequencies than do power

systems. Power systems operate at 60 to 400 Hz, whereas telecommunication systems
operate in the kilohertz (103), megahertz (106) or gigahertz (109) ranges. At these high
frequencies, it is extremely important to match the impedance of the transmission wiring
to that of the terminal equipment to minimize the loss or attenuation of the signal. The
term characteristic impedance is used to express the performance characteristics of the
wires. It relates more to frequency than length. Typical impedances of low-voltage wires
for high-frequency telecommunication systems are rated between 50 and 300 ohms.

Transmission Capacity

- The transmission capacity of a medium is measured differently for different types of

signals.
➔ Analog signals are continuous waves. Telephone and TV signals are typically of
this variety.
➢ The transmission of an analog signal is measured by the bandwidth of the
signal, in hertz. The bandwidth may be defined as the highest frequency
that can be transmitted in a given medium without excessive attenuation.
Typically, the upper limit is specified as the point at which the signal’s
strength has dropped by 3 dB. The wider the bandwidth, the higher the
frequency a medium can serve.
➔ Digital signals are separate on-off pulses. Data, telephone, and computer
signals are transmitted in digital format.
➢ The speed of transmission of digital signals is measured in bits, megabits,
or gigabits per second. It should be obvious that a
100-megabit-per-second (MB/S) wiring system can carry as much
information as a ten 10-MB/S system. The one drawback of digital
transmission is the increased bandwidth required to transmit digital pulses
compared with the bandwidth required for equivalent analog signals. A
major advantage of digital transmission is the fidelity of the generated
signal, which is relatively independent of the distance over which the
signal is transmitted.
- Analog and digital signals can be converted from one to the other. For example, the
telephone network converts analog signals (the voice from the telephone handset) into
digital signals for long-distance transmission and then converts the signal back to analog
form on the other end.
- For a telephone system containing signals up to 4000 Hz (4 kHz), scanning (or
sampling) is made at twice the frequency (8000 times per second). With a seven-bit
code that contains the values from 0 to 127, the result is a very realistic reproduction of
the voice waveform. With 8000 samples per second and a seven-bit-per-second digital
rate, the speed of data transmission is 7 x 8000, or 56,000 bits per second. For

6
 high-fidelity speech or music, the sampling rate is usually four times faster, or 32,000
samples per second and 224,000 bits per second. (See Figure 12-2 (b) for a graphic
illustration of analog and digital signals.)
- There is no precise equivalence between the digital and the analog transmission
capacity of a medium. An approximate equivalency exists between 10,000 bits per
second of digital capacity and 10 MHz analog capacity.

Receiver/Transmitter for Building Services

- A satellite receiver/transmitter installed for building services is called VSAT which stands
for Very Small Aperture Transceiver. Transceiver is a combination of transmitter and
receiver.
- A VSAT ranges from 1 m up to 10 m in diameter. The size required depends on the
altitude and longitude of the building and the satellites. With the advance of technology,
antenna dishes have diminished drastically in size in recent years. Smaller antenna
terminals with more powerful amplifiers are being developed. The diameter ranges from
about 1 ft for ultra SAT (USAT) to less than 1 ft for tiny SAT (TSAT). Associated with the
reduction in size are an increase in frequency and transmission speed and a narrowing
of the beam pattern.

Types of Distribution Systems

● Local Area Network - a system that connects computers and peripheral equipment within
a building or within several nearby buildings for the purpose of sharing resources. A LAN
system is practical within several thousand feet. Thus it is applicable to campus-type
facilities, such as universities, corporate headquarters, and industrial complexes.
● Wide Area Network - is defined as a data communication network that uses common
carriers lines to extend a LAN beyond the building or campus its serves. WANs typically
transmit over phone lines, microwave towers, and satellites without limitation.
● Wireless LANs - Data and A/V signals may be transmitted through a wireless network,
which usually operates on infrared or radio frequencies. This type of technology can
transmit information at relatively high speeds, but a clear line of sight is needed between
the receiving and transmitting devices.
- Its major advantage is flexibility: systems can be expanded without prewiring. It is
usually more costly initially but may be less expensive in the long run. Wireless
LANs are limited to smaller systems.
- Another disadvantage of wireless LANs is the possibility of external interference
with the signal. The infrared system is susceptible to interference from light
sources, from the radio frequency, and from electromagnetic sources.

Architectural Considerations

Wiring for telephone systems need not be installed in raceways. However, for security and
aesthetic reasons, all wiring within finished spaces should be concealed. Receptacles should be

7
provided within the telephone closets for equipment. Telephone trunk lines should be terminated
in strips in boxes or in telephone closets for splicing and distribution. For preliminary purposes,
one linear foot of wall or closet space is allowed for each 3000 sq ft of finished floor space.

Building Laws/Design Implications

1. Electrical Closets. location should be such that they are no more than 45m apart. (150
feet) away from all occupied spaces. thin, secondary Closets off of main corridors could
be utilized for panelboards for receptacles where the spacing between The riser and the
furthest workstation are over 45,000 feet apart.
2. Communications Closets. The EIA/TIA Standard 569: Commercial Building Standard
For Telecommunications Routes And Spaces must be complied with while designing
communications closets. Featuring an additional closet for every 930 m2 on each floor;
vertically stacked closets must be put in such a way that wire runs don't go beyond 90
meters (300 feet).
3. Planning Grid, Floor Grid and Ceiling Grid. Building interiors must be integrated using
planning grids to provide for more future serviceability.
4. Horizontal Distribution of Power and Communications. Raised access flooring must
be installed in new construction. Directly on the slab, exposed communication wires can
be arranged in rows 3600 mm (12 feet) apart.
5. Vertical Distribution. Risers for normal power, emergency power, and communications
should be coupled with other essential components to form small groups and maximize
usable floor space. The riser size and quantity will rely on the systems selected, but
future adaptability should also be a key consideration in the vertical architecture.

Sec 302. Chapter 10 Application Permits

a. General layout plans with legends

b. Single line diagram
c. Riser diagram
d. Isometry of the system
e. Equipment specifications
f. Design analysis, as applicable
g. Cost estimates

Guidelines on Easements, View Corridors/Sight Lines, Streets/RROW

● Permanent utility/service lines (power, water, telecommunications, gas, etc.) are allowed
within the easement provided that these are either below grade (underground) or above
grade (overhead).
● Public utility/service structures/uses (power, water, drainage, sewerage,
telecommunications, gas, etc.) at all physical levels of the RROW provided that these do
not restrict nor impede the movement of people and vehicles and provided further that
the rights to utilize the RROW are properly secured and permitted.

8
Design Implications

● Equipment Spaces - All equipment spaces must be designed to control noise

transmission to adjacent spaces. Floating isolation floors are recommended for all major
mechanical rooms.
● Appropriate Levels Of Speech Privacy - Professional staff members whose position
requires extended periods of concentration require normal speech privacy, where the
content of conversation in adjacent spaces cannot be overheard without making an
effort, providing freedom from distraction.
● Appropriate levels of background sound - Continuous background sound in offices is
mostly generated by heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment.

Legal, Structural, Electrical Factors

● Legal
- all residences, both single and multiple, should be provided with the cabling
and/or raceway system that is the backbone of any automation system.
- Sec 708. Minimum Requirements for Group A Dwellings
- Sec 1302. Mechanical Regulations
● Structural.
- Proper space allocation for communication equipment and utilities that flexibly
and thoroughly supports the distribution of electrical and communications
systems.
● Electrical.
- Vertically stacked electrical and communication closets. Vertical risers for
communications should be aligned throughout the building to minimize conduit
bends and additional cabling.
- Grouped Pathways for power, data and telephone cables are separated into
channels for each system.
- The placement of outlets in walls or in the partitions of systems furniture should
be avoided because of the difficulty it creates for future reconfiguration of the
(office) space.
- Flat conductors, poke-through and/or power poles shall not be used in new
construction.

Equipments/Components

Types Of Equipment For Telephone

● Landline- A landline is a telephone that transmits signals converted from audio

data through physical media, such as wire or fiber optic cable, rather than
through wireless transmission as is the case with mobile phones
● Mobile Networks - A cellular network, also known as a mobile network, is a type
of telecommunications network in which the connectivity between end nodes is

9
 wireless and the network is dispersed over land regions known as cells, each of
which is supplied by at least one fixed location transceiver.

Types Of Equipment For Television

● Closed-Circuit Television- Closed-circuit television (CCTV) is a wired

self-contained television system. Although it is widely used in security
applications, it is also used in industrial process controls, business promotion,
sports training, traffic controls, experimentation, data filing, etc.

- A basic CCTV system consists of an electronic camera that converts an

optical image into analog signals, a transmission medium (usually coaxial
cables or fiber optic), and a monitor to convert the signal back to an
image. The signal is stored on tape or compact disk through a
videorecorder, multiplexer, or video printer. The system may be expanded
into a multiple camera, monitor, and recorder system.

Types Of Equipment For Radio

● Portable Radio - Portable radios are compact, lightweight, portable wireless

communication equipment that include both a transmitter and a receiver, a built-in
microphone and speaker, a power supply (usually a rechargeable battery), and
an antenna.
● Mobile Radio - Mobile radios are larger than portable radios and are intended to
be permanently installed inside a vehicle. Mobile radios, like portable radios,
have a transmitter and a receiver, as well as an internal speaker. Mobile radios,
on the other hand, link to the vehicle's power source, allowing them to have a
larger transmitter output power (usually 5 W to 50 W) and an external antenna.
● Repeater- A repeater is a type of radio that includes both a receiver and a
transmitter. Repeaters are used to enhance the effective communications
coverage area for radios that would otherwise be unable to connect with one
another.

Types Of Equipment For Sound

● Microphones - A microphone is a device that converts airborne sound waves

into electrical signals and records them to a recording media or through a
loudspeaker. Microphones enable a wide range of audio recording devices to be
used for a variety of purposes such as communications, music vocals, speech,
and sound recording.
● Speakers- A computer speaker is a piece of hardware that is connected to a
computer system and is used to generate sound. The signal used to create
sound from a computer speaker is stored on the computer's sound card.

10
 ● Amplifiers - A circuit that uses an external power supply to create an output
signal that is a bigger reproduction of its input is known as an electrical or
electronic amplifier. An audio amplifier is used to boost the level of a speaker's
voice so that it may be heard more readily in huge crowds.
● Acoustic Detectors - When the sound pressure level reaches a certain
maximum, these machines emit an alert. Instead, they may be set to respond to
a certain frequency range, such as the sound of broken glass, forcible entrance,
or whatever is needed. Despite their primary use in security systems, they might
can also be utilized as occupancy sensors for lighting control

For Residential:

● Residential Intrusion Alarm Systems - all of the devices described in

residences normally utilize door and window magnetic switches, as well as PIR
and/or motion detectors. A switch at the end of a long cord is also often provided
so that a resident may set off the alarm manually if an intruder is heard. If the
system employs the same audible signal devices as the fire system, the resulting
sound should be distinctive so that the nature of the alarm can be discerned
aurally. Intrusion alarm systems can be continuously supervised by connection
with central stations of security companies that monitor the system and either
respond directly to an alarm call or notify local police of any illegal entry.
● Residential Intercom Systems - Interest in home intercom systems seems to
come and go. Although available with various features, a basic intercom system
comprises one or more masters and several remote stations, one of which
monitors the front door, allowing it to be answered from various points within the
home. Where desired, a closed‐circuit TV system can be added so that visual
identification at entrances, in addition to voice communication, is available.

Sample Projects

1. The Shard, London

The Shard, is the highest finished structure in the United Kingdom. Throughout the
three-year building process, Brentwood Communications assisted developers Mace.
Originally, they provided a trunked digital two-way radio system for building operations.
Finally, near the end of construction, they constructed a permanent communications
infrastructure that would be utilized by security and facilities management personnel in
the finished building.

Coverage throughout the 72-story skyscraper was a serious difficulty. They picked
Motorola MotoTRBO digital phones for their high output, excellent audio quality, and
wide feature set. To assist health and safety requirements, they featured Lone Worker
and Emergency Button capabilities. The display radios also had numerous channels, so
specific channels for security and emergency calls could be assigned. They also added
repeater units and a digital antenna system to boost coverage throughout the massive

11
 edifice (DAS). To avoid interference from other two-way radio networks in the vicinity, all
equipment was provided under a Technically Assigned License with its own allocated
spectrum.

2. Space Needle, Seattle

The Space Needle has debuted The VR Bar, a free virtual reality (VR) exhibit that
provides customers with four unique ways to explore Seattle's most famous landmark. In
collaboration with Panogs and Graffix, the Space Needle created a sleek bar that allows
guests to virtually walk the Space Needle's outside Rim, ride a seaplane above Lake
Union, soar above Seattle, and bungee jump from 520 feet in the air. The VR Bar is
included in the price of entry for all tourists who visit the Space Needle's Observation
Deck.

In addition to working with a mechanical engineer to construct the camera drop-system,

Panogs collaborated with an Advance Visuals gimbal design specialist to produce
AutoGimbal, a gimbal particularly designed to steady the cameras during free fall. The
AutoGimbal calculates the amount of motion in the opposite direction by measuring
angular velocity 800 times per second. This allowed the camera to stay compass-locked
during the free fall, with the AutoGimbal entirely absorbing any possible spin and other
movement disturbances.

Graffix, a design and build fabricator of signs and branded environments, created a
one-of-a-kind VR installation for the experiences after the 360-degree movies were
completed. Graffix designed a user experience that was precisely linked with the Space
Needle's identity and mission, while also concentrating on The VR Bar's user interface
and software development.

Best Practices

1. Planning for the telephone and other communications equipment in a building, especially
in buildings such as offices.
- This is done simultaneously with other space planning which makes it important
as considers large amounts and critical locations of required space and accounts
for changes in space usage and increased communication)s and data
transmission
2. Considering user/tenant information in the design of signal and communications
systems.
- Example of house tenant information is their varying schedules and requirements
which affect the type and quantity of systems used.
3. Knowing which type of communication systems are appropriate for the building use.
- An example is a simple wired intercom system for small schools while larger
buildings and correspondingly larger numbers of extensions and
multiple‐function demands requires more sophisticated equipment.

12
 4. Establishing the locations of vertical backbone pathways, horizontal pathways, closets,
equipment rooms and utility entrance facilities for electrical and communications
distribution equipment before finalizing the architectural concept.
- This is done to achieve system flexibility and thorough integration between
building architecture and engineering systems.

Issues and Challenges

Signal
Interference to Communication and Internet
Dead zones
- Distance from the cell tower
- Materials Used in construction.
o Thick walls (e.g. modern buildings with insulation)
o Concrete and Steel
Materials that Disrupt Phone Reception
1. Metal
- #1 cellular blocking material
- Absorb and reflect cellular frequency waves.
2. Tinted Glass
- Reflecting signal
3. Concrete

Noise
With sound equipment present in the area, issues with noise reduction and cancellation are
experienced.
Soundproofing Materials
- Acoustic Panels, Foam, Fabrics, Covering
- Dense Board
o Oriented Strand board, Plywood, particle board, fire board
- Soundproof Floor Underlay
o Fibers treated with heat – Dense sound absorbing materials
- Soundproof Curtains
o Blackout curtains or acoustic Curtains – reduce movement and spread of
soundwaves

Intrusion Detection System (IDS)

- Battery failure
o General batteries having a lifespan of two years.
o Flashing light or warning code for low battery
- Faulty sensor
o Faults can be developed by sensors.
o Due to incorrect installations and no maintenance

13
- Loose cables and connections
o Poor installation
o Can create malfunctions, no charging, no detection.
- Faulty control panel
o Not functioning properly
o Cannot set the alarm or be unresponsive.
- No alarm was heard.
o Not hearing the bell
o Low battery or needing repair.

Current Trends
Evolved Telecommunication
5G Boosts IOT
- Enabling new services and Applications
Artificial Intelligence
- Performing self-repairs, Detecting issues with networks, protecting networks from
fraudulent activities
- Improving decision making and automating your tasks
Cloud Accessibility
- Storing all data and applications
- Reducing expenses in a globalized market (Cost-effective)

Better Security Sensors

Microphones
- Detection capacity hearing sounds that humans can’t hear
- E.g. glass giving out bands of ultrasonic frequencies
Photoelectric Beam
- A space where humans may enter
- Invisible barrier that when broken, triggers a security alarm
Infrared sensors
- Using infrared light in determining movement that triggers an alarm

Audio Systems
Spatial Audio
- 360-degree sound
- Speakers
Paper Thin Loudspeakers
- Minimal distortion with low energy use
- Incredibly lightweight

14
 References

Acoustic Blok. (2020). 30 Types of Soundproofing materials explained. Retrieved from

https://www.acoustiblok.co.uk/soundproofing-materials/

ATL Alarms. (2020). What are the five most common faults with burglar alarms? Retrieved from
https://www.atlalarms.co.uk/news/what-are-the-five-most-common-faults-with-burglar-alarms/

Arrow. (2020). Types of Security Sensors in Modern Security Devices. Retrieved from
https://www.arrow.com/en/research-and-events/articles/five-common-types-of-security-s
ensors-in-modern-security-devices

Ciarlone, J. (2013, May 25). How many types of phone systems are there? The Network
Equipment Solutions Blog. Retrieved March 21, 2023, from
https://info.hummingbirdnetworks.com/blog/bid/292910/how-many-types-of-phone-syste
ms-are-there?fbclid=IwAR3J8boHXDZwCJjFzER_of8OsQO_oAHWoca7k6

EIA/TIA 586, Commercial Building Wiring Standard.

Grondzik, W. T., & Kwok, A. G. (2019). Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings (13th
ed.). Wiley Professional Development (P&T).
https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781119492634

Indeed. (2023, February 4). Communication Mediums: 5 Types (Plus Choosing the Right One).
Indeed.
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-is-medium-in-communi
cation

Placing Electrical Systems and Communications Systems in Buildings. (n.d.). U.S General
Services Administration. Retrieved March 21, 2023, from
https://www.gsa.gov/buy-through-us?topnav=

Tridens Technology. (2022). Latest Telecom Industry Trends in 2023: A Look into the Future.
https://tridenstechnology.com/telecom-industry-trends/

Vedantu. (2023, March 15). What is a Communication System?

https://www.vedantu.com/physics/communication-systems

Wilson Amplifiers. (2022). 11 Major Building Materials that kill your cell phone reception.
Retrieved from
https://www.wilsonamplifiers.com/blog/11-major-building-materials-that-kill-your-cell-phone-rece
ption/

WilsonPro. (n.d.). How to Fix Poor Cell Phone Signal in Office Building. Retrieved from
https://www.wilsonpro.com/blog/i-have-poor-cell-signal-in-my-office-building-how-do-i-fix-it

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Zewe, A. (2022). Researchers develop a paper-thin loudspeaker. Retrieved from
https://news.mit.edu/2022/low-power-thin-loudspeaker-0426

16
 BU REPORT HIGH TECH SYSTEMS

DEFINITIONS / BASIC CONCEPTS

High Tech systems in Architecture

Influenced by engineering and new technology, High Tech is a style that

accentuates a building’s construction.

High Tech was a development in British Modernist architecture from the late 1960s. It
was a concept of design, based on engineering, construction and other aspects, such as the
manipulation of space. High Tech was marked by a preference for lightweight materials and
sheer surfaces, a readiness to adopt new techniques from engineering and other technologies,
and the celebratory display of a building’s construction and services.

Norman Foster and Richard Rogers were the key architects who brought about these
changes and implemented them from the 1970s. High Tech buildings are characterized by
exposed structures (usually of steel and or other metals), with services (pipes, air ducts, lifts
etc.) often picked out in bright colours, a smooth, impervious skin (often of glass) and a flexibility
to create internal service zones, rather than rooms or sequences of rooms.

Technology Systems - means the electronic data processing, information, record keeping,
communications, telecommunications, hardware, third-party software, networks, peripherals,
portfolio trading and computer systems, including any outsourced systems and processes, and
Intellectual Property used by the Company.

Technology - means all technology, designs, formulae, algorithms, procedures, methods,

discoveries, processes, techniques, ideas, know-how, research and development, technical
data, tools, materials, specifications, processes, inventions (whether patentable or unpatentable
and whether or not reduced to practice), apparatus, creations, improvements, works of
authorship in any media, confidential, proprietary or nonpublic information, and other similar
materials, and all recordings, graphs, drawings, reports, analyses and other writings, and other
tangible embodiments of the foregoing in any form whether or not listed herein, in each case,
other than Software.
Customer Technology - means the proprietary technology of Customer and its licensors,
including Customer's Internet operations design, software tools, hardware designs,
algorithms, software (in source and object forms), user interface designs, architecture,
class libraries, objects and documentation (both printed and electronic), know-how, trade
secrets and any related intellectual property rights throughout the world and also including
any derivatives, improvements, enhancements or extensions of Customer Technology

Smart Building Technology - involves the installation and use of advanced and integrated
building technology systems. Smart Buildings operate on Internet of Things (IoT),
connecting through a common Internet Protocol (IP) platform to exchange and analyze
information, optimizing each device's controls automatically.

Brief information of character

Building design influenced by Late Modernism integrates elements of high-tech with

technological advances. Buildings that were once considered high-tech now appear more
antiquated. It now has an antiquated sense because its concepts are commonplace in our
lives. Industrial understanding has improved, and high-tech today appears to be more about
digitalization than about physical structures.

Late Modernism, or Structural Expressionism, incorporates elements of high-tech industry

and technology into building design

High-tech systems are beneficial not only for the users but as it unfolds also serve
beneficial purposes for the building itself as they greatly help in the maintenance and
structural property.

Characteristics

Derivation of technology and architecture

● Every advancement had its own precursor; the evolution of technology paved the way
for the development of architecture, as integration played a huge part in the
advancement of the way of living.
Uses pre-fabricated materials
● They include the usefulness of pre-fabricated pieces and the prominent exhibition of
the building's technological and functional features.
Accentuated technical elements.
● In the past, the exterior and interior of the building show the skeletal structure of the
building.
● Boomed during the industrial revolution, a link between Modernism and
postmodernism, which utilized newly developed materials. Particularly glass and
steel
Technology is the main attribute.
● A building that emphasizes technology in order to maximize and highlight its
advancement.

TYPES/ CLASSIFICATIONS

● OFF-SITE AUTOMATED PREFABRICATION SYSTEMS

- Category that includes various technologies that produce building
components at off-site locations in un automated manner.
- Main objective was to improve quality of prefabricated materials and took
inspiration from use of robots in other manufacturing sectors
- Building component manufacturing (BCM) to transform materials (concreto.
wood, bricks, steel, etc.) to high level building components
- Additive Mamilacturing Teemiques 3D printing
● ON-SITE AUTOMATED AND ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
- Includes automated and robotic systems directly used at the construction site.
- Single Task Construction Robots or SCTR - can execute a single task in a
repetitive manner.
- Example: robotic arms used in automotive manufacturing, usually mounted in
movable platforms and used on site to perform simple tasks.
● DRONES AND AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
- Includes terrestrial, aerial or nautical vehicles that can be piloted remotely, or
which are autonomous (no conductor is required).
- Used for various tasks like: Accessing extreme and dangerous environments,
Surveying and monitoring tasks, Automated excavating, demolition and
transportation of materials.
- Drones can be used to sample extreme environments and to shady harsh
and unreachable sites
● EXOSKELETONS
 - Exoskeletons are wearable devices that work together with user as opposed
to a robot which performs the tasks autonomously instead of the worker. They
are mechanical devices used to amplify human performance.
- Help construction workers reduce the high-impact of job and improve
productivity by allowing them to life heavy loads, reduce fatigue and injuries
to maintain a healthier workforce.
- Can enable those part of the ageing workforce. (allows older workers to carry
out physically demanding tasks

EQUIPMENT / COMPONENTS

1. SENSORS (INPUT DEVICE)

● Measures and collects parameters from both inside and outside the building such as
temperature, lighting (both natural and artificial), occupant location, smoke and humidity.
● Can also measure the quality and efficiency of heating, ventilation, water supply, and air
conditioning systems whether they need to be repaired or replaced and weighs the costs
of upgrading to new models or keeping the inefficient one.
● Can be used as a safety measure by helping to anticipate power outages that stop
appliances from short circuiting.
● After measuring and collecting, the sensors transmit the data to the controller.

2. CONTROLLERS

● The “Brain” of the system which decides how to monitor and carry out the necessary
actions by sending a command to mechanical and electrical equipment to meet the
requirements detected by the sensor.
● Typically contains software used to control output devices to maintain humidity, pressure,
temperature, etc. at a desired setpoint. This software can also set the on/off time based
on the time-of-day and day-of-week to operate only when needed.

3. CONNECTIVITY SYSTEM

● Also known as the communications protocol which is a set of rules and standards that
establishes how systems communicate through a shared language between different
devices at different locations.
● Connects each individual component to receive information, adjust their settings, and
execute commands.
● Most common protocols include:
- BACnet – established by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) specifically for the building controls
industry.
 - Modbus – developed for industrial control systems and is the single
most-supported protocol in the industrial control environment.

4. ACTUATORS (OUTPUT DEVICE)

● The device that performs the action requested by the controller on a specific element of
a building.
● Example: In a museum, the sensors track the location of occupants, through a command
from the controller, the actuator will turn on the lights and video in the exhibits occupied
by visitors.

5. TERMINAL INTERFACE

● Allows the user to manually interact and monitor the system of a whole facility or a
specific location.
● Comprises of graphics illustrating different rooms and locations with the numerical
display indicating a particular parameter for clearer and easier maintenance of the
system.

HIGH-TECH ARCHITECTURE DESIGN IMPLICATIONS

● Control: it provides users with agency and privacy and ensures reliability

● Low effort: It keeps the system use fast and practicable

● Integration: It blends with everyday life activities and maintains the process flow of the
user

● Evolvability: It ensures that compatibility and standards are acquired

● Sociability: It can support communication, cooperation, and participation with other

people.

● Benefits: It can provide different uses such as comfort, flexibility, etc.

LEGAL, STRUCTURAL, AND ELECTRICAL FACTORS

● Legal
○ It is important to note that the use of technologies such as those discussed is not
without risks. There are several legal factors to be considered such as the
following
○ Privacy
 ■ Use of technologies that rely on data collection naturally gives rise to data
protection and privacy concerns. Unsurprisingly, most of this information
is often collected, directly and indirectly, by the technology used in smart
buildings.
○ Surveillance
■ employing smart building technology will also likely come under state and
territory-based legislation which governs the use of surveillance devices.
■ Depending on the jurisdiction applicable, surveillance devices may not be
limited to video surveillance systems, but can include IoT sensors and
drone technology
○ Cybersecurity
■ These risks are particularly pronounced in buildings which rely on IoT
technology and big data collection. Increased connectivity and data
collection means that such buildings would become even more
susceptible to cyber-attacks.
■ It would only take the breach of a single IoT device to be able to infiltrate
the entire network, thereby disrupting the operations of a building and
resulting in the loss of sensitive data of its occupants.
○ Civil Liability
■ Potential civil liabilities may arise from use of smart building technology,
such as damage to property or economic loss due to technology
malfunctions, personal injuries arising from use of drones and data
breaches from use of IoT.
■ As smart building technology remains relatively new and experimental,
entrants and occupants of smart buildings are especially vulnerable.
Developers and such should be mindful of the potential risks and dangers
that may arise in using such technology, and take appropriate measures
to eliminate, or minimize these dangers.
● Electrical
○ The Philippine Green Building Code
■ The GB Code seeks to improve the efficiency of building performance
through a framework of acceptable set of standards. The GB Code is a
set of regulations setting minimum standards for compliance and not
intended to rate buildings.

○ SECTION 10 Energy Efficiency

■ Energy efficiency requires the adoption of efficient practices, designs,
methods and technologies that reduce energy consumption resulting in
cost savings.

○ 10.6.2 Daylight Controlled Lighting Systems

■ Sub-optimal design and operation of the building results in use of artificial
lighting. Photoelectric sensors connected to luminaires help in dimming
 lamps that do not require to be operated due to presence of adequate
daylight.
■ Lighting fixtures within the daylight zone shall be controlled with
photoelectric sensors with an auto on-off basis or continual dimming.

○ 10.6.4 Occupancy Sensors for Lighting Control

■ Occupancy sensors linked to lighting shall be installed in areas with
variable occupancy.
■ It should only be installed in the following: corridors, private offices,
storage rooms, common toilets, meeting rooms, stairways, and other
similar areas.

○ 10.6.5 Elevators and Escalators / Moving Ramps / Walkways

■ Escalators / Moving Ramp / Walkway must be fitted with controls to
automatically reduce speed or stop when no traffic is detected.
■ For Escalators / Moving Ramps / Walkways, it should automatically be
put on a standby mode when no activity has been detected for a
maximum period of five (5) minutes and shall also be equipped with a soft
start technology.

SAMPLE PROJECTS

1.) Centre Pompidou, 1977, by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano

The Centre Pompidou in Paris was designed by Rogers and Renzo Piano as a highly-flexible
container for art, and is the building that drew global attention to the high-tech movement. It is
known locally as the Beaubourg, after the area of Paris in which it is located, the Centre
Pompidou is a cultural landmark that has its structure and mechanical services visible on the
exterior of the building. Described by Piano as a "huge spaceship" that "landed unexpectedly in
the heart of the Paris", the building has its structure and colourful mechanical services visible on
its exterior.

In order to provide flexible use and adaptable volumes, all the systems (ventilation,
electricity and water, lifts and escalators were located on the outside of the building and
identified by color code. Nothing is concealed, all the inner workings are visible from the
outside. As for the framework, it was designed to resemble a huge construction toy.
Features are repeated, interlocked and fitted together, to form a regular metal mechanism,
fully exposed and painted white.

Initially nick-named "Notre Dame of the Pipes" by its critics, the Centre Pompidou has
become one of the city's most photographed monuments, imposing its airiness and
elegance in the Parisian landscape which it dominates from a height of some 50 metres.
 2.) HSBC Building
The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Headquarters was a ground-breaking
skyscraper and established Norman Foster as a global brand. We take a look at the high-rise
bank as part of our high-tech architecture series. Designed with the simple brief of creating "the
best bank headquarters in the world", the forty-four-storey skyscraper for HSBC set Foster's
studio on the path to being one of the largest practices in the world. Foster's HSBC building in
Hong Kong is a revolutionary high-tech skyscraper

Its structure is in full display, tall steel masts along the facade supporting large triangular trusses. The
trusses also correspond to the building's unique circulation system, in which double height floors function
as sky-lobbies from which the internal flow continues on escalators. Getting closer, its uniqueness
becomes more evident. It is a wide and deep building, but its interior space is free of columns or elevator
cores. The building's structural systems allow for all circulation to be place at both east and west ends,
leaving the whole middle of the building completely unobstructed by structure. The design goes further
and makes use of this feature for both the city and building itself.

ISSUES, CHALLENGES, LATEST TRENDS - Marty

Challenges

Security Concerns

Cybersecurity has become increasingly important for multiple reasons. Data has become many
businesses’ most valuable commodity and we are seeing nefarious activity, such as malware,
rise. Data breaches and incidents are becoming more prevalent as attackers seek to exploit
vulnerabilities.Technology is a critical component in making companies more secure.
Unfortunately, as tools to protect and support businesses evolve, so to do the methods that
criminals use to hack into valuable data stores and systems. Moving into the new age of work,
companies will need to ensure they have the right tools in place to protect against everything
from phishing and malware attacks to ransomware strategies.

Artificial intelligence and machine learning

We’ve been hearing about AI’s power and its disruptive capabilities for decades, but AI has now
hit the mainstream. From facial recognition to language translators and assistants like Siri and
Alexa, it is already part of the new normal. The technological challenge is how companies will
manage the relationship between employees and AI machines, as the latter will replace the
need for certain skills and increase the demand for others.

Issues
Your Smart Home Devices Don’t Play Together

With so many smart home gadgets to choose from, the first issue you’ll likely run into is
purchasing the thermostats, security cameras, and sensors that you like the most, only to find
out that they don’t automatically work together. Although almost every smart home device
connects to a companion smartphone app, the best experience is being able to open a single
app or use a single service that enable you to manage and control all of your smart gadgets at
once. What you should do is to invest in a smart home hub. Your local cable or Internet service
provider may be able to help you set up a full home automation system that works as one that
you can control via one hub and one mobile app.

Your Smart Home Device Can’t Connect to the Network

Network connectivity is one of the most common issues that smart device owners will encounter.
From smart cameras dropping the feed, to your living room smart lights failing to turn off,
connectivity issues can be annoying and even seriously disruptive. The good news is that this
issue is extremely easy to fix. You should upgrade to a better wireless router because it is the
backbone of your smart home.

Latest Trends

Artificial Intelligence

Also known as AI, started gaining popularity a decade ago. It has still not slowed down and
continues to be one of the leading technologies in 2023. AI is constantly evolving, and
newer applications for this emerging technology continue to spring upon the scene. Today’s
most popular AI applications are image and speech recognition, navigation programs, voice
assistants like Siri and Alexa, and much more.

Robotic Process Automation (RPA)

uses multiple software and applications to automate business processes such as data
collection and analysis, customer service and other repetitive tasks managed previously
through manual processes.

Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)

VR and AR have been popular for almost a decade now. Virtual Reality immerses the user
into a new environment, while Augmented Reality enhances the user’s existing
environment. While their applications so far have been majorly linked with gaming and filters
on social media, simulation software such as Virtual Ship is also used to train the US Navy,
Army and Coast Guard ship captains.

Cybersecurity

Since the dawn of computers, cybersecurity has played a major role in ensuring safer user
experiences. It is not a new trend, but given that technology is evolving rapidly,
cybersecurity measures need to be constantly upgraded and improved. Threats and
hacking attempts are growing in number and intensity, which calls for improving security
protocols and strengthening systems against malicious attacks.

Reference:

Dewidar, Khaled. (2017). hi tech architecture and its characteristics.

10.13140/RG.2.1.2725.6564.

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Niazi, M. A. (2020, October 25). The Function and Parts of a Building Automation System.
Control.com; Control.com.
https://control.com/technical-articles/the-function-and-parts-of-a-building-automation-system/

Gateway Mechanical. (2021, June 7). Building Automation System Essentials: Everything You
Need to Know. Gateway Mechanical.
https://gatewaymechanical.ca/building-automation-system-essential-guide/