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Homomorphismlecture

The document defines homomorphisms between groups and provides examples. It then states properties of homomorphisms including that they preserve the identity element and inverses. The document introduces the range (image) and kernel of a homomorphism, proving they are subgroups. It draws analogies between group theory concepts and linear algebra concepts. Finally, it uses the Range-Kernel Theorem to compute the order of the special linear group SL2(Zp).

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Erica Canon
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
82 views

Homomorphismlecture

The document defines homomorphisms between groups and provides examples. It then states properties of homomorphisms including that they preserve the identity element and inverses. The document introduces the range (image) and kernel of a homomorphism, proving they are subgroups. It draws analogies between group theory concepts and linear algebra concepts. Finally, it uses the Range-Kernel Theorem to compute the order of the special linear group SL2(Zp).

Uploaded by

Erica Canon
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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16.

Homomorphisms

16.1. Basic properties and some examples.

Definition. Let G and H be groups. A map ϕ : G → H is called a


homomorphism if

ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) for all x, y ∈ G.

Example 1. Let G = (Z, +) and H = (Zn, +) for some n > 1. Define ϕ : G → H


by ϕ(x) = [x]. Then ϕ is a homomorphism.

Since operation in both groups is addition, the equation that we need to


check in this case is ϕ(x + y) = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y). Verification is given below:

ϕ(x) + ϕ(y) = [x] + [y] = [x + y] = ϕ(x + y)

(where equality [x] + [y] = [x + y] holds by definition of addition in Zn).

Example 2. Let F be a field, n > 1 and integer, G = GLn(F) and H = (F \ {0},


·). Define the map ϕ(A) = det(A).

In this example ϕ is a homomorphism thanks to the formula det(AB) =


det(A) det(B). Note that while this formula holds for all matrices (not
necessarily invertible ones), in the example we have to restrict ourselves to
invertible matrices since the set M atn(F) of all n × n matrices over F does not
form a group with respect to multiplication.

Example 3. Unlike the situation with isomorphisms, for any two groups G and
H there exists a homomorphism ϕ : G → H, called the trivial homo morphism. It
is given by ϕ(x) = eH for all x ∈ G (where eH is the identity element of H).

The following theorem shows that in addition to preserving group opera


tion, homomorphisms must also preserve identity element and inversion.

Theorem 16.1. Let G and H be groups and ϕ : G → H a homomorphism. Then


(a) ϕ(eG) = eH where eG is the identity element of G and eH is the identity
element of H.
(b) (ϕ(x))−1 = ϕ(x−1) for all x ∈ G.

Proof. See the book. 1


2

Next we introduce two fundamental subgroups which can be associated to


every homomorphism.
So let G and H be groups and ϕ : G → H a homomorphism. The first
subgroup associated to ϕ is the range (image) of ϕ:
Range(ϕ) = ϕ(G) = {h ∈ H : h = ϕ(g) for some g ∈ G.}
From the definition it is clear that ϕ(G) is a subset of H, but below we will
show that it is actually a subgroup.
The second subgroup if the kernel of ϕ, which is defined to be the set of all
elements of G which get mapped to the identity element of H by ϕ:

Ker (ϕ) = {g ∈ G : ϕ(g) = eH}.

Theorem 16.2. Let G and H be groups and ϕ : G → H a homomorphism. Then


(a) ϕ(G) is a subgroup of H
(b) Ker (ϕ) is a subgroup of G

Proof. (a) First note that by Theorem 16.1(a) we have eH = ϕ(eG), so eH ∈


ϕ(G).
Next we check that ϕ(G) is closed under group operation: take any u, v ∈
ϕ(G). By definition of ϕ(G) there exist x, y ∈ G such that u = ϕ(x) and v = ϕ(y).
Hence uv = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) = ϕ(xy) ∈ ϕ(G).
Finally, we check that ϕ(G) is closed under inversion: take any u ∈ ϕ(G).
Then u = ϕ(x) for some x ∈ G, so u−1 = (ϕ(x))−1 = ϕ(x−1) ∈ ϕ(G) where the
second equality holds by Theorem 16.1(b).

(b) The proof for the kernel is rather similar. Again Theorem 16.1(a)
implies that eG ∈ Ker (ϕ).
Next take any x, y ∈ Ker (ϕ). Then ϕ(x) = ϕ(y) = eH, so ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) =
eH · eH = eH, so xy ∈ Ker (ϕ) as well. Thus, Ker (ϕ) is closed under group
operation.
(c) Finally, for any x ∈ Ker ϕ we have ϕ(x) = eH, so by Theorem 16.1(b) we
have ϕ(x−1) = (ϕ(x))−1 = e−1
−1
H = eH, so x ∈ Ker (ϕ). Hence Ker (ϕ)
is closed under inversion.

Example 4. Let G = H = (Z10, +), and define ϕ : G → H by ϕ([x]) = 2[x] = [2x]


for all x ∈ Z.

It is straightforward to check that ϕ is a homomorphism. The range of ϕ is


ϕ(G) = {h ∈ H : h = [2x] for some x ∈ Z.} = {[0], [2], [4], [6], [8]} = h[2]i. The
kernel of ϕ is {[x] ∈ G : [2x] = eH} = {[x] ∈ G : [2x] = [0]}. Since
3

[2x] = [0] ⇐⇒ 2x = 10k for some k ∈ Z ⇐⇒ x = 5k for some k ∈ Z. Thus, Ker


(ϕ) = {[5k] : k ∈ Z} = h[5]i = {[0], [5]}.

16.2. Some analogies with linear algebra and Range-Kernel Theo rem. The
notions of group, homomorphism, range and kernel have direct analogues in
linear algebra:
group theory linear algebra

group vector space

homomorphism linear transformation

range of a homomorphism range of a linear transformation

kernel of a homomorphism nullspace of a linear transformation

One of the fundamental results in linear algebra is the rank-nullity theo


rem which asserts the following:

Rank-Nullity Theorem. Let F be a field, let V and W be finite-dimensional


vector spaces over F, and let T : V → W be a linear transformation. Then
dim(ϕ(T)) + dim(Nullspace(T)) = dim(V )
(The number dim(ϕ(T)) is called the rank of T and the number dim(Nullspace(T)) is
called the nullity of T, so the theorem says that the sum of the rank of T and the
nullity of T is equal to the dimension of the vector space on which T is defined).

The following theorem, which we call the Range-Kernel Theorem, is a


group-theoretic analogue of rank-nullity theorem.

Theorem 16.3 (Range-Kernel Theorem). Let G and H be finite groups and ϕ :


G → H a homomorphism. Then
|ϕ(G)| · |Ker (ϕ)| = |G|.

In Example 4 we have |G| = 10, |ϕ(G)| = 5 and |Ker (ϕ)| = 2.


We finish this lecture with an example showing how the Range-Kernel
Theorem can be used to compute the order of some group.

Problem 16.4. Let p be a prime. Compute the order of the group |SL2(Zp)|.

We will solve this problem in two steps. First we will compute |GL2(Zp)|
and then use the Range-Kernel Theorem to compute |SL2(Zp)|.
Step 1: By definition GL2(Zp) = {A ∈ M at2(Zp) : det(A) 6= [0]}.
By a theorem from linear abcd 6= [0] ⇐⇒ the vectors
algebra, det
(a, b) and (c, d) are not proportional (that is, are not multiples of each other).
Using this observation, we can count the number of ways to choose a 2 × 2
invertible matrix with entries in Zp.
4

The first row of a matrix in GL2(Zp) can be any vector of length 2 except
([0], [0]), so there are p2 −1 choices for the first row. Once the first row (a, b)
is chosen, the second row can be any vector which is not a scalar multiple of
(a, b). Since any nonzero vector with entries in Z p has precisely p distinct
multiples, there are p2 − p choices for the second row. Overall we have (p2 −
1)(p2 − p) choices, so |GL2(Zp)| = (p2 − 1)(p2 − p) = (p − 1)2p(p + 1).
Step 2: By Example 2, the map ϕ : GL2(Zp) → Zp \ {[0]} given by ϕ(A) =
det(A), is a homomorphism.
The range of ϕ is the entire group Zp \ {[0]} since every nonzero a ∈ Zp is
the determinant of some 2 × 2 a 0 0 1 . The kernel of ϕ is
matrix: a = det

the set {A ∈ GL2(Zp) : det(A) = [1]} which is precisely SL2(Zp). Therefore, by


the Range-Kernel Theorem we have

|SL2(Zp)| = |Ker (ϕ)| =|G|


|ϕ(G)|

|Zp \ {[0]}| =(p − 1)2p(p + 1)

=|GL2(Zp)|

p − 1= (p − 1)p(p + 1).

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