- The imaginary unit is “i”

- 𝑖 = √−1
- 𝑖 2 = −1
- ℝ ⊆ ℂ (Real numbers are a subset of complex numbers)

Generally: 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡

Conjugate of complex numbers:

Other important facts:

|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

(Triangle inequality)

Division with complex numbers:

- Multiply top and bottom with conjugate of bottom
3 + 7𝑖 3 + 7𝑖 2 − 𝑖
= ×
2+𝑖 2+𝑖 2−𝑖

Important pattern:
𝑖 2 = −1

𝑖 3 = −𝑖 -1; -i ; 1 ; i; …..

𝑖4 = 1

𝑖5 = 𝑖

𝑖 6 = −1
 Roots of complex numbers:

If 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) then the roots are given by the equation :

1
𝜃+2𝑘𝜋 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos ( 𝑛
) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 (
𝑛
)
(where k = 0,1,2….(n-1))

Polar forms:

Definition = 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

arg(𝑧) = 𝑟(cos(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋))

The principle argument of z is defined as the unique angle that lies between -180 and 180
degrees for the specific polar form

𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧) = [−𝜋; 𝜋]

o Powers of polar forms

- According to “De Moivre” you take r to the power of n and the multiply both angles
inside the brackets by n

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐧𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐧𝜃)
Sets of complex numbers:
- Since |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 we have that |(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 ) − (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖)| = √(𝑎 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑏 − 𝑑)2

Exponential and log functions:

Fundamental formula: 𝑒 𝑥1+𝑥2 = 𝑒 𝑥1 . 𝑒 𝑥2

Euler’s formula: 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦

𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = −1
NB: e to the power of any multiple of i has a length =1

ln(𝑧) = log 𝑒 |𝑧| + 𝑖. arg(𝑧)

𝐿𝑛(𝑧) = log 𝑒 |𝑧| + 𝑖. 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧)

The complex sin and cos functions:

𝑒 𝑖𝑧−𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑖𝑧

sin(𝑧) = 2𝑖
cos(𝑧) = 2

The normal addition and subtraction laws hold (sometimes easier to use them):
sin(𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 ) = sin(𝑧1 ) cos(𝑧2 ) ± sin(𝑧2 ) cos(𝑧1 )
cos(𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 ) = cos(𝑧1 ) cos(𝑧2 ) ± sin(𝑧2 ) sin(𝑧1 )
Important equations:

𝑒 𝑛𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑛𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑛𝑥 = 2
𝑒 𝑛𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑛𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑛𝑥 =
2

De Moivre’s TheoreM for hyperbolic funcTions:

∴ (𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥)𝑛 = cosh(𝑛𝑥) + sinh(𝑛𝑥)

 l’hospiTal’s rule:
0 ±∞
- When an indeterminate limit is of type 0 or ±∞ , we can differentiate the limit and then use
DSP to obtain the answer (some limits need to be differentiated more than once)

Indeterminate Limits:
0 ±∞
- Limits of type 0. ∞ ; ∞ − ∞; ∞0 ; 1∞ ; 00 must be rewritten to be of type 0 or ±∞ in order to
use L’Hospital
- 2 Tricks that can be applied: 1. Set the limit equal to y and find the limit of ln(𝑦)
2. Set the limit equal to y and find the limit of 𝑒 𝑦
 Integration by parts:
- Usually used when integral is too difficult to solve

∫ 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔′(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝑔(𝑥). 𝑓′(𝑥)

- Use “LIATE” when deciding what to make f(x) L – log & ln

I – inverse trig functions

A – algebra (normal x, x^2,x^3)

T - trig

E – exponents (e^x)

Integration of trig functions

1. If power of cosine is odd: Take one cosine out.
du=cosxdx
u=sinx
Convert all remaining cos to sin

2. If power of sin is odd: Take one sin out.

du=sinxdx
u=cosx
Convert all remaining sin to cos

3. If both sin and cosine are odd: Use half angle identities.

4. If power of sec is even: Take one 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 out

du=𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥dx
u=tanx
Convert all remaining sec to tan

𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 − 1
5. If power of tan is odd: Take one secxtanx out
du=secxtanx
u=secx
Convert all remaining tan to sec
 6. If you have ∫ sin(𝑚𝑥) cos(𝑛𝑥): Use addition and subtraction of sin angles
Subtract two equations
i.e. sin(mx + nx) – sin(mx – nx)

7. If you have ∫ sin(𝑚𝑥) sin(𝑛𝑥): Use addition and subtraction of cos angles
Subtract 2 equations
i.e. cos(mx + nx) – cos(mx – nx)

8. If you have ∫ cos(𝑚𝑥) cos(𝑛𝑥): Use addition and subtraction of cos angles
Add 2 equations
i.e. cos(mx + nx) + cos(mx – nx)

Trigonometric substitution:

1. If you have √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 put 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 since 1 − (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2

2. If you have √𝑥 2 − 𝑎 2 put 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 since (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃)2 − 1 = (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)2

3. If you have √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 put 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 since 1 + (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)2 = (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃)2

NB: Do NOT use trig substitution for the following:

1 𝑥
∫ √𝑎2−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = arcsin (𝑎) + 𝐶
𝑥
∫ √𝑥 2+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑏 + 𝐶
𝑥
∫ √𝑏−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = −√𝑏 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
𝑥𝑑𝑥 1
∫ 𝑥 2+𝑏 = 2
𝑙𝑛|𝑥 2 + 𝑏| + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
∫ 𝑥 2+𝑎2 = 𝑎
arctan (𝑎) + 𝐶

Method of partial fractions:

1. Do long division
2. Factorise denominator
3. Find A,B,C for method of partial fractions
4. Integrate

1. Long division:
- Only necessary when bottom degree is smaller than top degree.
- The remainder still needs to be divided by original denominator.
2. Factorising the denominator:
- Factorise into linear factors and irreducible quadratic factors

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0)

3. Writing and solving for A,B,C…

o Case 1: Only plain linear factors

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
∫ 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑥+𝑏 + 𝑑𝑥−𝑐 ….

o Case 2: Repetition of linear factors (squares, cubes etc.)

If one of your factorised denominators is of type (𝑥 ± 𝑎)𝑛 then:

𝐴 𝐵 𝑍
∫ 𝑥±𝑎 + (𝑥±𝑎)2 + ⋯ + (𝑥±𝑎)𝑛

o Case 3: If you have an irreducible quadratic function as denominator

For example (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)2 , then:

𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
∫ (𝑎𝑥 2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐) + (𝑎𝑥 2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐)2

Rationalising substitution:
- Any type of substitution that yields a rational function (quotient of polynomial)
- Substitutions that lead to the integral of a rational function
Ex.

o Special type = Weierstrauss substitution:

- Used to convert rational expression in sin and cos to a rational function in u

𝒙
We say 𝒖 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝟐) ; −𝝅 < 𝒙 < 𝝅

Then using the triangle, we get:

𝑥 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2) = √1+𝑢2

𝑥 𝑢
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2) = √1+𝑢2

2𝑢 1−𝑢2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 1+𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1+𝑢2

2
𝑥 = 2arctan (𝑢) 𝑑𝑥 = 1+𝑢2
Addition:

- Both matrices must be of type (m x n) (m x n)

- Same rows & columns
- 𝐴+𝐵 = 𝐵+𝐴

Multiplication:

- The columns of first multiple must equal number of rows of second multiple
- Must be of type (m x n) (n x p)
- m and p determine the type/size of resultant matrix
- 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
The distributive law holds: 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
Laws that do not hold:
Transpose of a matrix:

- Rows become columns; columns become rows

- The (n x n) matrix/square matrix is symmetrical if 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 (A is symmetric w.r.t. the main

diagonal.
Special matrices:
0 0
1. The zero matrix: 𝐴 =
0 0

2. Upper triangular matrix:

(A square type matrix)

3. Diagonal matrix:

4. The identity matrix:

- A system with ‘m’ unknowns in ‘n’ variables takes the following form

Solutions:
- The solution set will be an ordered set of numbers that satisfy ALL of the above equations
- Homogeneous system = system where all constants = 0
- Each system will have either: 1. No solutions (empty set)
2. One solution
3. Infinite solutions

1. No solutions:
- Called “inconsistent”
- Occurs when row echelon form/ staircase form is of type (0, 0, 0 … 0 , 0, 0 … 0 ≠ 0)

2. One solution:
- Called “consistent”
- Occurs when system has NO long step

3. Infinite solutions:
- Called “consistent”
- Occurs when system has at least one long step (at least one free variable) in row
echelon form.

Gauss elimination:
- Subtract rows until row echelon form is reached/ until you can assign value to free variable
and solve fixed variables in terms of free variable ‘

Ex.

(Manipulate subtraction in order to eliminate one variable each time)

Gauss-Jourdan method:
- Manipulate augmented matrix to obtain the identity matrix
- Can then solve all variables at same time