CHAPTER 2 – SCIENCE MATTER AND ENERGY

Introduction to Matter

What is matter? Matter is everything around you. Atoms and compounds are all made of
very small parts of matter. Those atoms go on to build the things you see and touch
every day. Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space (it has
volume).

What is mass? Mass is the amount of matter in an object. You might have a small
object with a lot of mass such as a statue made of lead (Pb). You might have a large
object with very little mass such as a balloon filled with helium (He). You should also
know there is a difference between mass and weight. Mass is a measure of the matter
in an object while weight is a measure of gravity’s pull on an object.

What is volume? Volume is the amount of space something occupies. Words such as
big, little, long, or short are used to describe volumes. A marble takes up a small volume
while a star occupies a large volume. Different states of matter will fill volumes in
different ways.

Even though matter can be found all over the Universe, you will only find it in a few
forms (states) on Earth. We cover five states of matter on the site. Each of those states
is sometimes called a phase. There are many other states of matter that exist in
extreme environments. Scientists will probably discover more states of matter as we
continue to explore the Universe.

Five States of Matter

What are the main states of matter? Everyone should know about solids, liquids, gases,
and plasmas. Scientists have always known about solids, liquids, and gases. Plasma
was a new idea when it was identified by William Crookes in 1879. We also like to talk
about the Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). It’s a fun state of matter when you remove
almost all energy from a system. The scientists (Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman) who
worked with the Bose-Einstein condensate received a Nobel Prize for their work in
2001.

What makes a state of matter? It's all about the physical state and energy in the atoms
and molecules. Think about solids. Physical properties of a solid often include "hard"
and "brittle." Liquids are fluidy, move around a little, and fill up containers. Gases are
always around you, but the molecules of a gas are much farther apart than the
molecules in a liquid. If a gas has an odor, you’ll often be able to smell it before you can
see it. The BEC is all about atoms that are closer and less energetic than atoms in a
solid.

Liquid
Liquids are the second state of matter we will talk about. Solids are objects you can hold
and maintain their shape. Gases are floating around you or trapped in bubbles. Liquids
are found between the solid and gas states. Examples of liquids at room temperature
include water (H2O), blood, and even honey. If you have different types of molecules
dissolved in a liquid, it is called a solution. Honey is a solution of sugar, water, and other
molecules.

Liquids fill the shape of any container they are in. If you pour water in a cup, it will fill up
the bottom of the cup first and then fill the rest. If you freeze that cup of water, the ice
will be in the shape of the cup.

The top of a liquid will usually have a flat surface. That flat surface is the result of gravity
pulling on the liquid molecules. Let’s go back to the cup for a moment. If you put an ice
cube (solid) into the cup, it will sit there and not change shape. As the cube warms and
melts, the liquid water will fill the bottom of the cup and have a flat surface on top.

*Pushing on a Liquid
*Effort required to compress liquidsAnother trait of liquids is that they are difficult to
compress. When you compress something, you take a certain amount of material and
force it into a smaller space or volume. You force the atoms closer together. Most solids
are very difficult to compress while gases are easier. You can find compressed gases in
SCUBA air tanks. Liquids are in the middle, but tend to be difficult to compress because
the molecules are already close together. You probably can’t compress a liquid with
your hands. It takes a lot of force.
Many shock absorbers found in cars and trucks have compressed liquids, such as oils,
in sealed tubes. Without shocks, there would be a very rough ride for the driver and a lot
of stress on the structure of the car. The shocks counter the extremes of the up and
down motion by acting as a dampening device.

Molecules Sticking Together

Intermolecular forces are found in all substances. Some of the forces bring molecules
together while others push them apart. Solids are locked together and you have to force
them apart. Gases bounce everywhere and spread out. Many liquids want to stick
together because of cohesive (sticky) forces that pull the molecules together.

When you place a drop of water on a piece of glass, you will see it stay together as a
drop. Cohesive forces keep the drop from spreading out. Cohesive forces also keep
water molecules together if there is a drip on your faucet. The water sticks together until
it is too heavy. It drips when the weight of the water drop overcomes the cohesive
forces holding it all together.

Evaporation occurs when individual liquid molecules gain enough energy to escape the
system and become a gas. The extra energy allows individual molecules to overcome
the intermolecular forces within the liquid.

Gas
Gases are everywhere. You may have heard about the atmosphere. The atmosphere is
an envelope of gases that surrounds the Earth. In solids, atoms and molecules are
compact and close together. Liquids have atoms that are spread out a little more. The
molecules in gases are really spread out, full of energy, and constantly moving around
in random ways.

What is another physical characteristic of gases? Gases can fill a container of any size
or shape. It doesn't matter how big the container is. The molecules spread out to fill the
whole space equally. Think about a balloon. No matter what shape you make the
balloon, it will be evenly filled with the gas molecules. Even if you make a balloon
animal, the molecules are spread equally throughout the entire shape.
Liquids can only fill the bottom of a container, while gases can fill it entirely. The shape
of liquids is very dependent on gravity, while less dense gases are light enough to have
a more freedom to move.

*Gas or Vapor?
*Clouds are actually large amounts of tiny water droplets.You might hear the term
"vapor." Vapor and gas mean the same thing. The word vapor is used to describe gases
that are usually liquids at room temperature. Good examples of these types of liquids
include water (H2O) and mercury (Hg). They get the vapor title when they are in a
gaseous phase. You will probably hear the term “water vapor” which means water in a
gas state. Compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2) are usually gases at room
temperature. Scientists will rarely talk about carbon dioxide vapor.

*Compressing Gases
*Pressurized gases are all around youGases hold huge amounts of energy and their
molecules are spread out as much as possible. When compared to solids or liquids,
those spread out gaseous systems can be compressed with very little effort. Scientists
and engineers use that physical trait all of the time. Combinations of increased pressure
and decreased temperature force gases into containers that we use every day.

You might have compressed air in a spray bottle or feel the carbon dioxide rush out of a
can of soda. Those are both examples of gas forced into a smaller space at greater
pressure. As soon as the gas is introduced to an environment with a lower pressure, it
rushes out of the container. The gas molecules move from an area of high pressure to
one of low pressure.

Plasma
Plasmas are a lot like gases, but the atoms are different, because they are made up of
free electrons and ions of an element such as neon (Ne). You don't find naturally
occurring plasmas too often when you walk around. They aren't things that happen
regularly on Earth.

If you have ever heard of the Northern Lights or ball lightning, you might know that
those are types of plasmas. It takes a very special environment to keep plasmas going.
They are different and unique from the other states of matter. Plasma is different from a
gas, because it is made up of groups of positively and negatively charged particles. In
neon gas, the electrons are all bound to the nucleus. In neon plasma, the electrons are
free to move around the system.
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*Finding a Plasma
*While natural plasmas aren't found around you that often, man-made plasmas are
everywhere. Think about fluorescent light bulbs. They are not like regular light bulbs.
Inside the long tube is a gas. Electricity flows through the tube when the light is turned
on. The electricity acts as an energy source and charges up the gas. This charging and
exciting of the atoms creates glowing plasma inside the bulb. The electricity helps to
strip the gas molecules of their electrons.
Electric current can create a plasmaAnother example of plasma is a neon sign. Just like
a fluorescent lights, neon signs are glass tubes filled with gas. When the light is turned
on, the electricity flows through the tube. The electricity charges the gas and creates
plasma inside of the tube. The plasma glows a special color depending on what kind of
gas is inside. Inert gases are usually used in signs to create different colors. Noble
gases such as helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), and Xenon (Xe) are all used in
signs.

You also see plasma when you look at stars. Stars are big balls of gases at really high
temperatures. The high temperatures charge up the atoms and create plasma. Stars
are a good example of how the temperature of plasmas can be very different.
Fluorescent lights are cold compared to really hot stars. However, they are still both
forms of plasma, even with the different physical characteristics.
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BEC
The Bose-Einstein state of matter was the only one created while your parents were
alive. In 1995, two scientists, Cornell and Weiman, finally created the condensate.
When you hear the word condensate, think about condensation and the way gas
molecules come together and condense and to a liquid. The molecules get denser or
packed closer together.

Two other scientists, Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein, had predicted it in the 1920s,
but they didn't have the equipment and facilities to make it happen at that time. Now we
do. If plasmas are super hot and super excited atoms, the atoms in a Bose-Einstein
condensate (BEC) are total opposites. They are super unexcited and super cold atoms.

*About Condensation
*Let's explain condensation first. Condensation happens when several gas molecules
come together and form a liquid. It all happens because of a loss of energy. Gases are
really excited atoms. When they lose energy, they slow down and begin to collect. They
can collect into one drop. Water (H2O) vapor in the form of steam condenses on the lid
of your pot when you boil water. It cools on the metal and becomes a liquid again. You
would then have a condensate.

Kelvin Temperature ScaleThe BEC happens at super low temperatures. We have talked
about temperature scales and Kelvin. At zero Kelvin (absolute zero) all molecular
motion stops. Scientists have figured out a way to get a temperature only a few
billionths of a degree above absolute zero. When temperatures get that low, you can
create a BEC with a few special elements. Cornell and Weiman did it with rubidium
(Rb).

*Let the Clumping Begin

*So, it's cold. A cold ice cube is still a solid. When you get to a temperature near
absolute zero, something special happens. Atoms begin to clump. The whole process
happens at temperatures within a few billionths of a degree, so you won't see this at
home. When the temperature becomes that low, the atomic parts can't move at all. They
lose almost all of their energy.

Since there is no more energy to transfer (as in solids or liquids), all of the atoms have
exactly the same levels, like twins. The result of this clumping is the BEC. The group of
rubidium atoms sits in the same place, creating a "super atom." There are no longer
thousands of separate atoms. They all take on the same qualities and, for our purposes,
become one blob.

Changing States of Matter

What is a physical change in matter? Molecules can move from one physical state to
another (phase change) and not change their atomic structure. Oxygen (O2) gas has
the same chemical properties as liquid oxygen. The liquid state is colder and denser
(less energy), but the molecules are the same. Water (H2O) is another example. A
water molecule is made up of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. It has
the same molecular structure whether it is a gas, liquid, or solid. Although its physical
state may change because of different amounts of energy, its atomic structure remains
the same.

So what is a chemical change in matter? Let's start with that glass of pure water. If the
formula of water were to change, that would be a chemical change. If you could add a
second oxygen atom to a water (H2O) molecule, you would have hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2). The molecules would not be "water" anymore. In reality, there are a variety of
steps that go into creating hydrogen peroxide from water.

Physical changes are related to changes in the immediate environment such as

temperature, pressure, and other physical forces. Chemical changes occur when the
bonds between atoms in a compound are created or destroyed. Generally, the basic
chemical structure does not change when there is a physical change. Of course, in
extreme environments such as the Sun, no molecule is safe from destruction.