PARTICLES

 Almost everything is made of particles.

 Particles can be atoms, molecules or ions.
 Particles behave differently in solids, liquids and
gases.
 The particle model explains the differences
between solids, liquids and gases.
 Solids

 Lots of materials are solid, such as paper,

bricks, wood, metal, and ice.

 The particles in solids are very close together,

therefore they cannot usually be compressed

or squashed. Forces of attraction between the
particles hold them together and keep them in
place.
 The particles in solids are arranged in a regular

way. The particles in solids move only by

vibrating about a fixed position. This gives
solids a fixed shape and means that they
cannot flow like liquids.
 The hotter a solid gets, the faster its particles

vibrate. This means that solids expand when

they are heated.


 Liquids
 There are many different liquids such as;
water, oil, fruit juice, and many others.
 The particles in liquids are arranged in a
random way, and are close together, touching
many of their neighbours. There are some
gaps, but liquids cannot usually be compressed
or squashed.
 The particles of a liquid have enough energy
to break free of some of the forces of attraction
between the particles. So particles in liquids
can move around and can move over each
other, allowing liquids to flow and be poured.
 Gases
 There are lots of different gases, such as the
air we breathe or the helium used to fill
balloons.
  The particles in gases are widely spaced and
randomly arranged, meaning they can be
easily compressed or squashed.
 The particles in a gas have enough energy to
overcome the forces of attraction between the
particles, so are free to move in any direction.
They move quickly in straight lines, colliding
with each other and the walls of their
container.

 A particle model of a gas

The particle model of matter
Almost everything is made of particles, with the
exception of electromagnetic waves, such as light
and X-rays.
A particle is a single piece of matter from an
element or a compound, which is too small to be
seen, even with the most powerful microscope that
you could find in a school science lab. Particles
can be atoms,molecules or ions.
What are models?
Models are used in science to help explain
scientific concepts. The particle model is the name
for the diagrams used to draw solids, liquids and
gases.
In the model, the particles are shown as circles or
spheres. However, the particles in ice, liquid water
and steam look the same because they are all
water, but in different states of matter.
Scientists use models to show things that are too
small to see, like atoms or cells. Sometimes they
use models of things which are much bigger, like
the solar system.
Working scientifically
Shear-thickening liquid
Shear-thickening liquid is an unusual liquid that
can be slowly poured but acts like a solid if
quickly struck. Try making this at home.
You will need six spoonfuls of cornflour or custard
powder and three spoonfuls of water.
1.Pour the cornflour into a container and slowly
add water.
2.Mix gently. It is hard to mix the cornflour and
water.
3.Stir the cornflour slime very slowly using the
spoon. Then stir it quickly. Which is harder?
4.Using two fingers, hit the cornflour slime very
quickly. What happens?
Now slowly place your fingers into the slime.
What is different?
 5.Pick up a little slime and roll it into a ball with
your hands. How does it feel?
Now stop rolling. How does its behaviour
change?
6.Try adjusting the amounts of cornflour and
water and notice the effects.

Variables
Scientific investigations often involve things that
can be changed, known as variables. Scientists
often want to find out if changing one variable will
make a difference to another variable.
 Solids, liquids and gases change state when they
are heated or cooled.
 Processes such as evaporation and boiling change
the state of substances.
 A particle model can be used to show how solids,
liquids and gases change state.
Changes of state
When an ice cube is heated, it melts, and if the
liquid water continues to be heated it will
eventually boil.Melting and boiling are changes of
state, and they can occur in reverse too if a
substance is cooled down.
Heating up and cooling down
Substances can change state when they are heated
or cooled.
Heating up
 Melting - When a solid is heated, it absorbs
energy and it melts, turning into a liquid.
 Boiling - If the liquid is heated, it absorbs
more energy and it boils, turning into a gas.
 These changes absorb energy from the
surroundings so they are endothermic.
 Evaporating is when a liquid turns into a gas
slowly, at temperatures that are below
its boiling point. Puddles dry up because
they evaporate – they don’t boil.
Cooling down
  Condensing - If a gas is cooled, it transfers
energy to the surroundings, and turns into a
liquid.
 Freezing - If the liquid is cooled, it transfers
energy to the surroundings, and turns into a
solid.
 These changes transfer energy to the
surroundings so they are exothermic.

 Endo sounds like ‘into’ - the energy goes into the

chemicals from the surroundings.
 Exo sounds like ‘exit’ - the energy is leaving the
chemicals and is transferred to the surroundings.
How water changes state
This diagram shows the processes that take place
when water changes state.

Image caption,
Water changing state
Ice
Some solids change directly into a gas without
becoming a liquid first. This process is called
sublimation.
Solid carbon dioxide is often called dry ice. It must
be kept inside well insulated containers because
when its temperature rises above -78 °C
it sublimes, or sublimates, into carbon dioxide gas.
This process is endothermic, so it can be used to
keep other substances cold.
Dry ice must be handled carefully because it can
cause frostbite if touched, which means it will
freeze skin and body tissues. Dry ice can also be
used to create artificial fog in theatres.
 Pressure in gases is caused by
particles colliding with the walls of the container.
 Gas pressure is increased when the temperature
increases or the volume of the container decreases.
 What happens to the pressure of a gas if the
temperature is increased? The gas pressure
increases. If a gas is heated, its particles move
around more quickly. They hit the walls of their
container harder and more often, which increases
the pressureAs the particles of a gas collide with
the walls of their container, they exert a force on
these walls.
 Gas pressure is the name given to the force exerted
by gas particles colliding with the wall of their
container.
 Pressure is force exerted over an area.
 Gas pressure is the force exerted by a gas on a
specific area.
 A car tyre contains gas under pressure. This means
that there are more air particles pushing on the
inside of the tyre than on the outside of the tyre.

What would happen to the pressure inside a car

tyre if more gas is added? The pressure would
increase because there are more gas particles
pushing on the inside of the tyre. Gases – the
particle model
Gas pressure is used in many areas of life such as
inflating a balloon, a ball or a tyre.
The particles in a gas:
 are spaced widely apart
 can be easily compressed because of the
spaces between them
 move at random, quickly and travel in straight
lines
 collide with each other and with the sides of
their container
  move faster when the gas is hot as the pressure
is greater
How do the particles of a gas move? The
particles travel in straight lines, bouncing off
each other and the sides of the container so the
movement is random. How does temperature
affect pressure?
Increasing the temperature of a gas increases the
pressure and the energy of the gas particles.
These higher energy particles move faster,
colliding harder and more often with each other
and the walls of the container.
How does volume affect pressure?
What happens to the pressure inside a container
filled with gas when you squash it?
When the woman pushes down on the physio ball
with her weight, the volume of the ball decreases.
Decreasing the volume of the ball causes the
pressure inside the ball to increase.
The volume of the ball decreases until the pressure
inside the ball balances the woman’s weight.
When you decrease the volume of a sealed
container containing a gas, the particles collide
with the walls more often, increasing the pressure.
 Everything in the known universe is made up of the elements
found on the periodic table. There are over 100
different elements, which are made up of atoms.
 Particle diagrams are used to help explain
elements, compounds and mixtures.
 Some elements exist as individual atoms, but some bond
together to form molecules of atoms of the same element.
Why could the iron be separated easily from the
sulfur before they were heated together, but not
afterwards? Iron is a magnetic element, so it can be
separated from a mixture using a magnet. But after the
iron and sulfur have been heated, they react to make the
compound iron sulfide. You cannot easily separate an
element from a compound.
Elements
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down
into any other substances. An element is made from just one
type of atom, and examples include oxygen, hydrogen and
iron. Some elements exist as individual atoms, but some exist
as molecules.

Did you know?

Most of the elements are metals. Aluminium (Al) is used to
make bike frames because it is light. It is also used to make
kitchen foil. Copper (Cu) is used to make electrical wires
because it is a very good conductor of electricity.
Elements
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into
any other substance. Every element is made up of its own type
of atom. Oxygen, hydrogen, gold, and iron are all elements.
Symbols
Elements are represented by letters from the alphabet. These
letters are also known as symbols. The symbol for an element
is either a single capital letter or a capital letter followed by a
lower case letter.
For example:
H hydrogen
C carbon
He helium
Mgmagnesium
Na sodium

How many chemical elements do you think there are?

The ancient Greeks thought that there were just four elements
- earth, air, fire and water. However, we now know that there
are actually 118 chemical elements. Everything on Earth and
in the solar system is made from these elements.
 A few of these elements can be found pure in a natural state.
For example, graphite and diamond can be found in rocks in
the Earth’s crust, and they are forms of the element carbon.
Gold is an example of a metal element that can also be found
in rocks.
The air we breathe is mostly made from nitrogen and oxygen,
both of which are elements.
The periodic table
There are 118 chemical elements. They are listed on
the periodic table in a specific order.
The periodic table can be divided into metals and non-metals.
Metals are found on the left and in the middle, whereas non-
metals are on the right. There is a zig-zag diagonal line
dividing metals and non-metals in the periodic table.
Hydrogen doesn’t fit into this grouping and is placed over the
table, this is because of Hydrogen's atomic structure.

 Hyd
rogen is the first element listed in the periodic table. We use
the symbol H for hydrogen. It is an explosive gas which burns
 with a very clear ‘squeaky pop’ when a burning splint is
inserted into a test tube containing it.
 Helium is the second element in the periodic table, and has the
symbol He. Helium is also a gas, but is very different from
hydrogen because it doesn’t take part in any chemical
reactions. Helium is used for party balloons because it is
lighter than air.
The first 94 chemical elements, up to plutonium, occur
naturally on Earth and elsewhere in the universe. The heaviest
elements are made by humans using nuclear reactions, but
these elements cannot be seen in this version of the periodic
table.
Where are the metal elements found on the periodic table?
To the left and in the middle.
Particle diagrams - elements
Particle diagrams can be used to show the atoms of elements.
All of the atoms in a particle diagram must be the same colour
and size.
A particle diagram can represent a solid element, a liquid
element or a gaseous element.
1. A solid element
The particles are close together and arranged in a regular way.

2. A liquid element
The particles are close together and arranged in a random
way.

3. A gaseous element
The particles are far apart and arranged in a random way.
Molecules
Some non-metal elements are made from atoms which are
bonded into clusters called molecules.
For example, oxygen is a gaseous element made from
molecules.

Figure caption,
Compounds
A compound is a substance that contains atoms of two or more
different elements.
The elements are chemically bonded together in a
specific ratio of atoms.
The formula of a compound shows how many atoms of each
element are bonded together.
The formula is made up of symbols and numbers.
The numbers are written as subscript, which means they are
smaller than the symbol, and slightly lower down. For
example, the formula for water is H₂O.
Examples

 Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. The

symbols H for hydrogen and O for oxygen are used to
represent H₂O.
 Oxygen gas is a molecule made of two oxygen (O) atoms
represented as O₂.
  Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen (H), sulfur (S)
and oxygen (O) represented as H₂SO₄.
Two hydrogen atoms, one oxygen
H₂O atom 3 atoms in total
CO₂ One carbon atom, two oxygen atoms 3 atoms in total
C₄H₁ Four carbon atoms, ten hydrogen 14 atoms in
₀ atoms total

Oxygen molecules
A molecule is made up of 2 or more atoms. These can be the
same type or different.

This diagram shows helium. Is helium a solid, liquid or a

gas? Is it made up of atoms or molecules?
Helium is a gas made up of atoms. Each particle is on its
own and they are far apart, arranged in a random way…
If it was made of molecules, they would be in clusters of
two or more.
Compounds
A compound is a pure substance that is made from more than
one element. In a compound, elements are chemically bonded
together, which makes it very difficult to separate them.
When a compound is made, the atoms of the elements bond
together in a fixed ratio. This means that each compound can
be represented by a chemical formula.
For example, the formula of water is H₂O and the formula of
carbon dioxide is CO₂.

To break
apart the elements in a compound, a chemical reaction must
take place, for example, electrolysis or thermal
decomposition. However, when elements make a mixture,
then through a physical process such as filtration or
crystallisation, it is possible to separate them.
Compounds are not found on the periodic table. For example,
water isn’t on the periodic table because it is a compound, not
an element. Water is made from the element hydrogen bonded
to the element oxygen.
Particle diagrams - compounds
A particle diagram for a compound will show more than one
type of atom.
For example:
H₂O
Water molecules are made up of two elements - hydrogen
(white atoms) and oxygen (red atoms).
Water molecules are made up of two elements - hydrogen
(white atoms) and oxygen (red atoms).
Water has a specific ratio of two hydrogen atoms to one
oxygen atom.

CO₂
Carbon dioxide molecules are made up of two elements -
carbon (black atoms) and oxygen (red atoms).
Carbon dioxide has a specific ratio is one carbon atom to two
oxygen atoms.
 Non-metals
Compounds made from non-metal elements that are bonded
together usually form molecules.
Compounds including both a metal element and a non-metal
element bonded together do not form molecules.
Their diagrams look quite different, this is called a lattice.
If this 3D particle diagram for sodium chloride was shown on
a large scale, it would show the same number of metal sodium
atoms (grey) as chlorine atoms (green), because the formula
is NaCl.

 Carbon is a non-metal element. At room temperature it is in

a solid state.
 Carbon exists in different forms, including graphite, diamond
and graphene.
 Depending on its form carbon has different properties.
What is carbon?

Image caption,

A carbon atom

Carbon is made up of just one type of atom. This means carbon is

anelement.

Carbon atoms are arranged in a regular pattern, meaning carbon is

solid at room temperature.

Different forms of carbon

Atoms of carbon can be arranged in different patterns. This means
that there are different forms of carbon.

Each form of carbon has its own properties:

Diamond

Diamond is transparent. It can be cut into shapes that sparkle for

jewellery. It is also extremely hard, making it perfect for drills.

Graphite

The atoms in graphite are arranged in layers that slide over each
other. This makes graphite slippery. It is sometimes used instead of
oil to lubricate locks. Graphite is the only non-metal element that
conducts electricity.

Graphene

Graphene is a recently discovered material. It has been found to be

300 times stronger than steel and much harder than diamonds.
Unlike graphite, graphene only contains a single layer of carbon
atoms.

Scientists are still working out how we could use it, but in the
future it could be used to make better gloves, sportswear and
medical devices.

Mixtures
A mixture is formed when two or more elements or
compounds are present without being chemically bonded
together.
The substances which have been mixed are not present in
specific amounts or ratios like they are in a compound, e.g.
two hydrogen atoms for each oxygen atom in water. They can
be in any combination, e.g. for a mixture of sand and water
you could have any amount of sand with any amount of water.
In a mixture, the two ingredients can be separated using
physical processes, without chemical reactions. This is
because they are not chemically bonded together.
Here are some examples:
 A mixture of sand and water can be separated
using filtration.
 A solution of salt and water can be separated
using crystallisation or distillation.
 A mixture of iron filings and sulfur powder can be
separated using a magnet.
Particle diagrams - mixtures
A particle diagram of a mixture can include atoms and
molecules, but they are not bonded together.

This particle diagram shows air.

 Air is a mixture which is made mainly of nitrogen
molecules (yellow) and oxygen molecules (red).
This particle diagram shows a mixture made up
of water and carbon dioxide.
 The water molecules each have two white hydrogen
atoms and one red oxygen atom (H₂O).
 The carbon dioxide molecules each have one black
carbon atom and two red oxygen atoms (CO₂).

Describe what this particle diagram represents. Is it an

element, compound or mixture?
It’s a mixture. There are three substances in the mixture. The
red and yellow molecules represent two elements and there is
also a compound that is made from one red atom and two
white atoms.
Whereabouts on the periodic table are the non-metals
found?
On the right.
The non-metal elements are found on the right-hand side of
the periodic table, and metals on the left and in the middle.
Which technique is most likely to be used to separate the
elements which are bonded together in a compound?
Thermal decomposition.
Thermal decomposition can be used to break down some
compounds into elements. Simple techniques like filtration
and evaporation will not work, but they can be used for
separating mixtures
Atoms
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter. Everything is
made of atoms - even yourself.
Atoms are the smallest particle of an element, which are far
too small to see. Even the most powerful microscopes cannot
visualise a single atom. If the earth’s population of 7 billion
people were the size of an atom, they would take up less than
1mm of space.
Elements
An element is a pure substance which is made from only one
type of atom. Everything in the universe contains the atoms of
one or more elements. The atoms in one element are all the
same as each other, but they are different from the atoms of
any other elements. There are 118 different elements. They
are listed on the periodic table. Examples of elements include
oxygen, hydrogen and carbon.
Gold is an element. Which atoms are pure gold bars made
of?
 In pure gold bars,
all of the atoms are gold.
Molecules
Molecules are made when two or more atoms chemically
bond together. Atoms from different elements can combine.
When the atoms are from different elements, the molecule can
also be called a compound.
The atoms of some elements like helium do not form bonds.
Helium atoms are single atoms.
The atoms of elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen
join in pairs to make molecules.

Image caption,
A water molecule
Water is made of molecules. Each water molecule is made
from two hydrogen atoms chemically bonded to one oxygen
atom. This means that the chemical formula of water is H₂O.
Carbon dioxide is made of molecules of a carbon atom
bonded to two oxygen atoms (CO₂).
Drawing atoms and molecules
Atoms can be drawn as circles. But all the atoms of an
element need to look exactly the same.
When drawing a diagram of molecules made from the atoms
of more than one element, different sizes and colours can
show the different elements.
There are no rules for the colours of the atoms when drawing
them.
They can be any colour
Examples

Figure caption,
Water molecules
Water (H₂O) molecules contain one oxygen atom and two
hydrogen atoms.
Here, the oxygen atom is red and the hydrogen atoms are
white.
Figure caption,
Ethanol molecules
Ethanol is a much larger molecule made of three types of
atoms. Its formula is CH₃CH₂OH.
Here, the oxygen atom is red, carbon is black and hydrogen is
white.

Image caption,
A ball-and-stick model of methane
Molecules can be drawn in different ways. In this diagram of
methane (CH₄) the chemical bond between atoms is shown as
a stick.
 One molecule of the compound methane is made from one
carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.
These are carbon dioxide molecules. Can you work out
what elements the different coloured circles are?

The black circles are carbon atoms and the red ones are
oxygen. Carbon dioxide molecules contain one carbon
atom and two oxygen atoms. The formula for carbon
dioxide is written as CO₂.
Single element molecules
 Some molecules are made from one type of atom. This means
the molecule is an element.
 Oxygen is a non-metal element and is found naturally as a
molecule. Each one is made up of two oxygen atoms that are
strongly bonded together.
 At room temperature oxygen is a gas.
 Figure caption,
An oxygen molecule
ELEMENTS
 An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into any other
substance. Every element is made up of its own type of atom. This is
why the chemical elements are all very different from each other.
 Everything in the universe contains the atoms of at least one or more
element.
 The periodic table lists all the known elements and groups together
those with similar properties.
What is an element?
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into
any other substance. There are about 100 elements, each with
its own type of atom. Everything in the universe contains the
atoms of at least one or more elements.
The periodic table lists all the known elements, grouping
together those with similar properties. Most elements
are metals, which are shiny and conduct electricity well.
Metals include gold, aluminium and iron which are all solid at
room temperature.
Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.

Some elements are non-metals. Most non-metals are gases at

room temperature and do not conduct electricity. Non-metal
elements with these properties include oxygen, hydrogen and
chlorine. A few non-metals, such as carbon and sulphur, are in
a solid state at room temperature.
Elements, compounds and mixtures