MARINE

CHRONOMETER
 THE MARINE CHRONOMETER

The chronometer is an accurate time keeping instrument carried on board.

It is essential because the exact GMT is required each time an astronomical sight is
taken.

Daily Rate: The amount of time a clock loses or gains in a day is the “Daily Rate” of
the clock.

Constant Daily Rate: If the amount of time a clock loses or gains in a day is
constant, i.e. if the clock loses or gains the same amount of time everyday, then it has
a “Constant daily Rate”. If the clock has a Constant daily rate, it can be termed as a
chronometer.

Requirements of a Marine Chronometer:

 The constant daily rate of a Marine chronometer must be small not
exceeding 6 Seconds.
 The Second hand should be long to reach the periphery of the clock for ease
in reading half seconds.
 It is set to GMT as astronomical calculations are given in nautical almanacs
in GMT.

Chronometer Error

It is the difference in time the chronometer has with the correct GMT.

The chronometer error is noted each day at sea by means of Radio Time Signals.

The details of the radio time signals are available in the Admiralty List of Radio
Signals, Volume III (ALRS Vol.III)

This error is noted in the “Chronometer Error Book”.

Column Headings in Chronometer Error Book

1. Date at Greenwich
2. GMT
3. Chronometer Time
4. Chronometer Error
5. Daily Rate
6. The Temperature
7. Source of the Time Signal
8. Initials of the observer
 Types of Chronometers

1. Spring Tension Chronometer

2. Quartz Crystal Chronometer

Variety of Spring Tension Chronometer

1. 2 – Day variety
2. 8 – Day variety

Winding 2 – Day: 7 Half turns

8 – Day: 4.5 Half turns

Winding of Spring Tension Chronometers is done by a Special ratchet key called

“Tipsy Key”.
Quartz Crystal Chronometer

CONTROLS

1. Setting of Hours and Minutes

2. Setting of the Second Hand
3. Frequency Adjustment
4. Test Socket

Advantages of Quartz Crystal chronometer

1. Very great accuracy

2. No need for gimbal rings
3. Immune to shocks and vibrations
4. Unaffected by dust / humidity
5. Reasonably water proof
6. No moving parts that wear out
7. Unaffected by Magnetic fields
8. No daily winding
9. Can drive secondary units such as data loggers, slave clocks etc.

Renewal of dry cells

The dry cells must be renewed when they get weak or at the end of one year’s use,
whichever is earlier.

To keep track of this, the date of renewal of cells must be entered in pencil on a label
stuck at the back of the chronometer.
MARINE SEXTANT
THE MARINE SEXTANT
Introduction:
The Sextant is an instrument used for measuring angles. It is called a Sextant
because its arc is one-sixth of a circle, i.e. 60º. Being an instrument of double
reflection, it can measure angles up to 120º. In actual practice, the arc of the Sextant
is a little more than 60º and hence is graduated to 130º. So we have graduations
from 0º to 125º ‘on the arc’ and about 5º on the other side of zero mark called ‘off
the arc’ or ‘Arc of excess’.
The Marine Sextant is a precision built optical instrument. As stated above, it
measures angles, either vertical or horizontal. The data obtained is used to work out
the ship’s position. The ship’s position may be determined by a combination of
Sextant, chronometer and nautical almanac.

Uses of the Sextant:

A Sextant is used to measure,
1. Altitudes of the celestial bodies like the Sun, the moon, the planets & the
stars. (Ocean navigation).
2. Vertical Sextant angles (VSA) of terrestrial objects. (Coastal navigation).
3. Horizontal Sextant angles (HSA) between terrestrial objects to fix ship’s
position. (Coastal navigation).
Angles between objects of greatly differing heights are called Oblique angles, and as
far as possible are avoided at sea.
There are mainly two types of Marine Sextants in use,
 The Vernier Sextant
 The Micrometer Sextant
They are named thus, because of the type of scale used for reading measurements.
The Vernier Sextant is obsolete now. The Micrometer Sextant is now generally used
on all ships.
Principle of the Sextant:
When a ray of light suffers reflection by two mirrors in the same plane, the angle
between the original incident ray and the final emergent ray is twice the angle formed
between the mirrors.
Geometrical proof:
I = Index Mirror H = Horizon glass
XI = Original ray IH = First reflected ray HE = Second reflected ray
IY = Normal to Index Mirror HZ = Normal to Horizon Glass
Z = Point at which normals to Index Mirror & Horizon Glass meet.
XIE = Original ray produced to meet HE at E
YZH = the angle of inclination between the two mirrors.
Proof: In ▲ IZH, a = Z + b (Ext. angle = Sum of two int. angles)
Or 2a = 2Z + 2b ……….. (i)

In ▲ HIE, 2a = E + 2b ……….. (ii)

Equating (i) and (ii), we get
2Z + 2b = E + 2b
Or 2Z = E
Parts of the Sextant

 Frame
 Handle
 Arc
 Pivot
 Index Bar
 Disengaging clamp or Release clamp
 Micrometer
 Index Mirror
 Horizon Glass
 Telescope (Eye piece & Collar)
 Shades for Index Mirror & Horizon Glass
 First adjustment screw
 Second adjustment screw
 Third adjustment screw
 Tangent screw
 Worm and Rack arrangement
 Switch Battery & Bulb arrangement for night reading.
Readings ‘ON’ & ‘OFF’ the arc
The zero mark of the sextant is close to the right hand end of the arc. The normal
graduations of the arc, to the left of zero, extending from 0º to about 130º, are
referred to as ‘ON’ the arc. To the right of 0º, the graduations extend for a few
degrees and are referred to as ‘OFF’ the arc.
When reading ‘off’ the arc, graduations of the micrometer should be read in the
reverse direction. 59 of the micrometer should be read as 1´, 55 as 5´, 45 as 15´, and
so on.
A Sextant is a precise optical instrument but it can have or develop some
errors in it, which ought to be rectified before the sextant is used for talking any
observations.
Errors which can be adjusted on board are called ‘Adjustable Errors’ &
errors which cannot be rectified on board are called ‘Non-adjustable errors’.
Errors of the Sextant

Adjustable Errors:
The following errors of the sextant can be rectified on board by the ship’s officer
himself but they must be done in the order given below.
1. Error of perpendicularity
2. Side error
3. Index error

1) Error of perpendicularity:
Cause: The Index mirror is not perpendicular to the plane of the sextant.
Detection: (There is only one way of checking).
1. Clamp the Index bar about half way along the arc.
2. Hold the sextant horizontally with the arc away from you.
3. Look obliquely into the Index mirror.
4. The arc and its reflection in the Index mirror should appear in one
straight line. If not, Error of perpendicularity exists.
Elimination: Alter the setting of the ‘First adjustment screw’,
situated at the top centre of the frame of the Index mirror.
In some sextants, it may be necessary to unship the telescope, before
checking for this error, as it may obstruct the view of the arc and its
reflection.

2) Side Error:
Cause: The Horizon glass is not perpendicular to the plane of the sextant.
Detection: (There are two ways of checking)
(i) By heavenly bodies (ii) By horizon
(i) Detection by heavenly bodies:
1. Clamp the Index at 0º 0.0´.
2. Hold the sextant vertically & look at a heavenly body.
3. Turn the micrometer one way & then the other, while looking at the
Body. The reflected image of the body will move above and below the
direct image and should pass exactly over it.
4. If the reflected image passes to the left or right of the direct image,
then Side error exists.
 (ii) Detection by horizon:
1. Clamp the Index at 0º 0.0´.
2. Hold the sextant horizontally & look at the horizon.
3. The reflected image of the horizon should appear exactly in line with the
actual horizon visible to the right or left of the horizon glass.
4. If not, Side error exists.
( In some sextants, the telescope may have to unshipped to be able to see
the horizon directly on either side of the horizon glass.)
Elimination: Alter the setting of the ‘Second adjustment screw’ situated at
the top centre of the frame of the horizon glass.
Note: If ‘error of perpendicularity’ or ‘side error’ is present while making
observations, the sextant will show higher than correct readings.
This is because, the horizon being viewed through the horizon glass, will not
be directly below the heavenly body being observed. The angle
would therefore be slightly oblique and hence will have greater than
correct value.

3) Index error:
Cause: The ‘Index Mirror’ and the ‘Horizon Glass’ are not exactly parallel to
each other, when the index bar is set at 0º 0.0´.
In other words, the difference between the optical zero of the sextant and its
graduated zero is called the index error. If the
optical zero lies to the right of the graduated zero, Index error (I.E.) is termed ‘OFF
the arc’.
If the optical zero lies to the left of the graduated zero, Index error (I.E.) is termed
‘ON the arc’.
Sextant altitude + I.E. ‘OFF the arc’ = Observed altitude.
Sextant altitude -- I.E. ‘ON the arc’ = Observed altitude.
Why I.E. ‘OFF’ is + & I.E. ‘ON’ is -- :

O is the zero graduated on the arc.

Suppose, after measuring an
altitude, the position of the index bar
was A. Sextant reading = OA.
If the optical zero was at F,
IE = arc OF (off the arc)
And if it was at N,
O IE = arc ON (on the arc).
F From the figure it is clear that:
A
N Arc AF = arc OA + arc OF
Obs alt = sextant alt + IE off the arc.
Arc AN = arc OA – arc ON
Obs alt = sextant alt – IE on the arc.
Detection: (There are three ways of checking)
(i) By Horizon method
(ii) By observing a star or planet
(iii) By observing the Sun

(i) Detection by Horizon method:

1. Clamp the Index at 0º 0.0´.
2. Hold the sextant vertically and look at the horizon.
3. The reflected image (in the silvered half of the horizon glass)
and the direct image (in the unsilvered half of the horizon glass) should
appear in a perfect line.
4. If not, Index error exists. Don’t do any adjustments.
5. Turn the micrometer until the reflected and direct image
coincide.
6.The reading on the micrometer, ON or OFF the arc as the case
may be, gives the I.E.
(ii) Detection by observing a star or a planet:
1. Clamp the Index at 0º 0.0´.
2. Hold the sextant vertically and look at a star or a planet.
3. The reflected image and the direct image should coincide.
4. If not, Index error exists. Don’t do any adjustments.
5. Turn the micrometer until the reflected and direct image
coincide.
6.The reading on the micrometer, ON or OFF the arc as the case
may be, gives the I.E.
(iii) Detection by observing the Sun:

Note: The diameter of the sun, subtends an angle of approximately 0º 32.0´

on the sextant. So instead of clamping the Index at 0º 0.0´, we can follow
the procedure given below.
1. Set the Index at about 32’ ‘on the arc’.
2. Hold the sextant vertically, look at the Sun, using appropriate shades.
3. The reflected image of the Sun would appear below the direct image.
4. Turn the micrometer, until the lower limb (L.L) of the direct image
and the upper limb (U.L) of the reflected image just touch.
5. Note the reading ‘ON’ the arc.
6. Now set the Index at about 32’ ‘off the arc’.
7. Hold sextant vertically, look at the Sun, using appropriate shades.
8. The reflected image of the Sun would appear above direct image.
9. Turn the micrometer, until the upper limb (U.L) of the direct image
and the lower limb (L.L) of the reflected image just touch.
10. Note the reading ‘OFF’ the arc.

Index Error (I.E.) = Difference between the readings ÷ 2

The name of I.E. (‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ the arc) is the name of the reading
having the higher numerical value.
For example: Readings obtained: 32.8’ ‘ON’ the arc
33.4’ ‘OFF’ the arc
I.E. = (33.4 – 32.8) / 2 = 0.3’ ‘OFF’ the arc
Index Error by the sun is the best method because the accuracy of the
observations can be ascertained as follows:
Observed Semi Diameter (S.D.) of sun = Sum of the readings ÷ 4
= (33.4 + 32.8) ÷ 4 = 16.55’
If the observations are correct, this should tally with the S.D. in the day’s
page of the nautical almanac.
Index Errors up to 3’ may be left in the Sextant and applied for
arithmetically. If the I.E. exceeds 3’, it can be removed by carefully altering
the setting of the Third adjustment screw situated at the base corner of the
Horizon glass.
Altering the setting of this screw may upset the Horizon glass in the other
plane, causing Side error.
Side error and Index error should therefore be corrected alternately a couple
of times until side error is completely eliminated and Index error minimized,
if not totally eliminated.
However, if the Index Error is very large, and cannot be eliminated in the
usual manner because the Third adjustment screw is already too tight or too
loose, then the screw on the micrometer drum can be slacked off, the setting
on the drum suitably altered and the screw on the micrometer drum re -
tightened.

Non – Adjustable errors of the Sextant on board:

1. Centering error

2. Graduation error

3. Optical errors
(a) Prismatic error (b) Shade error (c) Aberration of lenses

4. Worm and rack errors

(a) Irregular movement (b) Back lash of the micrometer

5. Collimation error

1. Centering errors: This error is caused if the pivot of the Index bar is not
situated at the geometric centre of the arc. This may be a result of
manufacturing defect or a bent arc or a bent pivot because of careless
handling of the sextant having bumped it somewhere.
2. Graduation error: The graduations on the arc of the sextant are not
proper. This again is a manufacturing defect and the replacement with a
new proper arc is required.
3. Optical errors: These are defects of the various mirrors, shades and
lenses of the sextant.

a. Prismatic error: If the two faces of a piece of glass are not ground
exactly parallel, then the glass acts like a prism and causes refraction.
Prismatic errors may be present in the Index mirror, Horizon glass or
any of the shades. It can be detected in an optical laboratory and the
glass either ground properly or renewed.

b. Shade error: Shade mountings can get bent by careless handling,

wherein the glass surfaces of the shades are not normal to the rays of
light passing through them. The greater the number of shades, the
greater will be the chances of distortion.

c. Aberration of lenses: The lenses of the telescope may have small

irregularities in their curvature, resulting in distortion.

4. Worm and rack error: These are errors occurring in the worm and rack
arrangement of the Sextant.

a. Irregular movement: A brand new sextant may have minor

irregularities in the movement of the Index bar across the arc. After a
few days of usage, this defect may rectify itself, once the movement
becomes smoother across the arc.

b. Back lash of the micrometer: Lack of lubrication, presence of dust

particles, careless handling of the Index bar ( Moving the index bar
across the arc without fully compressing the clamp, thereby causing
the worm to rub over the rack with a rasping sound resulting in the
grinding of the gears) are causes for the back – lash of the
micrometer. The worm of the micrometer spindle gets worn resulting
in a bit of play in the movement.

5. Error of Collimation: This error is caused if the axis of the telescope is

not parallel to the plane of the sextant. This can be checked by using an
inverting telescope in place of the usual telescope.
Nowadays, Collimation error is checked and corrected at a proper optical
laboratory, where an expensive instrument called the Collimator is used.
Most modern sextants are not provided with an inverting telescope.
The check for the Collimation error should be done only after error of
perpendicularity and side error have been eliminated.
Care and maintenance of the Sextant

1. When lifting a sextant, grasp it by the frame or the handle only,

taking care that no stress comes on the index bar or the arc.

2. When handing over sextant to another person, transfer the sextant to

the left hand by grasping the frame, and hold it out, handle foremost,
for the other person to grasp the handle with his right hand.

3. Never touch the arc. Do not use any polish to shine the arc. A thin film
of clock oil may be applied on the arc to protect it from corrosion by
salt air and spray.

4. Ensure that the worm and rack are clean. Apply a thin coat of clock
oil to keep the worm and rack arrangement working smooth. Coat the
arc with a thin layer of Vaseline for long periods of non – use.

5. Press the release clamp fully when moving the index bar over the arc.
Avoid grinding gears.

6. Mirrors, lenses, shades should be wiped clean using a soft cloth.

7. When not immediately required for use, replace the sextant in the
box.

8. The sextant in the box should be carefully stowed away from direct
sunlight, dampness, heaters or blowers, undue vibrations, chances of
falling due to rolling, accidental bumping into and pilfering and
tampering.

9. When replacing the sextant in the box, bring the index bar half way
along the arc, shades to be put in position of non – use, putting the
clamp in place to keep the sextant from falling out if the box is
opened in upside down way.
10. Take care not to bump the sextant anywhere as this could cause
various sorts of distortion.
MAGNETIC COMPASS
 The Magnetic Compass
Also called the “Standard Compass”, it is fitted on the fore part of the Upper Bridge
(Monkey Island), exactly on the fore and aft centre line of the ship.
Two basic types:
1. Dry card compass
2. Wet card compass
Directive element Dry card Compass:
Three, four or five pairs of Needle magnets suspended parallel to each other, a few
centimeters below the compass card.
Directive element Wet card compass:
A ring magnet fitted around the base of the float.
Parts of Magnetic compass
1. Compass Card (Dry or Wet)
2. The Compass Bowl
3. The Lubber Line
4. The Binnacle
5. The Helmet
6. The Corrector Magnets
Various corrector magnets used
a. Permanent Corrector magnets
b. Heeling error correctors
c. Quadrantal Correctors
d. Flinder’s Bars
WET CARD COMPASS
Liquid in the Bowl
The Compass Bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled water and pure
alcohol in the ratio 3:1, so that the mixture has the following properties:
 Low freezing point of about - 30°C
 Small coefficient of expansion
 Does not discolour the card
 Low relative density of about 0.93
A bubble may form in the bowl owing to the fact that some of the liquid may
somehow have escaped from the bowl. This is a rare occurrence and must be
remedied at the earliest opportunity.
Removal of Air Bubble
1. Tilt the bowl until the “Filler Hole” provided on the side of the bowl
comes uppermost.
2. Unscrew the stud / screw provided.
 3. Top up with Ethyl alcohol. If alcohol is not available, top up with distilled
water.
4. Screw the stud back in place.
5. Gently let the bowl return to the upright.
In some modern compasses, a small bubble may be removed by causing the bubble
to enter a “bubble trap”.