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    Lecture 7

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    believeinthechorus

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Lecture 7

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    believeinthechorus
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    Lecture-7

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    Lecture 7

    Uploaded by

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    of 28

    Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated

    Abelian Groups)
    Every nontrivial finitely generated abelian group G is isomorphic to
    a direct product of nontrivial cyclic groups

    Zm1 × Zm2 × · · · × Zmr × Zn ,

    where r , n ∈ Z+ , m1 , · · · , mr ∈ 1 + N with mi |mi+1 for


    i = 1, 2, · · ·, r − 1. The parameters r , n, m1 , · · · , mr are unique.

    Theorem
    Every finitely generated abelian group G is isomorphic to a direct
    product of cyclic groups

    Zp1 r1 × · · · × Zps rs × Zn

    where pi ’s are primes and s, n are nonnegative integers. Moreover,


    piri , n are uniquely determined by G .
    Theorem
    Let m = p1k1 p2k2 · · · prkr where pi , 1 ≤ i ≤ r are distinct primes and
    ki are positive integers. Then there are p(k1 )p(k2 ) · · · p(kr )
    non-isomorphic abelian groups of order m, where p(k) is the
    partition function.
    Elementary abelian groups

    Definition
    An abelian group whose all non-identity elements have the same
    order is called elementary abelian group.

    Let G be an elementary abelian group such that ord(g ) = n for


    any g 6= e. Then n is a prime number, since otherwise element g p
    has order < n for any prime divisor p of n.
    Elementary abelian groups

    Definition
    An abelian group whose all non-identity elements have the same
    order is called elementary abelian group.

    Let G be an elementary abelian group such that ord(g ) = n for


    any g 6= e. Then n is a prime number, since otherwise element g p
    has order < n for any prime divisor p of n.
    Example
    1. Zp , p any prime
    2. The Klein 4-group: V4 ' Z2 × Z2
    3. Zp × Zp × . . . × Zp

    Corollary
    If G is an elementary abelian group then G ' Zp × Zp × . . . × Zp
    for some prime p.
    Remark
    An elementary abelian group G ' Zp × . . . × Zp is a vector space
    over the field Zp
    Remark
    An elementary abelian group G ' Zp × . . . × Zp is a vector space
    over the field Zp

    Remark
    An elementary abelian group G ' (Zp )n is generated by
    x1 , x2 , . . . , xn subject to the relations xi xj = xj xi , xip = e for
    i, j = 1, . . . , n.
    Theorem (The Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem)
    Let G , G 0 be groups, and ϕ : G → G 0 be a group homomorphism
    with kernel H.
    (a) ϕ(G ) ≤ G 0 ;
    (b) µ : G /H → ϕ(G ) defined by µ(gH) = ϕ(g ) is an isomorphism;
    (c) ϕ = µ ◦ τ.
    Proof. (a) was proved before.
    Proof. (a) was proved before.
    (b). First show that µ is well-defined: for any g1 H = g2 H ∈ G /H,
    we have

    µ(g1 H) = ϕ(g1 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(H) = ϕ(g1 H) = ϕ(g2 H) = ϕ(g2 ) = µ(g2 H).


    Proof. (a) was proved before.
    (b). First show that µ is well-defined: for any g1 H = g2 H ∈ G /H,
    we have

    µ(g1 H) = ϕ(g1 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(H) = ϕ(g1 H) = ϕ(g2 H) = ϕ(g2 ) = µ(g2 H).

    Next, we verify that

    µ((g1 H)(g2 H)) = µ(g1 g2 H) = ϕ(g1 g2 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(g2 ) = µ(g1 H)µ(g2 H)

    so µ is a homomorphism.
    Proof. (a) was proved before.
    (b). First show that µ is well-defined: for any g1 H = g2 H ∈ G /H,
    we have

    µ(g1 H) = ϕ(g1 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(H) = ϕ(g1 H) = ϕ(g2 H) = ϕ(g2 ) = µ(g2 H).

    Next, we verify that

    µ((g1 H)(g2 H)) = µ(g1 g2 H) = ϕ(g1 g2 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(g2 ) = µ(g1 H)µ(g2 H)

    so µ is a homomorphism. For the kernel of µ, suppose that


    gH ∈ ker(µ), i.e.,
    µ(gH) = ϕ(g ) = e.
    So g ∈ H, i.e., gH = H. Then ker(µ) = {H}. Thus µ is injective.
    Proof. (a) was proved before.
    (b). First show that µ is well-defined: for any g1 H = g2 H ∈ G /H,
    we have

    µ(g1 H) = ϕ(g1 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(H) = ϕ(g1 H) = ϕ(g2 H) = ϕ(g2 ) = µ(g2 H).

    Next, we verify that

    µ((g1 H)(g2 H)) = µ(g1 g2 H) = ϕ(g1 g2 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(g2 ) = µ(g1 H)µ(g2 H)

    so µ is a homomorphism. For the kernel of µ, suppose that


    gH ∈ ker(µ), i.e.,
    µ(gH) = ϕ(g ) = e.
    So g ∈ H, i.e., gH = H. Then ker(µ) = {H}. Thus µ is injective.
    Clearly µ is onto. Thus µ is an isomorphism.
    Proof. (a) was proved before.
    (b). First show that µ is well-defined: for any g1 H = g2 H ∈ G /H,
    we have

    µ(g1 H) = ϕ(g1 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(H) = ϕ(g1 H) = ϕ(g2 H) = ϕ(g2 ) = µ(g2 H).

    Next, we verify that

    µ((g1 H)(g2 H)) = µ(g1 g2 H) = ϕ(g1 g2 ) = ϕ(g1 )ϕ(g2 ) = µ(g1 H)µ(g2 H)

    so µ is a homomorphism. For the kernel of µ, suppose that


    gH ∈ ker(µ), i.e.,
    µ(gH) = ϕ(g ) = e.
    So g ∈ H, i.e., gH = H. Then ker(µ) = {H}. Thus µ is injective.
    Clearly µ is onto. Thus µ is an isomorphism.
    (c). We have (µ ◦ γ)(g ) = µ(γ(g )) = µ(gH) = ϕ(g ). Thus
    ϕ = µ ◦ γ. 
    Example
    Define θ : (R, +, 0) → (C∗ , ·, 1) with
    r 7→ exp(2πir ) = cos(2πr ) + i sin(2πr ). This is a group
    homomorphism since

    θ(r + s) = exp(2πi(r + s)) = exp(2πir ) exp(2πis) = θ(r )θ(s).

    We know that the kernel is Z  R. Clearly the image is the unit


    circle (U, ·). We conclude that

    R/Z ∼
    = (U, ·)
    Example
    (1) SLn (R)  GLn (R).
    (2) H = {A ∈ GLn (R)| det(A) = ±1}  GLn (R).

    Proof. (1). For A ∈ SLn (R), B ∈ GLn (R), we simply need to


    show that
    BAB −1 ∈ SLn (R).
    Example
    (1) SLn (R)  GLn (R).
    (2) H = {A ∈ GLn (R)| det(A) = ±1}  GLn (R).

    Proof. (1). For A ∈ SLn (R), B ∈ GLn (R), we simply need to


    show that
    BAB −1 ∈ SLn (R).
    From the definitions of the groups, we know that
    det(A) = 1, det(B) 6= 0. Recall the formula

    det(BAB −1 ) = det(B) det(A)(det(B))−1 = det(A) = 1.


    Example
    (1) SLn (R)  GLn (R).
    (2) H = {A ∈ GLn (R)| det(A) = ±1}  GLn (R).

    Proof. (1). For A ∈ SLn (R), B ∈ GLn (R), we simply need to


    show that
    BAB −1 ∈ SLn (R).
    From the definitions of the groups, we know that
    det(A) = 1, det(B) 6= 0. Recall the formula

    det(BAB −1 ) = det(B) det(A)(det(B))−1 = det(A) = 1.

    It follows that SLn (R)  GLn (R) since we know previously that
    SLn (R) ≤ GLn (R).
    (2). Define a map

    ϕ : GLn (R) → (R+ , ·), A 7→ | det(A)|.

    So ϕ is an onto homomorphism,

    H = ker(ϕ) = ϕ−1 ({1})  GLn (R)

    and GLn (R)/H ' R+ . 


    Theorem (Second Isomorphism Theorem)
    Let (G , ·, e) be a group, H ≤ G and N  G . Then H ∩ N  H and
    H/(H ∩ N) ∼ = NH/N.
    Proof. It is easy to verify that NH ≤ G . Consider the natural
    homomorphism
    π : G → G /N, a 7→ Na.
    Let π|H be the restriction to H, i.e.,

    π|H : H → G /N, h 7→ Nh, ∀h ∈ H.

    Note that Nh = hN. Clearly π|H is a homomorphism with

    ker π|H = H ∩ ker π = H ∩ N

    and

    imπ|H = {Nh| h ∈ H} = {Nnh|h ∈ H, n ∈ N} = NH/N.

    Hence, H ∩ N  H, NH/N  G /N and H/(H ∩ N) ∼


    = NH/N. 
    Theorem (Third Isomorphism Theorem)
    Let (G , ·, e) be a group and let H, K  G with K ≤ H ≤ G . Then
    H/K  G /K and G /H ∼ G /K
    = H/K
    Proof. Define the map

    θ : G /K → G /H,
    aK → aH, ∀a ∈ G .

    If aK = bK , then a−1 b ∈ K ≤ H, i.e., aH = bH. So θ is a


    well-defined map. Since

    θ((aK )(bK )) = θ(abK ) = abH = (aH)(bH) = θ(aK )·θ(bK ), ∀a, b ∈ G ,

    then θ is a homomorphism. Clearly imθ = G /H, and

    ker θ = {aK |a ∈ H} = H/K .

    So, we have H/K  G /K and G /H ∼


    =
    G /K
    H/K . 
    Proposition (Direct product theorem)
    Let H1 , H2 ≤ G . Suppose the following are true:
    (1) H1 ∩ H2 = {e};
    (2) (∀ai ∈ Hi ) a1 a2 = a2 a1 ;
    (3) G = H1 H2 .
    Then G ∼
    = H1 × H2 .
    Proof. Define f : H1 × H2 → G by f ((a1 , a2 )) = a1 a2 . Then it is a
    homomorphism since

    f ((a1 , a2 ) ∗ (b1 , b2 )) = f (a1 b1 , a2 b2 )


    = a1 b1 a2 b2
    = a1 a2 b1 b2
    = f ((a1 , a2 ))f ((b1 , b2 )).
    Proof. Define f : H1 × H2 → G by f ((a1 , a2 )) = a1 a2 . Then it is a
    homomorphism since

    f ((a1 , a2 ) ∗ (b1 , b2 )) = f (a1 b1 , a2 b2 )


    = a1 b1 a2 b2
    = a1 a2 b1 b2
    = f ((a1 , a2 ))f ((b1 , b2 )).

    Surjectivity follows from (3). We will show that the kernel is {e}.
    Proof. Define f : H1 × H2 → G by f ((a1 , a2 )) = a1 a2 . Then it is a
    homomorphism since

    f ((a1 , a2 ) ∗ (b1 , b2 )) = f (a1 b1 , a2 b2 )


    = a1 b1 a2 b2
    = a1 a2 b1 b2
    = f ((a1 , a2 ))f ((b1 , b2 )).

    Surjectivity follows from (3). We will show that the kernel is {e}.
    If f ((a1 , a2 )) = e then a1 a2 = e and a1 = a2−1 . Since a1 ∈ H1 and
    a2−1 ∈ H2 , we have a1 = a2−1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2 = {e}.
    Proof. Define f : H1 × H2 → G by f ((a1 , a2 )) = a1 a2 . Then it is a
    homomorphism since

    f ((a1 , a2 ) ∗ (b1 , b2 )) = f (a1 b1 , a2 b2 )


    = a1 b1 a2 b2
    = a1 a2 b1 b2
    = f ((a1 , a2 ))f ((b1 , b2 )).

    Surjectivity follows from (3). We will show that the kernel is {e}.
    If f ((a1 , a2 )) = e then a1 a2 = e and a1 = a2−1 . Since a1 ∈ H1 and
    a2−1 ∈ H2 , we have a1 = a2−1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2 = {e}. Thus a1 = a2 = e
    and ker f = {e}. Therefore G ∼ = H 1 × H2 . 
    Corollary
    If H1 , H2  G such that H1 ∩ H2 = {e} and G = H1 H2 , then
    G∼ = H1 × H2 .
    Corollary
    If H1 , H2  G such that H1 ∩ H2 = {e} and G = H1 H2 , then
    G∼ = H1 × H2 .

    Example
    Consider the direct product of two cyclic groups: G = Z4 × Z6 .
    Clearly, it’s not cyclic. For (2, 3) ∈ Z4 × Z6 , we know that

    H = h(2, 3)i  G .

    Since 2(2, 3) = (4, 6) = (0, 0) we see that H = {(0, 0), (2, 3)}.
    Then
    |G | 24
    |G /H| = = = 12 = 22 · 3.
    |H| 2
    and p(2) · p(1) = 2. So, we know that abelian groups with order
    12 are
    Z4 × Z3 ∼
    = Z12 , Z2 × Z2 × Z3 .
    From this, we claim that

    G /H ∼
    = Z12 .

    To show this, we need to find an order 4 element in G /H:

    (1, 0); 2(1, 0) = (2, 0); 3(1, 0) = (3, 0); 4(1, 0) = (0, 0).

    So ord((1, 0) + H) = 4. Therefore G /H ∼
    = Z12 .

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