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CI
19,4 The potency of recycled aggregate
in new concrete: a review
Emmanuel Ejiofor Anike
Centre for Research in the Built and Natural Environment,
594 Coventry University, Coventry, UK
Received 6 July 2018 Messaoud Saidani and Eshmaiel Ganjian
Revised 28 December 2018
20 March 2019
School of Energy, Construction and Environment,
14 May 2019 Coventry University, Coventry, UK
Accepted 7 June 2019
Mark Tyrer
Centre for Research in the Built and Natural Environment,
Coventry University, Coventry, UK, and
Adegoke Omotayo Olubanwo
School of Energy, Construction and Environment,
Coventry University, Coventry, UK

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to review the effect of using recycled aggregates (RA) on the properties of
recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) following the steady rise in global demand for concrete and the large
generation of construction and demolition waste.
Design/methodology/approach – This study reviewed relevant literature of research work carried out by
previous researchers, leading to a deeper understanding of the properties of both RA and RAC. The properties of
RA and RAC reported in the various studies were then compared to their corresponding natural aggregate (NA)
and natural aggregate concrete, as well as the specifications provided in different codes of practice. In addition,
the mix design methods appropriate to RAC and the cost implication of using RA were reviewed.
Findings – Findings show that the contribution of RA to strength appears inferior in comparison to NA.
The shortcoming is attributed to the mortar attached to the RA, which raises its water absorption capacity
and lowers its density relative to those of NA. However, it has been reported that the use of regulated quantity
of RA, new mixing and proportioning methods, the addition of admixtures and strengthening materials such
as steel fibres, can improve both mechanical and durability properties of RAC. Cost evaluation also showed
that some savings can be realized by using RA instead of NA.
Originality/value – This research serves as a guide for future works and suggests that the use of RA as
aggregate in new concrete is technically possible, depending on the mix design method adopted.
Keywords Mix design, Construction and demolition waste, Natural aggregate, Recycled aggregate,
Recycled aggregate concrete, Steel fibres
Paper type Literature review

Introduction
Concrete is indispensable in civil engineering construction works and its annual global
Construction Innovation
consumption is reportedly increasing. Nonetheless, the production of concrete has negative
Vol. 19 No. 4, 2019
pp. 594-613
environmental impacts arising from the procurement of its constituent materials –
© Emerald Publishing Limited especially cement and crushed stone. The effect of stone mining is the depletion of non-
1471-4175
DOI 10.1108/CI-07-2018-0056 renewable resources and consumption of high amount of energy (Oikonomou, 2005). About
20 billion tonnes of concrete is required worldwide every year (Mehta and Meryman, 2009) The potency of
and aggregate constitutes a greater percentage by volume of concrete in comparison to other recycled
constituent materials. Hence, the global requirement for construction aggregate per annum
was estimated to reach 26.8 billion tonnes by 2012 (Freedonia, 2007). Behera et al. (2014)
aggregate
predicted that this figure would double in the next two to three decades. A later report
released by Freedonia (2012) revealed that the World’s construction aggregates demand
would arrive at 48.3 billion tonnes annually, between the year 2015 and 2020. This
exploitation of natural aggregate (NA) has become worrisome due to associated ecological 595
concerns, thus urgent control measures are deemed appropriate for posterity.
Not only are natural resources depleted, Wang et al. (2017) pointed out that sooner or
later, most concrete structures would be demolished resulting in a large amount of
construction and demolition waste (CDW). Consequently, a high rate of waste production
emerging from CDW is now environmentally, economically and socially unbearable. Also,
due to inability to quantify and categorize CDW by waste managers, a large volume that
could be recycled ends up in a landfill for disposal (Ismail and Ramli, 2013; Silva et al., 2017).
The common practice is to discard CDW and concrete waste from other sources, in
designated dumping areas. However, Huda and Alam (2014) warned that incessant
replacement of infrastructures that are approaching their design life, proposed by Canada’s
Economic Action Plan (2009) would soon result in scarcity of landfills. Moreover, while
embargo has been placed on local production of coarse aggregate in some countries (Rahal,
2007), others have imposed levies on NA and taxes or fees on sending of CDW to landfills
(Malešev et al., 2010; WBCSD, 2012).
Recycling concrete rubble into aggregate to be used in new concrete remains an
alternative to the diminishing natural resources and remedy to the overwhelming hazards
from the large generation of construction waste. Although variability in properties of
recycled aggregate (RA) has limited its suitability for widespread engineering applications
(Younis et al., 2014). Thus, intense studies have been going on over the past few decades to
ensure the implementation of this material in concrete production, with full assurance. This
paper explores the composition of RA, its properties and effects on concrete properties.

Literature review
Fundamentally, RA is obtained from processed wastes, which originally comprised of
mixed materials of wood, reinforcements, concrete, bricks, soil, polymers and other
impurities. Returned fresh concrete from ready-mix, production waste at a pre-cast
production facilities and CDW are sources of RA (BRE Digest 433, 1998; Silva et al., 2017;
WBCSD, 2012). Thus, the production of RA is a recycling process involving a series of steps
and requires special technology. The flow chart for the recycling process of RA is shown in
Figure 1. Notwithstanding studious investigations by researchers, greater use of RA is
limited to non-structural applications for pavement base and backfill for retaining walls
(Choi and Yun, 2012; Ignjatovic et al., 2013; Sato et al., 2007). This is because research
findings have shown that the properties of RA are inferior compared to those of its
corresponding NA, following the residual mortar adhering to the RA. The attached mortar is
highly porous, thereby increases absorption capacity and lowers the density of the material.
Different techniques have been used as treatment methods to address the devastating
influence of the residual mortar. Thermal process (Mulder et al., 2007) involves heating
mixed concrete rubble to a minimum temperature of 700°C to separate its ingredients, while
chemical process (Ismail and Ramli, 2013; Wang et al., 2017) consists of soaking RA in a
solution of hydrochloric, sulphuric or phosphoric acid, which helps to dissolve the adhering
mortar. While the former requires a high amount of thermal energy and accompanied by
CI
19,4

596

Figure 1.
Recycling aggregate
process

Carbon (IV) oxide emission, the latter introduces chloride and sulphate ions that are
detrimental to the aggregates and can be harmful to workers. Another technique is to alter
the water–cement ratios of the concrete mix to improve the compressive strength of recycled
aggregate concrete (RAC) (Dhir et al., 1999; Topcu and Sengel, 2004).
Various mixing methods (Liang et al., 2013; Tam et al., 2005, 2006) and surface condition
for RA (Duan and Poon, 2014; Etxeberria et al., 2007; Ferreira et al., 2011; Hansen, 1992;
Leite, 2001; Silva et al., 2016) have also been proposed to revamp the performance of RA.
Likewise, the addition of superplasticizers (Bravo et al., 2017; Malešev et al., 2010; Tabsh and
Abdelfatah, 2009; Wagih et al., 2013) impacts on RAC and in recent times, fibres are added to
RAC (Afroughsabet et al., 2017; Gao et al., 2017; Senaratne et al., 2016; Vaishali and Rao,
2012). Furthermore, quality of parent concrete (Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz, 2002; Kou
and Poon, 2012a; Padmini et al., 2009; Silva et al., 2014) plays a pivotal role in the mechanical
properties of RA. Fathifazl et al. (2009) suggested that the way out of any likely undesirable
consequences of RA of varied quality is to adjust the total mortar volume of RAC to match
that of its companion natural aggregate concrete (NAC).
Until 2009, the conventional mix proportioning method has been used to prepare RAC
mixes. However, RA is an impure material and using the normal mix design approach
would imply treating RA as its analogous NA, which is otherwise pure material. To this end,
Fathifazl et al. (2009) proposed that the residual mortar in RA should be treated as part of the
overall mortar content of RAC. This would ensure that the composition of RA is made akin
to that of NA and the authors achieved a RAC with greater elastic modulus than that of its
source concrete. Recently, another group of scholars (Pradhan et al., 2017) proposed the
particle packing method (PPM) for production of RAC. PPM is an optimization-based
approach, which aims to minimize void content in RAC by maximizing packing density.
This follows that the problem with RA is not inherent but the way RAC mixes are designed
and proportioned.

Research methodology
This paper reviews the characteristics of RA and the properties of the ensued RAC, as
documented in the works of previous researchers. Over a hundred articles in the related
subject were referenced, to have an overview regarding the use of RA over the past few
decades. A background was laid by considering different descriptions of RA. Next, the The potency of
requirements for which RA can be adopted for concrete making, established in relevant recycled
codes of practice, were reviewed. References were made to such manual provisions
accordingly, to determine if the properties of materials used by various authors in their
aggregate
studies agree with those specifications. Then, the properties of RA and RAC were examined
in comparison with those of NA and NAC, respectively. Some results obtained in different
studies were collated and presented pictorially (where possible) in this paper, for a better
understanding. Finally, various improvement techniques that have been studied, for the 597
application of RA and cost consequences of using RA were also assessed. This research
method aided the authors’ understanding of the performance of RA in concrete and helped in
making suggestions for further studies.

Results and discussion

Composition of recycled aggregates
Generally, RA is described as a composite material whose texture is rough and porous,
consisting of some impurities, hardened mortar, unbound stones and natural virgin
aggregate with adhered mortar held together by a weak bond (Duan and Poon, 2014;
Ravindrarajah, 1996). According to Fathifazl et al. (2009), RA is a two-phase material
comprising of residual mortar and the original virgin aggregate. In some circumstances, RA
constitutes of reasonable amount of NA with excessive number of contaminants that need to
be removed (BRE Digest 433, 1998) and RA is classified into three as shown in Table I.
However, depending on the source, fraction size and the degree of processing of RA, the
above definitions might slightly vary. For instance, larger size well-processed RA sourced
from concrete waste would constitute of original virgin aggregate coated with dry mortar on
its surface. Smaller size group would comprise of numerous particles of mortar and tiny
impurities that cannot easily be removed, in addition to aggregates of natural features.

Properties of recycled aggregates

Bulk density. This property of aggregate is directly proportional to the density of concrete
(Duan and Poon, 2014; Gameiro et al., 2014) and aggregate type influences it. Several
findings showed that RA has a lower bulk density than NA (Chakradhara Rao et al., 2011;
Hansen, 1986; Rahal, 2007; Younis et al., 2014). Density decreases with higher amount of
attached mortar (de Juan and Gutiérrez, 2009; Kurda et al., 2017) and lower bulk density of
RA compared to NA is linked with the higher porosity of the former (Wagih et al., 2013).
That is, in addition to adhering mortar, RA contains pores, which make it lighter than its
parallel NA.
Water absorption. The worst undoing of the clinging mortar is the excessive increase in
the absorption capacity of RA (Boulekbache et al., 2016; Duan and Poon, 2014; Kang et al.,
2014). As a matter of fact, the misconception about the method of mix design to be adopted
for RAC arises from this property of RA. Whereby, the use of conventional method ends up

Class Original (normal circumstances) Brick content by weight (%)

RA (I) Brickwork 0-100

RA (II) Concrete 1-10
RA (III) Concrete and brick 1-50
Table I.
Source: Adapted from BRE Digest 433 (1998) Classes of RA
CI altering the intended water–cement ratio of the mix. Generally, RA has a higher degree of
19,4 water absorption than NA. While RA of sizes 10 and 20 mm showed absorption capacities of
5.9 and 4.3 per cent, its equivalent NA was 1.2 and 0.7 per cent, respectively, (Senaratne et al.,
2016). About 64 per cent more absorption capacity was reported by Chakradhara Rao et al.
(2011) for RA than NA, albeit the source of RA plays a significant role (Kisku et al., 2012;
Nováková and Mikulica, 2016). RA obtained from 15 different sources showed varied water
598 absorption capacity in the range of 2.15-7.15 per cent (Wagih et al., 2013). Therefore, RA
obtained from separate sources possesses varying absorption capacity and this factor
increases with decreasing particles size.
Results from different studies collated (Verian et al., 2018) reveal that the absorptions of
recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) and recycled fine aggregate (RFA) from a wide variety of
sources, ranged from 0.30-9.25 per cent and 0.19-13.10 per cent, respectively. Notably, the
reported 0.19 per cent was obtained from recycled sanitary ware; otherwise, the next value
in the range reported is an oven-dry absorption of 8.0 per cent. On the other hand, the same
report shows that the absorptions of companion NA are in the range of 0.18-4.70 per cent
and 0.32-3.00 per cent, for coarse and fine aggregates, respectively. Hence, the overall degree
of absorption reduces as particle size increases (Hansen and Narud, 1983). Nevertheless, the
requirements upon, which RA can be used in concrete making, in terms of water absorption
are given in Tables II and III by different specifications. It is advisable to determine this
property of RA prior to mix design for necessary and sufficient adjustment in quantity of all
concrete ingredients.
Sieve analysis, Los Angeles abrasion, fineness and surface texture. Particle size has a
direct effect on the quality of concrete produced (Pradhan et al., 2017). After the recycling
process, the amount of fines present in RA depends on the quality of the old concrete (Wagih
et al., 2013). Also, the amount of attached mortar increases with decreasing particles size (de
Juan and Gutiérrez, 2009) and this mortar is susceptible to separation, inducing lower
crushing and impact strengths and abrasion resistance in RAC compared to NAC
(Chakradhara Rao et al., 2011). Impact values of 35 and 17.37 per cent and abrasion
resistance of 37.1 and 21.56 per cent were recorded for RA and NA, respectively,
(Chakradhara Rao et al., 2011). These values are comparable to those obtained by Wagih
et al. (2013), who reported impact values in the range of 21-38 per cent and abrasion index in
the range of 31-47 per cent for RA obtained from 15 different sources. Tabsh and Abdelfatah
(2009) tested RA from known and unknown sources and reported an average of 30 and 34
per cent more losses in abrasion, respectively, compared with its analogous NA.

Properties of recycled aggregate concrete

The behaviour of concrete through its service life under various exposure and loading
conditions is controlled by its mechanical properties. Such properties of concrete as density,
elastic modulus, the bond strength between concrete and reinforcements, strength in tension

Water absorption of aggregate (%)

Table II. Grade Purpose Coarse Fine
Standards for water
I Structural concrete <3 <5
absorption of II Non-structural concrete <5 <10
different grades of III Non-structural concrete or filler for road construction <7
RA given by
Korean standard Source: Adapted from Tabsh and Abdelfatah (2009)
 Properties
Specification Composition (% by weight) Absorption (%) Bulk density (kg/m3) Amount of fines (%)

Belgium Minimum 95% crushed concrete #10 6 2
2,200 1.5

Brazil More than 90% crushed concrete #7 N/A* N/A*
Czech Republic Minimum 90% crushed concrete #10
2,000 N/A*
Germany Minimum 90% crushed concrete #10
2,000 N/A*
Hong Kong Less than 100% crushed concrete #10
2,000 N/A*
Netherlands Minimum 95% crushed concrete N/A* N/A* 1.0
Norway More than 94% crushed concrete #10
2,000 N/A*
Portugal Minimum 90% crushed concrete #7
2,200 4.0
RILEM Less than 100% crushed concrete #10
2,000 N/A*

Note: *Not available

Source: Adapted from Goncalves and Brito (2010) and Nováková and Mikulica (2016)

recycled concrete
Table III.

aggregate
599
aggregate
The potency of

Specifications for
recycled
CI and compression, etc. (Kisku et al., 2012) are regarded as the mechanical properties. Choi and
19,4 Yun (2012) proposed that before RAC can be acceptable for structural applications, the
proper examination on the type, quality and quantity of required coarse and fine RA should
be carried out. In addition, Cardoso et al. (2016) highlighted that the physical properties of
RA are not only a function of the recycled material but also dependent on the production
process. Some important characteristics of concrete are hereby discussed.
600 Workability. Because of the high absorption affinity of RA, workability of RAC is crucial
as its effect may mar the properties of hardened concrete. Sometimes, additional water or the
use of admixtures (superplasticizer) is required to match the workability of RAC and normal
concrete. It was reported that an increase in water content by up to 13 per cent was needed to
obtain similar workability for RAC and NAC (Wagih et al., 2013), this is as a result of the
attached mortar, rough surface texture and more angularity in shape of the RA compared to
NA (Chakradhara Rao et al., 2011). Therefore, increase in quantity of RA decreases
workability, and full replacement of NA with RA attracts about 10 per cent additional water
to attain similar workability if no super-plasticizer is added (Malešev et al., 2010; Tabsh and
Abdelfatah, 2009; Wagih et al., 2013). With a similar amount of superplasticizer in RAC and
NAC, Chakradhara Rao et al. (2011) measured workability using slump value and recorded
about 6 per cent lower slump for RAC in relation to NAC. Conversely, Malešev et al. (2010)
observed no significant difference in workability after 30 min, for the three types of concrete
produced using 0, 50 and 100 per cent replacements of NA with RA. In terms of particles
size, the use of 20 per cent RFA in concrete is of inconsequential effect on workability (Kisku
et al., 2012). However, workability issues ensue upon further increase (Debieb et al., 2010). It
has also been noted that the mix design method affects the workability of RAC (Fathifazl
et al., 2009; Gupta and Bhatia, 2013; Pradhan et al., 2017).
Density. Rahal (2007) investigated the mechanical properties of concrete produced from
100 per cent RA and observed about 3.6 per cent lower density when compared to concrete
made of NA. This value is comparable to 3 per cent reduction in bulk density of RAC noted
by Malešev et al. (2010) and Chakradhara Rao et al. (2011) when full and 25 per cent
replacements of NA with RA are considered, respectively. Mainly, owing to the mortar
attached to RA, the density of RAC has been found lower than that of NAC. Work by Omary
et al. (2016) showed that the density of RAC responds to the porosity of both concrete and
aggregate, which subsequently depends on replacement ratios with RA.
Compressive strength. The property of concrete that relates with other properties is the
compressive strength, thus it is regarded as the most essential mechanical properties of
concrete as it always shows the general quality (Wagih et al., 2013). Etxeberria et al. (2007)
revealed that the compressive strength of RAC is dependent on the quality of RA thereof.
This statement is supported by other scholars who maintained that good quality RA
produced probably from high-strength old concrete, would produce concrete with unaffected
compressive strength irrespective of the substitution level of NA with RA (Afroughsabet
et al., 2017; Malešev et al., 2010). For instance, when RA was sourced from the concrete of
30 MPa strength, Tabsh and Abdelfatah (2009) observed a 30 per cent loss in compressive
strength of RAC in relation to NAC. Conversely, a comparable strength was achieved when
the authors used RA obtained from parent concrete of 50 MPa. In addition, Rahal (2007)
upheld that although the strength and water–cement ratio of the old concrete influence the
compressive strength of RAC, the strength of the new concrete is not limited to that of the
source concrete.
Some authors, however, assert that RA has a significant influence on the compressive
strength of concrete, depending on the amount used and method of concrete preparation.
About 20 per cent loss in 28 days strength was recorded (Corinaldesi, 2011) by using 30
per cent RA replacement regardless of the cement type. Wagih et al. (2013) noticed 28 per cent The potency of
reduction in compressive strength with more than 50 per cent RA replacement. Choi and Yun recycled
(2012) found that the compressive strength of RAC decreased with increasing RA quantity and
upheld that NAC has a slightly higher strength value than RAC. In terms of preparation, the
aggregate
compressive strength of RAC mixes prepared using two-stage mixing approach (TSMA)
greatly improved compared to that produced using the normal mixing approach (NMA) (Tam
et al., 2005; Tam and Tam, 2008). Fathifazl et al. (2009) and Gupta and Bhatia (2013) reported
that RAC designed and proportioned using equivalent mortar volume (EMV) method had a 601
higher compressive strength than those proportioned with the orthodox mix design method.
Also, the moisture condition of RA influences the compressive strength of concrete. The use of
air-dried RA produced the best result than comparable saturated surface-dry and oven-dry
ones, for all tested ages using 100 per cent replacement of NA with RA (Poon et al., 2004).
Flexural strength. A study by Ignjatovic et al. (2013) reported practically the same
flexural capacity for both RAC and NAC beams. In the same vein, Choi et al. (2012) observed
no significant difference in this property even with up to 100 per cent replacement of NA by
RA. While other scholars is of the view that the flexural strength of RAC is inversely related
to substitution ratio with RA (Heeralal et al., 2009; Katz, 2003; Malešev et al., 2010; Padmini
et al., 2009; Topcu and Sengel, 2004). Sato et al. (2007) maintained that RA is inferior to NA
from the flexural point of view.
Nevertheless, in comparison with concrete cylinders made with NA, Malešev et al. (2010)
observed 5 per cent increase in flexural strength of RAC with 50 per cent RA and 4 per cent
reduction with 100 per cent RA. Andreu and Miren (2014) studied the influence of RA
substitution levels (0, 20, 50 and 100 per cent) on flexural strength of RAC, using RA
obtained from concretes of 40, 60 and 100 MPa strengths. Also, Limbachiya et al. (2000)
investigated the effects of RA substitutions (0, 30, 50 and 100 per cent) on both flexural
strength and different RAC design strengths. The findings of studies by both Andreu and
Miren (2014) and Limbachiya et al. (2000) are collated and presented graphically in Figure 2.
From Figure 2, it is evident that RAC with similar or higher flexural strength when
compared with NAC, can be produced. Also, the variation of results (for each case study) at
full and zero replacements with RA is insignificant. Furthermore, it was reported that the
failure patterns of the tested RAC beam specimens showed elastic, elasto-plastic and failure
stages and that their flexural responses are similar to those of normal concrete (Qin et al.,
2012). Again, the responses of both NAC and RAC beams in flexure yielded similar crack

Figure 2.
Flexural strength of
RAC for different
experimental studies
observed at 7 and
28 days
CI morphology and propagation but not crack spacing (Arezoumandi et al., 2015). Thus,
19,4 flexural strength could be considered as not adversely affected when RA is used in concrete
production, although the optimization of RA is deemed appropriate.
The presence of steel fibre (SF) in RAC has been reported to improve flexural strength as
expected (Afroughsabet et al., 2017; Younis et al., 2014). According to Younis et al. (2014), the
flexural performance of RAC was increase by 15 per cent when 2 per cent (by mass of
602 concrete) SF was added and this value exceeded that of NAC devoid of SF (Younis et al.,
2014). This is due to the potency of SF to bridge crack propagation and absorb a significant
amount of energy during deformation.
Splitting tensile strength. Experimental studies by several authors have shown that RAC
is deficient in this property relative to NAC. Wagih et al. (2013) reported a reduction in the
28 days splitting tensile strength of RAC in the range of 9-24 per cent compared to its
parallel NAC. Using RA from 15 different sources, the least tensile strength value of 3.41
MPa was recorded when 100 per cent replacement of NA with RA was investigated (Wagih
et al., 2013). With up to 100 per cent RA, Chakradhara Rao et al. (2011) recorded 23 per cent
decrease in splitting tensile strength. Conversely, Malešev et al. (2010) stated that splitting
tensile strength does not depend majorly on the quantity of RA but on its quality. This
statement was supported by Tabsh and Abdelfatah (2009), who found that tensile strength
of RAC was reduced by 10-15 per cent compared to NAC when RA was sourced from lower
grade concrete (30 MPa). In the same study, similar tensile strength was obtained for both
RAC and NAC with RA from 50 MPa parent concrete. Also, the use of admixtures affects the
splitting tensile strength of RAC (Dilbas et al., 2014; Pereira et al., 2012; Rahal, 2007).
On the other hand, a study by Andreu and Miren (2014) showed that RAC has a tensile
strength of similar or higher value, even at 100 per cent substitution, than its equivalent
conventional concrete. Figure 3 shows splitting tensile strength results from a few studies
collated in the present study. For purpose of clarity, only the common ratios (0, 50 and 100
per cent) of RCA substitution are presented. Results by Afroughsabet et al. (2017) stands out
because their RAC was designed for high-strength performance and the strength of original
concrete that produced the RA was 80 MPa, which is relatively higher than those used in the
other studies presented. However, only in Bravo et al. (2015) was the splitting tensile
strength of RAC at all replacements lesser than that of NAC. This may be due to the use of
RA obtained from different sources compared with the use of RA from one source used in

Figure 3.
Splitting tensile
strength of RAC for
different
experimental studies
with similar
replacement ratios
other studies. It follows therefore that the use of RA does not have a devastating effect on The potency of
the splitting tensile strength of concrete, nevertheless, the mixture of RA from a variety of recycled
sources could otherwise be disadvantageous.
Elastic modulus. This is the mostly affected property when RA replaces NA in concrete.
aggregate
Various studies have shown that the modulus of elasticity of RAC is lower than that of its
corresponding NAC (Bravo et al., 2015; Etxeberria et al., 2007; Malešev et al., 2010). Even
though other properties of RAC seem to have matched those of NAC, Fathifazl et al. (2009)
603
maintained that lower elastic modulus has not been salvaged. This is attributed to volume
fractions and lower elastic modulus of the residual mortar. Nevertheless, the use of RA from
high-strength parent concrete favours the elastic modulus of RAC (Li et al., 2009). Also,
designing for higher strength RAC produces concrete of greater elastic modulus compare to
NAC (Limbachiya et al., 2000). The role of RA substitution ratio is also instrumental to the
elastic behaviour of resulting concrete. This is because the modulus of elasticity of RAC
primarily depends on the elastic modulus of its RA. While 25 per cent RA content gave a
reduced elastic modulus in the range of 2.5-5 per cent, full replacement resulted in the range
of 8-15 per cent reduction (Wagih et al., 2013). The authors reported that the presence of
silica fume in the concrete mix with 100 per cent RA improved elastic modulus by 8 per cent
and this they ascribed to the enhancement of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between
the old adhered mortar and the new mortar in the RAC. The modulus of elasticity of RAC
with cylindrical strength between 25 and 30 MPa was found to be lesser than that of NAC by
3 per cent (Rahal, 2007). Irrespective of particles gradation, Corinaldesi (2011) reported 16
per cent lower value for elastic modulus using 30 per cent RA and a more unfavourable
result of 21 per cent decrease when both recycled coarse and fine aggregates were partly
replaced. However, from the viewpoint of Fathifazl et al. (2009), mix proportioning method is
the major factor influencing elastic modulus of RAC.
Drying shrinkage and creep. These two factors are responsible for deformations in the
concrete and are manifested due to changes in volume (reduction) and strain (increase) in
concrete. It has been established from the literature that drying shrinkage of RAC (Sagoe-
Crentsil et al., 2001; Tam, Tam and Le, 2007; Malešev et al., 2010; Kwan et al., 2012; Kou and
Poon, 2012b; Thiery et al., 2013; Beltran et al., 2014; Matias et al., 2014; Snyder, 2016) is
proportional to replacement of NA with RA. Shrinkage strain increases with increasing
relative water absorption of aggregates in RAC than NAC (Yang et al., 2008). Malešev et al.
(2010) noticed that 50 and 100 per cent substitutions with RA produced 10 and 20 per cent
higher drying shrinkage, respectively, in comparison with conventional concrete. This
finding agrees with the result published by Domingo-Cabo et al. (2009), who with 50 per cent
RA substitution obtained 12 per cent higher drying shrinkage than that of concrete made
with NA after 180 days. Sato et al. (2007) reported up to 30 per cent more drying shrinkage
when NA were replaced with RA while substitution for all aggregates with RA yielded 150
per cent increment. This excessive increase in shrinkage at the complete replacement of all
aggregates is attributed to a higher percentage of residual mortar associated with finer
particles of RA. Consequently, absorption capacity is increased (Kwan et al., 2012) resulting
to internal hydrostatic pressure, which subsequently leads to expansion.
Similarly, creep increases as substitution level with RA increases (Tam and Tam, 2007;
Kou and Poon, 2012b). Creep is as a result of rise in strain over a continuous stress (Kisku
et al., 2012). From the mixing point of view, TSMA performed better in reducing creep in
RAC to about 26 per cent at full replacement with RA than its companion NMA (Tam and
Tam, 2007). Furthermore, fibre-reinforced concretes respond to creep differently (Buratti and
Mazzotti, 2012; Mackay and Trottier, 2004) depending on the type and volume fraction of
CI fibres. It is recommended that the contribution of SF, which has been found to perform
19,4 better than other fibres, in RAC be thoroughly investigated in terms of creep resistance.
Freeze-and-thaw resistance. Freeze-and-thaw is a concern majorly in regions of extreme
low temperatures and several factors are associated with the response of RAC to this
property, including quality and quantity of RA. The resistance of RAC to freeze-and-thaw is
lower in relation with NAC due to higher porosity of RA, which engenders its undesirable
604 absorption and concrete of degrading characteristics (Salem et al., 2003). Another important
factor that influences the behaviour of concrete to freezing-and-thawing is air-entrainment
(Kisku et al., 2012) and the use of air-entraining admixtures should be properly investigated
prior to adoption. Research carried out (Gokce et al., 2004) upheld that RAC manufactured
with RA obtained from air-entrained parent concrete had better resistance to freeze-and-
thaw than those derived from the non-air-entrained counterpart. However, Liu et al. (2016)
investigated the role of the strength of parent concrete on the resistance capability of RAC to
freeze-and-thaw and reported no effect. The authors also maintained that the influence of
mixing approach is inconsequential.

Improvement in the properties of recycled aggregates and recycled aggregate concrete

Improving the properties of recycled aggregates. In terms of structural purposes, current
codes of practice (BS 8500-1:2015þA2, 2019; BS EN 12620þA1, 2008; DIN 4226-100, 2002)
have imposed restrictions on the use of RA. However, efforts are being made by researchers
to address most of the issues associated with RA and significant progress has been
recorded. It has been established from the literature that RA and NA are handled differently
for concrete production. While NA is used in its dry state for concrete production, Hansen
(1992) proposed that RA be used in its saturated surface-dry form. This is to restrain RA
from soaking up the available water intended for the workability of the mix and to achieve
similar workability with conventional concrete produced using NA (Silva et al., 2016).
A group of other researchers (Etxeberria et al., 2007) recommended wetting RA with the
aid of sprinkler system, a day prior to use and using a plastic sheet to cover the material to
sustain its humidity up to 80 per cent of the overall absorption of RA. The authors
maintained that RA should not be saturated before usage, as the ITZ between the new
cement mortar and saturated RA would be affected. According to Poon et al. (2004),
saturation point may lead to bleeding, which ultimately would impact the ITZ and
subsequently the bond strength of the formed concrete. Nevertheless, Ferreira et al. (2011)
investigated the pre-saturation method and mixing water compensation method proposed
by Leite (2001) and concluded that both methods are adequate to control the water
absorption of RA to obtain desirable technological control in concrete production. In all, it is
not recommended to use RA in its complete dried form in the production of concrete.
Improving the properties of recycled aggregate concrete. Due to the higher absorption
capacity of RA, the preparation of RAC mixes differs from those of NAC. The implication of
using conventional mix design for RAC is that the overall mortar content of the mix,
comprising of dry cement paste and new mortar, is found higher than that of its equivalent
NAC designed with the same method (Abbas et al., 2009). Hence, the use of alternative mix
proportioning methods and mixing techniques such as TSMA and mortar mixing approach
or sand-enveloped mixing approach is proposed (Fathifazl et al., 2009; Liang et al., 2013;
Pradhan et al., 2017; Tam et al., 2006; Tam and Tam, 2008). The procedures for the various
mixing methods for the enhancement of RAC characteristics are shown in Figures 4-8. The
combination of these methods may result in a greater effect on both fresh and hardened
properties of concrete.
 Furthermore, the presence of fibres in RAC has recently been investigated (Afroughsabet The potency of
et al., 2017; Gao et al., 2017; Kang et al., 2017; Senaratne et al., 2016; Vaishali and Rao, 2012). recycled
Generally, the presence of fibres influences concrete behaviour in compression, flexure,
aggregate
tension and crack development. With respect to compression, increase in strength was
noticed in concrete with fibres (Graeff, 2011; Lim and Oh, 1999; Pilakoutas et al., 2004;
Tlemat, 2004; Younis et al., 2014) whereas there was a reduction in strength when fibre was
added to concrete (Altun et al., 2007; Boulekbache et al., 2010, 2012; Erdem et al., 2011; Lee 605
and Barr, 2004). These opposing results may be attributed to the volume of fibres added, as
the high volume would cause balling effect thereby reducing concrete strength. However,
other strength properties of concrete are favoured by steel fibres, to the extent that Vaishali
and Rao (2012) recommended the use of both recycled coarse and fine aggregates in high-
performance concrete as long as steel fibre is added in the volume not exceeding 1 per cent.

Cost implications of using recycled aggregates

Apart from its environmental benefits, the use of RA has been found to give some savings
over NA. According to Environmental Council of Concrete Organization (ECCO, 1997), up to

Figure 4.
Normal mixing
approach

Figure 5.
Two-stage-mixing
approach þ silica
fume

Figure 6.
Two-stage mixing
approach þ silica
fume and cement

Figure 7.
Mortar mixing
approach

Figure 8.
Sand enveloped
mixing approach
CI 60 per cent savings is achieved by using RA instead of NA. This is possible when the cost of
19,4 removing the adhered mortar is eliminated and savings on landfilling/disposal costs, potential
use of RFA and probable road damage from haulage of NA or rubble are factored out. Verian
et al. (2013) reported the possibility of cost reduction between $2.26 and $2.93 in every tonne of
pavement concrete, by using RA. A benefit-cost analysis carried out in Malaysia showed that
the overall benefit of using recycled material is valued at 2.5 per cent of the entire project cost
606 (Begum et al., 2006). A similar analysis conducted in China revealed that net benefits are
realized from CDW management and suggested that higher landfill charges would yield a
higher profit (Yuan et al., 2011). Other cost benefits arise from energy consumption. Verian
et al. (2018) assume that as the unit weight of RA is lower than that of NA, the energy
consumption for the same hauling distance is more with NA. A study by Hossain et al. (2016)
reported that using RCA in Hong Kong saves about 58 per cent of the energy utilization.

Conclusions
This paper reviewed the effect of using RA in the manufacture of RAC and the conclusions
drawn from the study are as stated below:
 the presence of residual mortar in RA makes the difference in its composition and is
responsible for its shortfalls when compared to NA. As the RA is not a
homogeneous material, unlike its parallel virgin aggregate, the design of RAC mixes
using the conventional mix design method is not suitable;
 in terms of workability, additional water or the use of superplasticizer is required
to match the flowability of RAC and NAC mixes, and this requirement is more
when RFA is used;
 generally, the density of RAC is lesser than that of NAC irrespective of the substitution
level with RA. However, in some studies, the compressive strength, splitting tensile
strength and flexural strength of RAC are sometimes found to be similar, higher or
lower relative to those of its equivalent NAC. Such factors as sources of RA (grade and
composition of parent concrete), mixing method, mix proportioning method, RA
content, condition of RA (dried, saturated surface-dry or wet) and the use of admixtures,
are considered to have influenced the outcomes of those studies;
 certain practices improve the quality of RA and its resulting concrete. This includes
wetting of the RA prior to usage, altering the water–cement ratio of RAC mixes,
inclusion of superplasticizer, a different mixing approach (e.g. TSMA), regulating
the amount of RA, alternative to conventional mix design methods and the addition
of steel fibres; and
 from a cost point of view, some economic benefits can be derived from using RA
over NA in concrete making.

Based on the above findings, the authors make following recommendations for future
works:
 the use of RA in the concrete making is technically feasible but there is a need to
develop a mix design for RAC that would incorporate all characteristics of RA in its
approach. Thus, present codes of practice that make use of parameters and curves
derived from studies based on normal aggregates, should properly be investigated.
Such design methods, even when they give good results, are likely to use excessive
cement content, hence undesirable from an economical viewpoint and carbon footprint;
  although the inclusion of steel fibres has been reported to have a notable positive The potency of
influence on mechanical properties of RAC, the optimized fibre volume ratio is recycled
deemed necessary to ensure a cost-effective product; and
aggregate
 adequate characterization of RA should be ensured before adopting them in concrete
production. This would include proper gradation especially when RFA is to be used.

Limitation of study 607

This paper reviewed more than a hundred articles, however, there exist over a thousand
publications in the related subject. Consequently, a number of significant works from the
past research might have been missed. Also, being a review paper, validation using
experimental studies has not been carried out.

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Corresponding author
Emmanuel Ejiofor Anike can be contacted at: anikee@uni.coventry.ac.uk

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