Module 2.

2 NEURAL CONDUCTION AND SYNAPTIC TERMINALS NOTES:

In this lesson, we will learn about the resting membrane potential and how it can deepen our _______________________________
understanding of the neural conduction and synaptic transmission . We will also know more about _______________________________
the processes and integration of postsynaptic potentials and action potentials. Synaptic
transmission will also be demonstrated together with the workings of the neurotransmitters. And
_______________________________
lastly, we will also cover some concepts about the pharmacology of synaptic transmission and _______________________________
behavior. _______________________________
_______________________________
What is a Resting Membrane Potential? _______________________________
Membrane potential is the difference in electrical charge between the _______________________________
inside and the outside of a cell. _______________________________
To record a neuron's membrane potential, it is necessary to position _______________________________
the tip of one electrode inside the neuron and the tip of another _______________________________
_______________________________
electrode outside the neuron in the extracellular uid. Although the size
_______________________________
of the extracellular electrode is not critical, it is paramount that the tip of _______________________________
the intracellular electrode (microelectrode) be ne enough to pierce the _______________________________
neural membrane without severely damaging it. _______________________________
_______________________________
Resting Membrane Potential _______________________________
When both electrode tips are in the extracellular uid, the voltage _______________________________
between them is zero. However when the tip of the intracellular _______________________________
electrode is inserted into a neuron, a steady potential of about -70 _______________________________
millivolts (mV) is recorded. This indicates that the potential inside the _______________________________
resting neuron is about 70mV less than that outside the neuron. _______________________________
RESTING POTENTIAL refers to the neuron's steady membrane _______________________________
_______________________________
potential of about -70mV. In its resting state, a neuron is said to be
_______________________________
polarized. _______________________________
_______________________________
Why are resting neurons polarized? _______________________________
Like all salts in a solution, the salts in neural tissue separate into _______________________________
positively and negatively charged particles called ions. The resting _______________________________
potential results from the fact that the ratio of negative to positive _______________________________
charges is greater inside the neuron than outside. This unequal _______________________________
distribution of charges can be understood in terms of the interaction of _______________________________
four factors: _______________________________
O Two factors that act to distribute ions equally throughout the _______________________________
intracellular and extracellular uids of the nervous system _______________________________
_______________________________
[HOMOGENIZING EFFECT]
_______________________________
1 | RANDOM MOTION _______________________________
The ions in neural tissue are in constant random motion, and particles _______________________________
in random motion tend to become evenly distributed because they are _______________________________
more likely to move down their concentration gradients than up them; _______________________________
that is, they are more likely to move from areas of high concentration _______________________________
to areas of low concentration than vice versa. _______________________________
2 | ELECTROSTATIC PRESSURE _______________________________
Any accumulation of charges positive or negative, in one area tends _______________________________
to be dispersed by the repulsion among the like charges in the vicinity _______________________________

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 and the attraction of the opposite charges concentrated elsewhere. _______________________________
O Two features of the neural membrane that counteract these _______________________________
homogenizing effects _______________________________
3 | PASSIVE PROPERTY does not involve consumption of _______________________________
energy. The passive property of the neural membrane that _______________________________
contributes to the unequal disposition of Na + , K +, Cl -, and protein _______________________________
ions is its differential permeability to those ions. _______________________________
_______________________________
4 | ACTIVE PROPERTY does involve consumption of energy. In _______________________________
resting neurons: _______________________________
▪ K + and Cl - ions pass readily through the neural membrane _______________________________
_______________________________
▪ Na + ions pass through it with dif culty
_______________________________
▪ negatively charged protein ions do not pass through it at all _______________________________
_______________________________
Ions pass through the neural membrane at specialized pores called _______________________________
ion channels, each type of which is specialized for the passage of _______________________________
particular ions. In the 1950s, neuropsychologists Alan Hodgkin and _______________________________
Andrew Huxley provided the rst evidence that an energy-consuming _______________________________
process is involved in the maintenance of resting potential. _______________________________
Hodgkin and Huxley calculated for each of the three ions the _______________________________
electrostatic charge that would be required to offset the tendency for _______________________________
them to move down their concentration gradients. The results are _______________________________
shown in the illustration below. _______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
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_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
The gure above shows the passive and active factors that in uence _______________________________
the distribution of Na+, K+, and Cl- across the neural membrane. _______________________________
Passive factors continuously drive K+ ions out of the resting neuron _______________________________
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and Na+ ions in; therefore, K+ ions must be actively pumped in and _______________________________
Na+ ions must be actively pumped out to maintain the resting _______________________________
equilibrium. _______________________________
_______________________________
Moreover, they also discovered about the sodium-potassium pump _______________________________
which contains the transporters (mechanisms in the membrane of a _______________________________
_______________________________
cell that actively transport ions or molecules across the membrane)
_______________________________
responsible for the movement of the sodium and potassium ions in and _______________________________
out of the cell membrane. With the help of energy-consuming _______________________________
mechanisms in the cell membrane, they continually exchange three _______________________________
Na+ ions inside the neuron for two K+ ions outside (3:1 ratio). _______________________________
_______________________________
Factors Responsible for Maintaining the Differences in the Intracellular and _______________________________
Extracellular Concentrations of Na+, K+, and Cl- Ions in Resting Neurons _______________________________
Na+ ions tend to be driven into the neurons by both the high _______________________________
concentration of Na ions outside the neuron and the negative _______________________________
internal resting potentials of -70mV. However, the membrane is _______________________________
Na+ resistant to the passive diffusion of Na+, and the sodium-potassium _______________________________
pumps are thus able to maintain the high external concentration of _______________________________
Na+ ions by pumping them out at the same slow rate as they move _______________________________
in. _______________________________
_______________________________
K+ ions tend to move out of the neuron because of their high
_______________________________
internal concentration, although this tendency is partially offset by
_______________________________
the internal negative potential. Despite the tendency for the K+ ions
_______________________________
to leave the neuron, they do so at a substantial rate because the
K+ _______________________________
membrane offers little resistance to their passage. To maintain the
_______________________________
high internal concentration of K+ ions, the sodium-potassium pumps
_______________________________
in the cell membrane pump K+ ions into neurons at the same rate as
_______________________________
they move out.
_______________________________
There is little resistance in the neural membrane to the passage of _______________________________
Cl- ions. Thus, Cl- ions are readily forced out of the neuron by the _______________________________
negative internal potential. As chloride ions begin to accumulate on _______________________________
the outside, there is an increased. tendency for them to move down _______________________________
Cl- their concentration gradient back into the neuron. When the point is _______________________________
reached where the electrostatic pressure for Cl - ions to move out of _______________________________
the neuron is equal to the tendency to move back in, the distribution _______________________________
of Cl - ions is held in equilibrium. This point of _______________________________
equilibrium occurs -70mV. _______________________________
_______________________________
Generation and Conduction of Postsynaptic Potentials _______________________________
When neurons re, they release from their terminal buttons chemicals _______________________________
called neurotransmitters, which diffuse across the synaptic clefts and _______________________________
interact with specialized receptor molecules on the receptive _______________________________
_______________________________
membranes of the next neurons in the circuit. When neurotransmitter
_______________________________
molecules bind to postsynaptic receptors, they typically have one of _______________________________
the two effects, depending on the structure of both the neurotransmitter _______________________________
and the receptor in question.
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 O DEPOLARIZATION occurs when the cell becomes less polar _______________________________
(membrane potential gets smaller as ions quickly begin to equalize _______________________________
the concentration gradients). _______________________________
Postsynaptic depolarization is known as Excitatory Postsynaptic _______________________________
Potentials (EPSPs) because they increase the likelihood that the _______________________________
neuron will re. _______________________________
O HYPERPOLARIZATION occurs when the cell becomes more _______________________________
_______________________________
negative than its typical resting membrane potential.
_______________________________
Postsynaptic hyperpolarization is known as Inhibitory Postsynaptic _______________________________
Potentials (IPSPs) because they decrease the likelihood that the _______________________________
neuron will re. _______________________________
_______________________________
Both EPSPs and IPSPs are graded response; meaning their _______________________________
amplitudes are proportional to the intensity of signals that elicit them _______________________________
(weak signals elicit small postsynaptic potentials and strong signals _______________________________
elicit large ones). _______________________________
_______________________________
How do the EPSPs and IPSPs travel? _______________________________
EPSPs and IPSPs travel passively from their sites of generation at _______________________________
_______________________________
synapses, usually on the dendrites or cell body, in much the same way
_______________________________
that electrical signals travel through a cable. Accordingly, the _______________________________
transmission of postsynaptic potentials has two characteristics: _______________________________
1 | The transmission of EPSPs and IPSPs is rapid _______________________________
It is so rapid that it can be assumed to be instantaneous for most _______________________________
purposes. However, take note that their duration is different from their _______________________________
rate of transmission; although the duration of EPSPs and IPSPs _______________________________
varies considerably, all postsynaptic potentials, whether brief or _______________________________
enduring, are transmitted at great speed. _______________________________
2 | The transmission of EPSPs and IPSPs is decremental _______________________________
EPSPs and IPSPs decrease in amplitude as they travel through the _______________________________
neuron, just as a sound wave loses amplitude (the sound grows _______________________________
_______________________________
fainter) as it travels through air. Most EPSPs and IPSPs do not travel
_______________________________
more than a couple of millimeters from their site of generation before _______________________________
they fade out; thus they never travel very far from axon. _______________________________
_______________________________
Integration of Postsynaptic Potentials and Generation of Action _______________________________
Potentials _______________________________
The postsynaptic potentials created at a single synapse typically have _______________________________
little effect on the ring of the postsynaptic neuron. Moreover, whether _______________________________
or not a neuron res depends on the balance between the excitatory _______________________________
and inhibitory signals reaching its axon. The graded EPSPs and IPSPs _______________________________
created by the action of neurotransmitters at particular receptive sites _______________________________
on a neuron's membrane are conducted instantly or decrementally to _______________________________
_______________________________
the axon hillock. If the sum of the depolarizations and
_______________________________
hyperpolarizations reaching the section of the axon adjacent to the _______________________________
axon hillock at any time is suf cient to depolarize the membrane to its
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 threshold of excitation which generates an action potential. _______________________________
_______________________________
Action potential is a massive but momentary reversal of the _______________________________
membrane potential from about -70mV to about +50mV. Unlike _______________________________
postsynaptic potentials, action potentials are not graded responses; _______________________________
their magnitude is not related to the intensity of the stimuli that elicit _______________________________
them (all-or-none responses) . _______________________________
In effect, each multipolar neuron adds together all the graded _______________________________
excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials reaching its axon and _______________________________
_______________________________
decides to re or not to re on the basis of their sum. Adding a number
_______________________________
of individual signals into one overall signal is called integration . _______________________________
Neuron integrates incoming signals in two ways: over space and over _______________________________
time . _______________________________
O SPATIAL SUMMATION can be expressed in three possible _______________________________
combinations: _______________________________
1. how local EPSPs that are produced simultaneously on different _______________________________
parts of the receptive membrane sum to form a greater EPSP _______________________________
2. how simultaneous IPSPs sum to form greater IPSP _______________________________
3. how simultaneous EPSPs and IPSPs sum to cancel each other _______________________________
out _______________________________
O TEMPORAL SUMMATION shows how postsynaptic potentials _______________________________
_______________________________
produced in rapid succession at the same synapse sum to form greater
_______________________________
signal. _______________________________
_______________________________
"In some ways, the ring of a neuron is like the ring of the gun. Both _______________________________
reactions are triggered by graded responses. As a trigger is squeezed, _______________________________
it gradually moves back until it causes the gun to re; as a neuron is _______________________________
stimulated, it becomes less polarized until the threshold of excitation is _______________________________
reached and ring occurs. Moreover, the ring of a gun and neural _______________________________
ring are both all-or-none events. Just as squeezing a trigger harder _______________________________
does not make the bullet travel faster or farther, stimulating a neuron _______________________________
more intensely does not increase the speed or amplitude of the _______________________________
resulting action potential." _______________________________
_______________________________
Pinel, 2011
_______________________________
_______________________________
How are action potentials produced and how are they conducted along _______________________________
the axon? _______________________________
Action potentials are produced and conducted along the axon through _______________________________
the action of voltage-activated ion channels -- the ion channels that _______________________________
open or close in response to changes in the level of the membrane _______________________________
potential. _______________________________
_______________________________
Recall that the membrane potential of a neuron at rest is relatively _______________________________
constant despite the high pressure acting to drive Na+ ions into the _______________________________
cell. This is because the resting membrane is relatively impermeable to _______________________________
_______________________________
Na+ ions and because those few that do pass in are pumped out. But
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things suddenly change when the membrane potential of the axon is _______________________________
reduced to the threshold of excitation. _______________________________
>> The voltage-activated sodium channels in the axon membrane _______________________________
open wide and Na+ ions rush in , suddenly driving the membrane _______________________________
potential that is associated in the in ux (in ow) of Na+ ions then _______________________________
triggers the opening of the voltage-activated potassium channels. _______________________________
_______________________________
>> K+ ions near the membrane are driven out of the cell through
_______________________________
this channels (1) their relatively high internal concentration and (2) _______________________________
positive internal charge (when the action potential is near its peak). _______________________________
>> Sodium channels close which marks the end of the rising phase _______________________________
of the action potential and the beginning of repolarization by the _______________________________
continued ef ux (out ow) of K+ ions. _______________________________
>> Once repolarization has been achieved, the potassium _______________________________
channels gradually close which allows too much K+ ions to ow _______________________________
out resulting to hyperpolarization for a brief period of time. _______________________________
_______________________________
After the initiation of an action potential there is a period during which it _______________________________
is impossible to elicit a second one and this is called the absolute _______________________________
_______________________________
refractory period. This is then followed by relative refractory period
_______________________________
during which it is possible to re the neuron again but only with a _______________________________
higher-than-normal levels of stimulation. Refractory period is _______________________________
responsible for two important characteristics of neural activity: _______________________________
1 | It is responsible for the fact that action potentials normally travel _______________________________
along axons in only one direction. _______________________________
2 | It is responsible for the fact that the rate of neural ring is related _______________________________
to the intensity of the stimulation. _______________________________
The conduction of action potentials along an axon differs from the _______________________________
conduction of graded potentials (EPSP and IPSP) in two important _______________________________
ways. First, the conduction of action potentials along an axon is _______________________________
nondecremental meaning action potentials do not grow weaker as _______________________________
_______________________________
they travel along the axonal membrane. Second, action potentials are
_______________________________
conducted more slowly than postsynaptic potentials. Their major _______________________________
differences are summarized in the table below. _______________________________
GRADED POTENTIALS ACTION POTENTIALS _______________________________
_______________________________
sent at the dendrites and cell body sent at the axon _______________________________
excitatory (EPSP) or inhibitory _______________________________
(IPSP)
always excitatory _______________________________
_______________________________
smaller in size larger voltage difference _______________________________
_______________________________
trigggered by input from the triggered by membrane _______________________________
outside depolarization _______________________________
many signals can happen at once only one signal at a time _______________________________
_______________________________
signals can come in different sizes all-or-none signals _______________________________

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 _______________________________
In our previous lessons, we learned that axons of many neurons are _______________________________
insulated from the extracellular uid by segments of fatty tissue known _______________________________
as myelin. In myelinated axons, ions can pass through the axonal _______________________________
membrane only at the nodes of Ranvier -- the gaps between the _______________________________
adjacent myelin segments. Indeed, in myelinated axons, axonal _______________________________
sodium channels are concentrated at the nodes of Ranvier (Salzer, _______________________________
2002). _______________________________
_______________________________
How, then, are action potentials transmitted in myelinated axons? _______________________________
When an action potential is generated in a myelinated axon, the signal _______________________________
_______________________________
is conducted passively -- that is, instantly and decrementally -- along
_______________________________
the rst segment of myelin to the next node of Ranvier. Although the _______________________________
signal is somewhat diminished by the time it reaches the node, it is still _______________________________
strong enough to open the voltage-activated sodium channels at the _______________________________
node and to generate another full-blown action potential. This action _______________________________
potential is then conducted passively along the axon to the next node, _______________________________
where another full blown action potential is elicited, and so on. _______________________________
_______________________________
Synaptic Transmission: Chemical Transmission of Signals among _______________________________
Neurons _______________________________
Some communication among neurons occurs across synapses. _______________________________
Neurotransmitter molecules are released from buttons into synaptic _______________________________
_______________________________
clefts, where they induce EPSPs or IPSPs in other neurons by binding
_______________________________
to receptors on their postsynaptic membranes. There are different _______________________________
types of synapses depending on their location and function: _______________________________
◦ Axodendritic Synapses: synapses of axon terminal buttons on dendrites _______________________________
◦ Axosomatic Synapses: synapses of axon terminal buttons on somas (cell _______________________________
body) _______________________________
◦ Dendodendritic Synapses: often capable of transmission in either direction _______________________________
◦ Axoaxonic Synapses: can mediate presynaptic facilitation and inhibition _______________________________
_______________________________
DIRECTED SYNAPSES NONDIRECTED SYNAPSES _______________________________
_______________________________
• Synapses at which the site of release is _______________________________
at some distance from the site of _______________________________
• Synapses at which the reception. _______________________________
site of neurotransmitter • In this type of arrangement, _______________________________
reception are in close neurotransmitter molecules are released _______________________________
proximity. from a series of varicosities (bulges or _______________________________
• This is a common swellings) along the axon and its _______________________________
arrangement. branches and thus are widely dispersed _______________________________
to surrounding targets. Usually referred _______________________________
_______________________________
to as string-of-beads.
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
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 There are two basic categories of neurotransmitter molecules: small _______________________________
and large. _______________________________
_______________________________
1 | SMALL NEUROTRANSMITTERS _______________________________
_______________________________
◦ These are typically synthesized in cytoplasm of the terminal
_______________________________
button and packaged in synaptic vessels by the button's Golgi
_______________________________
complex. _______________________________
◦ Once lled with neurotransmitter, the vesicles are stored in _______________________________
clusters next to the presynaptic membrane. _______________________________
2 | LARGE NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NEUROPEPTIDES) _______________________________
◦ These are short amino acid chains comprising between 3 and 36 _______________________________
amino acids; in effect they are short proteins. _______________________________
◦ Like other proteins, they are assembled in the cytoplasm of the _______________________________
cell body on ribosomes; they are then packaged in vesicles by the _______________________________
cell body's Golgi complex and transported by microtubules to the _______________________________
terminal buttons. _______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
Exocytosis is the process of neurotransmitter release. When a
_______________________________
neuron is at rest, synaptic vesicles that contain small-molecule _______________________________
neurotransmitters tend to congregate near sections of the presynaptic _______________________________
membrane that are particularly rich in voltage-activated calcium _______________________________
channels. When stimulated by action potentials, these channels open, _______________________________
and Ca2+ ions enter the button. The entry of the Ca2+ ions causes _______________________________
synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and empty _______________________________
their contents into the synaptic cleft. _______________________________
_______________________________
Once released, neurotransmitter molecules produce signals in _______________________________
postsynaptic neurons by binding to receptors in the postsynaptic _______________________________
membrane. Each receptor is a protein that contains binding sites for _______________________________
_______________________________
only particular neurotransmitters; thus a neurotransmitter can in uence
_______________________________
only those cells that have receptors for it. Any molecule that binds to _______________________________
another is referred to as its ligand, and a neurotransmitter is thus said _______________________________
to be ligand of its receptor. _______________________________
_______________________________
RECEPTOR SUBTYPES _______________________________
1 | Ionotropic Receptors _______________________________
▪ Associated with ligand-activated ion channels. The associated ion _______________________________
channel usually opens and closes immediately, thereby inducing _______________________________
an immediate postsynaptic potential. _______________________________
2 | Metabopronic Receptors _______________________________
_______________________________
▪ Associated with signal proteins and G proteins (guanosine-
_______________________________
triphosphate-sensitive proteins). These receptors are more
_______________________________
prevalent than ionotropic receptors, and their effects are slower to _______________________________
develop, longer-lasting, more diffuse and more varied. _______________________________
▪ AUTORECEPTORS are metabopronic receptors that have two _______________________________
unconventional characteristics:
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 ◦ they bind to their neuron's own neurotransmitter molecules _______________________________
◦ they are located on the presynaptic, rather than postsynaptic, _______________________________
membrane _______________________________
_______________________________
If nothing intervened, a neurotransmitter molecule would remain active _______________________________
in the synapse, in effect clogging that channel of communication. _______________________________
However, two mechanisms terminate synaptic messages and keep that _______________________________
from happening. _______________________________
1 | REUPTAKE _______________________________
_______________________________
▪ This is more common; the majority of neurotransmitters, once released,
are almost immediately drawn back into the presynaptic buttons by
_______________________________
transporter mechanisms.
_______________________________
_______________________________
2 | ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION
_______________________________
▪ Other neurotransmitters are degraded (broken apart) in the synapse by the _______________________________
action of enzymes -- proteins that stimulate or inhibit biochemical
_______________________________
reactions, without being affected by them.
_______________________________
_______________________________
Another thing that we should take note is the role of gap junctions. Gap _______________________________
junctions, also known as electrical synapses, are narrow spaces _______________________________
between adjacent neurons that are bridged by ne tubular channels, _______________________________
called connexins, that contain cytoplasm. Consequently, the _______________________________
cytoplasm of the two neurons is continuous, allowing the electrical _______________________________
signals and small molecules to pass from one neuron to the next. _______________________________
_______________________________
Myelination increases the speed of axonal conduction. the _______________________________
signal jumps along the axon from node to node as seen on the image _______________________________
on the left side. This transmission action potentials in myelinated axons _______________________________
_______________________________
is called saltatory conduction (saltare means to skip or jump). Given
_______________________________
the importance of myelin in neural conduction, it is hardly surprising _______________________________
that the neurodegenerative diseases (diseases that damage the _______________________________
nervous system) that attack myelin have devastating effects on neural _______________________________
activity and behavior. _______________________________
_______________________________
Neurotransmitters _______________________________
Now that you understand the basics of neurotransmitter function, let's _______________________________
take a closer look at some of the well over 100 neurotransmitter _______________________________
substances that have been identi ed. _______________________________
_______________________________
What are the classes of conventional small-molecule neurotransmitters? _______________________________
To assess the relative contributions of genes and experience to the _______________________________
_______________________________
development of differences in psychological attributes, behavioral
_______________________________
geneticists study individuals of known genetic similarity. _______________________________
1 | AMINO ACIDS _______________________________
▪ Majority of fast-acting, directed synapses in the central nervous _______________________________
system are amino acids -- the molecular building blocks of _______________________________
proteins. _______________________________

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 2 | MONOAMINES
▪ Each is synthesized from a single amino acid -- hence the name monoamine (one amine). They are
slightly larger than amino acid neurotransmitters, and their effects tend to be more diffuse.
3 | ACETYLCHOLINE
▪ It is created by adding an acetyl group to a choline molecule. It is a neurotransmitter at neuromuscular
junctions, at many of the synapses in the autonomic nervous system, and at synapses in several parts of
the central nervous system. It is broken down by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Neurons that release
acetylcholine are said to be cholinergic.
4 | UNCONVENTIONAL NEUROTRANSMITTERS
▪ Act in ways that are different from those that neuroscientists have come to think of as typical for such
substances. One class of unconventional neurotransmitters, the soluble-gas neurotransmitters,
includes nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. They easily pass through cell membranes because they are
soluble in lipids.

Below is a table summarizing the most known neurotransmitters and how they are categorized according to
their class.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS DESCRIPTION GENERAL FUNCTION SPECIFIC EXAMPLES
Excitatory in brain and
ACETYLCHOLINE NEUROTRANSMITTER Believed to be involved in
ACETYLCHOLINE either excitatory (at
(synthesized from choline) memory because of high
(Ach) skeletal muscles) or
Learning
Involved in thought, learning, and memory. concentration found in the
inhibitory (at heart
Neurotransmitter Activates muscle action in the body. Also hippocampus (Mclyntyre
muscles) elsewhere in
associated with attention and awakening. et.al, 2002)
the body
Parkinson's disease,
MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTER characterized by tremors
In uences movement,
DOPAMINE (DA) (synthesized from tyrosine) and limb rigidity, results
attention, and learning;
Pleasure Feelings of pleasure and also addiction, from too little DA; some
Neurotransmitter mostly inhibitory but
movement, and motivation. People repeat schizophrenia symptoms
some excitatory effects
behaviors that lead to dopamine release. are associated with too
much DA
MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTER
Hormone (also known Involved in diverse effects
Epinephrine (E) (synthesized from tyrosine)
as adrenaline) involved on body related to ght-or-
Fight-or- ight Produced in stressful or exciting situations.
Neurotransmitter in regulation of ight reactions, anger, and
Increases heart rate and blood ow, leading to a
alertness fear
physical boost and heightened awareness.
MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTER
Norepinephrine (synthesized from tyrosine) Hormone (also known Involved in diverse effects
(NE) Affects attention and responding actions in the as noradrenaline) on body related to ght-or-
Concentration brain, and involved in the ght or ight involved in regulation ight reactions, anger, and
Neurotransmitter response. Contracts blood vessels, increasing of alertness fear
blood ow.
MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTER Involved in arousal,
Normally inhibits dreaming;
Serotonin (synthesized from tryptophan) sleep, and dreaming,
de cits in serotonin system
Mood Contributes to well-being and happiness; helps and mood; usually
Neurotransmitter are linked to severe
sleep cycle and digestive system regulation. inhibitory but some
depression
Affected by exercise and light exposure. excitatory effects
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 GABA (Gamma- General Currently believed to
AMINO ACID NEUROTRANSMITTER
aminobutyric neuromodulatory in uence certain
Calms ring nerves in CNS. High levels improve
Acid) effects resulting from mechanisms for learning
Calming focus; low levels cause anxiety. Also contributes
inhibitory in uences on and memory (Izquierdo &
Neurotransmitter to motor control and vision.
presynaptic axons Medina, 1997)
General Currently believed to
AMINO ACID NEUROTRANSMITTER
Glutamate neuromodulatory in uence certain
Most common brain neurotransmitter. Involved
Memory effects resulting from mechanisms for learning
Neurotransmitter in learning and memory, regulates development
inhibitory in uences on and memory (Riedel, Platt
and creation of nerve contacts.
presynaptic axons & Micheau, 2003)
Endorphins play a role in
General
NEUROPEPTIDE (peptide chains serving as pain relief.
Endorphin neuromodulatory
neurotransmitters) Neuromodulating
Euphoria effects resulting from
Neurotransmitter Released during exercise, excitement and sex, neuropeptides sometimes
inhibitory in uences on
producing well-being euphoria, reducing pain. are released to enhance
postsynaptic axons
the effects of Ach

Pharmacology of Synaptic Transmission and Behavior

Most of the methods that biopsychologists use to study the behavioral effects of neurotransmitters are
pharmacological (involving drugs). To study neurotransmitters and behavior, researchers administer to
human or nonhuman subjects drugs that have particular effects on particular neurotransmitters and then
assess the effects of the drugs on behavior.
Drugs have two fundamentally different kinds of effects on synaptic transmission:
AGONISTS
they facilitate the effects of a
particular neurotransmitter
ANTAGONISTS
they inhibit the effects of a
particular neurotransmitter

Although synthesis, release, and

action vary from neurotransmitter to
neurotransmitter, the following
seven general steps are common to
most neurotransmitters:
(1) synthesis of the
neurotransmitter, (2) storage of
vesicles, (3) breakdown in the
cytoplasm of any neurotransmitter
that leaks from the vesicles, (4)
exocytosis, (5) inhibitory feedback
via autoreceptors, (6) activation of
postsynaptic receptors, and (7)
deactivation.
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 For example, some agonists of a
particular neurotransmitter bind to
postsynaptic receptors and activate
them, whereas some antagonistic
drugs, called receptor blockers, bind to
postsynaptic receptors without
activating them and, in so doing, block
the access of the usual
neurotransmitter.

Behavioral Pharmacology: Three In uential Lines of Research _______________________________

You will encounter discussions of the putative (hypothetical) behavioral _______________________________
functions of various neurotransmitters in the next lessons. However, _______________________________
this section ends with descriptions of three particularly in uential lines _______________________________
of research on neurotransmitters and behaviors. Each line of research _______________________________
led to the discovery of an important principle of neurotransmitter _______________________________
function, and each illustrates how drugs are used to study the nervous _______________________________
system and behavior. _______________________________
1 | Wrinkles and Darts: Discovery of Receptor Subtypes _______________________________
▪ Originally, it was assumed that only one kind of receptor can pair _______________________________
with a neurotransmitter, but this was dispelled by research on _______________________________
_______________________________
acetylcholine receptors. Findings show there are two
_______________________________
acetylcholine receptors: _______________________________
◦ NICOTINIC RECEPTORS: acetylcholine receptors that bind _______________________________
to nicotine (a CNS stimulant and major psychoactive _______________________________
ingredient of tobacco). These are mostly found in the _______________________________
junctions between motor neurons and muscle bers; they _______________________________
are also ionotropic. _______________________________
◦ MUSCARINIC RECEPTORS: acetylcholine receptors that _______________________________
bind to muscarine (a poisonous substance found in some _______________________________

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 mushrooms). These are mostly located in the autonomic
_______________________________
nervous system (ANS); they are also metabotropic. _______________________________
▪ Many of the drugs that are used in research and in medicine are _______________________________
extracts of plants that have long been used for medicinal and _______________________________
recreational purposes. The cholinergic agonists and antagonists _______________________________
illustrate this point well. Here are some concrete examples: _______________________________
◦ ATROPINE _______________________________
▪ Ancient Greeks consumed extracts of belladonna _______________________________
(beautiful lady) plant to treat stomach ailments and make _______________________________
themselves more attractive -- because of its pupil-dilating _______________________________
effects. Its main ingredient is found to be atropine, a _______________________________
receptor blocker that that exerts its antagonistic effect by _______________________________
_______________________________
binding muscarinic receptors, thereby blocking the
_______________________________
effects of acetylcholine on them. The pupil-dilating effects _______________________________
are mediated by its antagonistic actions on muscarinic _______________________________
receptors in the ANS. _______________________________
▪ In contrast, the disruptive effects of large doses of _______________________________
atropine on memory is mediated by its antagonistic effect _______________________________
on muscarine receptors in the CNS. This said disruptive _______________________________
effect was one of the earliest clues that cholinergic _______________________________
mechanisms may play role in memory. _______________________________
◦ CURARE _______________________________
▪ South American natives have long used curare -- an _______________________________
extract of a certain class of woody vines -- on the tips of _______________________________
_______________________________
darts they use to kill their game and occasionally their
_______________________________
enemies. It is a receptor blocker which binds with _______________________________
nicotinic receptors. Curare blocks transmission of _______________________________
neuromuscular junctions thus paralyzing its recipients and _______________________________
killing them by blocking their respiration. _______________________________
▪ This is sometimes administered to human patients during _______________________________
surgery to ensure that their muscles do not contract _______________________________
during an incision. When curare is used for this purpose, _______________________________
the patient's breathing must be arti cially maintained by a _______________________________
respirator. _______________________________
◦ BOTOX (Botulinum toxin) _______________________________
_______________________________
▪ This is a neurotoxin released by a bacterium often found in
_______________________________
spoiled food. It is another nicotinic antagonist but with a
_______________________________
different mechanism of action; it blocks the release _______________________________
of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions and is thus a _______________________________
deadly poison. However, it can be used in medicine _______________________________
(reduction of tremors) and cosmetics (reduction of _______________________________
wrinkles) when injected in minute doses at speci c sites. _______________________________
2 | Pleasure and Pain: Discovery of Endogenous Opioids _______________________________
▪ Opium, the sticky resin obtained from the seed pods of the opium _______________________________
poppy, has been used by humans since prehistoric times for its _______________________________
pleasurable effects. Morphine, its major psychoactive ingredient, _______________________________
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 is highly addictive. But morphine has also its good side: it is an
_______________________________
effective analgesic (pain killer).
_______________________________
▪ In 1970s, it was discovered that opiate drugs such as morphine _______________________________
bind effectively to receptors in the brain, speci cally in the _______________________________
hypothalamus and limbic areas. They were mostly _______________________________
concentrated in the periaqueductal gray (PAG) area and they _______________________________
found that microinjection of morphine into the PAG, or even _______________________________
electrical stimulation of the PAG, produces strong analgesic. _______________________________
3 | Tremors and Insanity: Discovery of Antischizophrenic Drugs _______________________________
▪ Arguably, the most important event in the treatment of mental _______________________________
illness has been the development of drugs for the treatment of _______________________________
schizophrenia. Surprisingly, Parkinson's disease, played a _______________________________
major role in their discovery. Largely by chance, two drugs were _______________________________
_______________________________
found to have antischizophrenic effects. Although these two
_______________________________
drugs were not related structurally, they both produced a curious _______________________________
pattern of effects: neither drug appeared to have any _______________________________
antischizophrenic activity until patients had been taking it about _______________________________
for 3 weeks, at which point the drug also started to produce mild _______________________________
Parkinsonian symptoms (e.g. tremor-at-rest). _______________________________
▪ After this, their research ndings were: _______________________________
◦ Parkinson's disease is associated with the degeneration of _______________________________
the main dopamine pathway of the brain _______________________________
◦ Dopamine agonists (cocaine and amphetamines) produce a _______________________________
temporary disorder that resembles schizophrenia _______________________________
_______________________________
▪ With these ndings, they conclude that schizophrenia is caused
_______________________________
by excessive activity of the dopamine synapses, and thus that
_______________________________
potent dopamine antagonists would be effective in its treatment. _______________________________
▪ D2 Receptor plays a key role in schizophrenia and that drugs _______________________________
that most effectively block it are the most effective _______________________________
antischizophrenic drugs. Don't get this wrong, antischizophrenic _______________________________
drugs DON'T cure schizophrenia and don't 100% help in every _______________________________
case. BUT, they were found to help treat many patients and _______________________________
provide effective management. _______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
REFERENCE: _______________________________
Pinel, J. P. (2011). Biopsychology (Eight Edition). Pearson Education, Inc. _______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
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