Article

Formwork Engineering for Sustainable Concrete Construction

Jonny Nilimaa * , Yaser Gamil and Vasiola Zhaka

Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology,
SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden; yaser.gamil@ltu.se (Y.G.); vasiola.zhaka@ltu.se (V.Z.)
* Correspondence: jonny.nilimaa@ltu.se

Abstract: This study provides a comprehensive review of the engineering challenges of formwork
in concrete construction. The paper investigates different formwork systems, their design based
on form pressure, and the difficulties of form stripping. Alternative binders are gaining more and
more interest by opening new opportunities for sustainable concrete materials and their impact on
form pressure and concrete setting is also investigated in this paper. The discussion involves several
engineering challenges such as sustainability, safety, and economy, while it also explores previous
case studies, and discusses future trends in formwork design. The findings pinpoint that choosing
an appropriate formwork system depends significantly on project-specific constraints and that the
development of innovative materials and technologies presents significant benefits but also new
challenges, including the need for training and regulation. Current trends in formwork design and
use show promising possibilities for the integration of digital technologies and the development of
sustainable and ‘smart’ formwork systems. Continued research within the field has the possibility to
explore new formwork materials and technologies, which will contribute to the implementation of
more effective and sustainable practices in concrete construction.

Keywords: formwork systems; concrete construction; form pressure; form stripping; alternative
binders; sustainability; formwork design; digital technologies

1. Introduction
Citation: Nilimaa, J.; Gamil, Y.;
Zhaka, V. Formwork Engineering for Formwork is a temporary or permanent mold which can be contained and shaped
Sustainable Concrete Construction. while wet until it hardens, and can support itself and all additional loads during construc-
CivilEng 2023, 4, 1098–1120. tion [1]. The temporary formwork is removed when the concrete has gained sufficient
https://doi.org/10.3390/ strength, while the permanent types are integrated as permanent parts of the structure [2].
civileng4040060 Formwork is a crucial aspect of concrete construction, representing a significant proportion
of the total cost and is required for a major part of the time during cast-in-place projects [3].
Academic Editors: Angelo Luongo
and Francesco D’Annibale
According to Kreiger et al., the material and labor costs for formwork can be as high as
35–60% of the total costs [4]. The choice and execution of formwork can greatly influence
Received: 18 July 2023 the surface quality and finish, as well as the strength development and durability of the
Revised: 9 October 2023 concrete structures being built [5]. Understanding the wide range of engineering aspects
Accepted: 12 October 2023 of formwork is therefore essential for construction professionals seeking to optimize their
Published: 17 October 2023
work in terms of cost effectiveness and quality. This paper aims to provide a comprehen-
sive review of these aspects, including types and materials used for formwork, design
of formwork based on form pressure, form stripping considerations, and the impact of
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
alternative binders on the setting of concrete.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Formwork has been used for concrete construction for centuries, and the technological
This article is an open access article aspects and understanding has also developed over time to meet the changing demands
distributed under the terms and of the construction industry [5]. The Romans used wooden formwork to shape their
conditions of the Creative Commons concrete structures [6], and some of these structures, for example Pantheon, remain after
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// almost 2000 years, demonstrating the incredible durability of concrete as a construction
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ material. The roman concrete mix contained natural pozzolans from volcanic ash, burnt
4.0/). lime, pumice aggregates, and water, demonstrating the sustainability and potential to

CivilEng 2023, 4, 1098–1120. https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4040060 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/civileng

CivilEng 2023, 4 1099

produce concrete without additional CO2 emissions [7]. As construction methodologies

and formwork systems advanced, new materials and designs were incorporated to improve
the efficiency, safety, and quality of concrete construction. A variety of formwork types are
used today, including different materials such as timber, steel, plywood, aluminum, and
plastic, each with its unique advantages and disadvantages [8]. The form systems can also
be distinguished as temporary forms, which are removed after the concrete has hardened,
or permanent forms which remain after the concrete has hardened, forming a composite
structure [9].
Form stripping, or the process of removing the formwork after the concrete has
hardened, is another essential aspect for constructors as they usually prefer to remove
it as early as possible for increased productivity and reduced costs [10]. The timing and
method of form stripping can have a significant impact on the quality of the finished
concrete surface, as well as the structural integrity [5]. Form stripping too early can lead
to unsafe situations, and cause damage or deformation to the structure. Leaving the
formwork in place too long, on the other hand, can make the form removal difficult and
increase construction time and costs considerably [11]. Formwork design is a complex
engineering task that requires a deep understanding of several factors such as concrete
hydration, strength development, and form pressure [12,13]. The pressure exerted by
the fresh concrete on the formwork can significantly affect the stability and safety of the
formwork system. The form pressure is influenced by several factors such as the rate
of concrete placement, the internal and ambient temperatures, the characteristics of the
concrete mix, and the use of chemical admixtures [14,15]. Designing formwork to withstand
the pressure, as well as additional construction loads, without compromising the quality of
the finished concrete is an important concern for engineers, especially for high structures
like walls and columns, which are naturally exposed to higher pressures [15].
The use of alternative binders in concrete mixtures is becoming more common as
the construction industry seeks to reduce its environmental footprint and improve the
properties of concrete [16–21]. The cement industry accounts for about 7–8% of the global
CO2 emissions and there is an urgent need to find more sustainable alternatives for ma-
terial production as well as construction procedures [22]. Alternative binders may offer
opportunities to reduce the environmental impacts considerably, but they can also affect
the material processes of concrete, such as setting and hardening [23,24]. This, in turn,
influences the early material properties such as the concrete strength, and leads to engi-
neering concerns regarding form pressure, form stripping, and the overall design and use
of formwork [25]. A comprehensive understanding of how these binders interact with
concrete and formwork is therefore crucial for effective formwork design and use.
This paper investigates the current knowledge regarding these concerns and other crit-
ical aspects of formwork for concrete construction. Despite the extensive use of formwork
in concrete construction, there is a lack of comprehensive review papers addressing its
engineering aspects. Most existing literature focuses on specific aspects, such as a particular
type of formwork, or a single aspect of formwork design or use. This paper aims to fill the
gap by providing a comprehensive overview of different engineering aspects of formwork
for concrete construction. In the following sections, the paper will explore the types of
formworks, investigate different approaches for formwork design, and discuss the process
and requirements for form stripping. It will also examine how the use of alternative binders
affects the setting of concrete and thereby the form pressure. Finally, it will discuss different
issues related to sustainability, cost, and safety, and explore future trends and technologies
in formwork design and use.

2. Formwork Types
The choice of formwork is an important aspect of concrete construction as it can
greatly influence the quality, finish, and durability of the final structure [8]. Several types of
formwork have been developed over the years, each having unique properties and thereby
providing opportunities for the engineers to match their choice of formwork for different
CivilEng 2023, 4 1100

project requirements. This section will review different formwork materials and types,
including temporary, permanent, and insulated concrete forms (ICF), and explore how they
affect the concrete.
Timber is one of the traditional materials for formwork and is still widely used in
construction projects all over the world [26]. It is typically made from a combination of
timber and plywood, making it cost effective, lightweight, highly flexible, and easy to
produce and handle on site [5]. Timber formwork is suitable for complex designs due to
its adaptability and can be reused multiple times if properly maintained [27]. The timber
material is, however, susceptible to water damage and decay, and requires skilled labor for
assembly and disassembly [28]. The rough texture of timber can imprint on the concrete
surface, affecting the finish, and is therefore often used in combination with plywood.
Timber forms can, however, be used to design and create architecturally appealing patterns
on the surface of a concrete structure. The advantage of plywood is that it can easily be
bent to create curved forms and it leaves a smoother finish on the concrete compared to
timber. The disadvantage is that it is also prone to water damage and fast decay, limiting
the reusability of plywood forms [29]. The quality and cost of different plywood materials
varies, and high-quality, water-resistant types are available, but more expensive [5].
Formwork made of steel is robust and durable, which is highly advantageous as
it offers the potential to reuse the form many times [5]. The material properties and
characteristics of steel forms ensure that they do not adhere to concrete very easily, thereby
enabling easy form stripping and providing a smooth finish on the concrete surface [30].
The strength of steel allows it to withstand high pressures, making it suitable for large
construction projects [31]. However, steel formwork can be expensive to buy, prone to
corrode, and heavy to handle on site, requiring machinery for movement and placement.
It also requires specialized labor and is less adaptable to complex designs compared to
timber formwork [32]. Aluminum formwork is gaining popularity due to its lightweight,
high strength-to-weight ratio, and resistance to corrosion and decay. Like steel, it leaves
a smooth finish on the concrete surface and can be reused many times [33]. Aluminum
formwork is typically prefabricated and modular, making it easy to handle and quick to
assemble and disassemble [34]. However, it can be more expensive and less adaptable to
complex designs compared to timber formwork.
Plastic formwork is a relatively new type that offers advantages such as lightweight,
corrosion resistance, and easy handling [35]. It also leaves a smooth finish on the concrete
surface, like steel and aluminum forms [5]. Plastic formwork is typically modular and
can be reused multiple times, making it cost effective over time [36]. However, it may not
be suitable for heavy, high-pressure concrete applications. Recent studies have focused
much attention on developing economical and environmentally friendly materials and
systems for formwork. For example, Gericke et al. proposed a formwork system based
on frozen and CNC-milled sand [37,38], and a 3D-printed, resin-bonded sand formwork
was developed by Meibodi et al. [39,40]. Ice is another material that has recently been
investigated by Sitnikov for formwork applications [41–43]. Ice formwork can for example
be CNC-milled into a variety of shapes, or 3D printed, and does not require any demolding
as it melts as the temperature increases [44–46]. However, a frost-resistant concrete may
be required due to the low temperatures and for this reason Sitnikov developed a special
high-performance concrete for his studies [47]. Figure 1 shows the application of frozen
sand formwork, ice formwork and timber formwork, while a comparison between different
formwork materials and systems is presented in Table 1.
 CivilEng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 4
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CivilEng 2023, 4 1101

CivilEng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 4

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c)
(c)types of formwork materials. (a) Frozen sand formwork [48]; (b) ice formwork
Figure 1. Different(c)
Figure 1. Different types oftimber
[47]; (c) formwork(c) materials. (a) Frozen sand formwork [48]; (b) ice formwork [47];
formwork.
Figure 1. Different types of formwork materials. (a) Frozen sand formwork [48]; (b) ice formwork
(c)Figure
timber1.formwork.
Different types of formwork materials. (a) Frozen sand formwork [48]; (b) ice formwork
Figure
[47]; (c)1.timber
Different types
formwork.
Table of formwork
1. Comparison materials.
of various (a) systems.
formwork FrozenAdapted
sand formwork
from [5]. [48]; (b) ice formwork
[47]; (c) timber formwork.
[47]; (c) timber formwork.
Formwork
Table Comparison
1. 1. ofof
various formwork SpeedAdapted
systems. of Con- from [5]. Surface
Table Comparison Laborvarious formwork
Cost Material systems.
Cost AdaptedGeometries
from [5]. Reusability
TypeTable 1. Comparison of various formwork systems. Adapted from [5].
struction Quality
Table 1. Comparison of various formwork systems. Adapted from [5].
Formwork
Formwork
Labor Cost
Material Speed
Speedof ofCon- Surface Reusability
Surface
Formwork Labor Cost Material
Cost Cost Speed of Con- Geometries Surface
Type
Formwork
Type Labor Cost Material
Timber Labor HighCost Medium
Speed of Con- Geometries
Cost Construction
struction Geometries
LowGeometries
Quality
Surface
Mostly regular
Quality
Reusability
Reusability
Medium Reusability
Yes
Type Cost Material struction shapes Quality
Type struction Quality
Mostlyregular
Mostly
Timber
Timber High
High Medium
Medium Low
Low Mostly
regularregular Medium
Medium Yes
Yes
Timber High Medium Low Mostly regular
shapes
Mostly Medium
orthog- Yes
Timber Metal High Medium
Medium Low
High Lowshapes
shapes Medium
High Yes
Yes
shapes
onal shapes

Fabric form-Medium Mostly

Mostlyorthog-
Metal High
Medium Low
Low Mostly orthog-
High FlexibleHigh
High Yes
Limited
Metal
Metal Medium
work Medium High
High Low
Low Mostly orthog-
orthogonal
onal shapes High
High Yes
Yes
Metal Medium High Low onal shapes High Yes
shapes
onal shapes

CNC-milled High (with

Fabric form- Low Medium Medium Unlimited Yes
styrofoam coating)
Fabric form- Medium Low High Flexible High Limited
Fabric form-
Fabric
work Medium Low High Flexible High Limited
work Medium
Medium Low
Low High
High Flexible
Flexible High
High Limited
Limited
formwork
work

CNC-milled High (with

CNC-milled Low Medium Medium Unlimited High (with Yes
CNC-milled
styrofoam Low Medium Medium Unlimited High (with
coating) Yes
styrofoam Low Medium Medium Unlimited coating) Yes
styrofoam coating)
 shapes

Mostly orthog-
Metal
CivilEng 2023, 4
Medium High Low High Yes 1102
onal shapes

Table 1. Cont.
Fabric form-
Medium Low High Flexible High Limited
work
Formwork Material Speed of Surface
Labor Cost Geometries Reusability
Type Cost Construction Quality

CNC-milled
CNC-milled
CivilEng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW
High
High (with
(with 5
CivilEng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW Low
Low Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Unlimited
Unlimited Yes
Yes 5
styrofoam
styrofoam
CivilEng coating)
coating)
CivilEng 2023,
2023, 4,
4, FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 55

Non-
3D-printed
3D-printed Non-traditional
traditional
3D-printed
3D-printed Low
Low High
High Medium
Medium Non-traditional
Non-traditional Low
Low No
No
plastic
3D-printed
plastic Low
Low High
High Medium
Medium shapespossible
Non-traditional
shapes Low
Low No
No
plastic
plastic Low High Medium shapes
shapes
possiblepossible
possible Low No
plastic shapes possible

Mesh mold Medium Medium High Regular

Regular shapes Medium No
Meshmold
Mesh
Mesh mold Medium
Medium Medium
Medium High
High Regular shapes
shapes Medium
Medium No
No
Mesh mold
mold Medium
Medium Medium
Medium High
High Regular
shapes shapes Medium
Regular Medium No
No

Depends on High (with

Sand form- Depends on
Depends High (with
(with
Sand form-
form- Low Very low Depends
Depends onon
on
fabrication High
Unlimited High (with
High (with
release Yes
Sand
Sand
Sand form-
work Low Verylow
low fabrication Unlimited release Yes
work Low
Low
Low Very
Very low
Very low fabrication
fabrication
fabrication
method Unlimited
Unlimited
Unlimited release
release
release
agents) Yes
Yes
Yes
formwork
work method agents)
work method
method agents)
agents)
method agents)

Depends on
Depends on
Depends on
Ice formwork Low Very low Depends onon
fabrication
Depends Unlimited High Yes
Ice formwork
Ice formwork Low
Low Very low
Very low fabrication
fabrication Unlimited
Unlimited High
High Yes
Yes
Iceformwork
Ice formwork Low
Low Verylow
Very low fabrication
method
fabrication Unlimited
Unlimited High
High Yes
Yes
method
method
method
method

Formwork can also be categorized as a temporary or permanent structure, based on

Formwork can
Formwork can also
also bebe categorized
categorized as as aa temporary
temporary or or permanent
permanent structure,
structure, based based on on
whetherFormworkit is removed can also after the
be the concrete as
categorized hasa hardened
temporary [49]. Temporarystructure,
or permanent forms are based removed on
whether
whether Formwork it is removed
can gains after
alsoafter
be concrete
categorized has
ashas hardened
a temporary [49]. Temporary
orconcrete
permanent forms
structure, are removed
based on
once
whether the it
it is
is removed
concrete
removed after the
sufficient
the concrete
strength,
concrete has hardened
leaving the
hardened [49].
[49]. Temporary
Temporarystructure forms
forms are
exposed.
are removed
They
removed
once the
whether the concrete
it is removed gains sufficient
aftersufficient
theaesthetics
concretestrength,
has leaving the
hardened the
[49]. concrete
Temporary structure exposed. They
once
once the concrete
are typically concreteused gainswhere
gains the
sufficient strength,
of the
strength, leaving
concrete
leaving the isconcrete
important
concrete orforms
structure
structure
are
the removed
whenexposed. They
formwork
exposed. They
onceare
are typically
the concrete
typically used
used where the
gains sufficient aesthetics
strength, of the concrete
leaving the is is important
concrete or
structure when the
exposed. formwork
They
material
are typically needs used towhere
be reused
where the
the aesthetics
[50]. Permanent
aesthetics of
of the
the concrete
formwork,
concrete is important
on the other
important or
or when
when hand, the
the formwork
remains
formwork in
are material
typically
material needs
needsusedto to be reused
where
be reused [50]. Permanent
the aesthetics
[50]. Permanent
of the concrete formwork,
formwork, on the
is important
on the or other
when
other hand, remains in
the formwork
hand, in
place after
material needsthe concrete
to be hardens.
reused [50]. ItPermanent
provides additionalformwork, structural
on the stability
other hand, andremains
can serve
remains in
place after
material
place after
needs theto concrete
be reused hardens. It provides
provides additional
[50]. Permanent additional
formwork,structural structural
on the other stability
hand,and and can serve
remains serve
in
place
as after the
as insulation
insulation theororconcrete
concrete
fire
hardens.
fire protection
hardens.
protection
It
[51,52]. Permanent
It provides
[51,52]. Permanent additionalformwork,
formwork, structural
also
stability
also known
stabilityas
known
asand can
stay-in-place
can serve
stay-in-place
place
as after
insulation the concrete
or hardens. It provides additional structural stability and can serve
(SIP)
as
(SIP)
formwork,
insulation
formwork, or fire protection
is often
fire used in[51,52].
protection
is protection
often in[51,52].
used [51,52].
Permanent
the construction
Permanentof
the construction
construction
offormwork,
slabs and walls,
formwork,
slabs and andalso
also
also known
walls,
and durable
known
and durable
as
as stay-in-place
durable
materials
stay-in-place
materials
as(SIP)
insulation
formwork, or fire is often used in the Permanent formwork, of slabs walls,known
and as stay-in-place
materials
such formwork,
(SIP) as steel, plastic, is oftenor composites
used in the are commonly
construction of used
slabs [53].
and walls, and durable materials
suchformwork,
(SIP)
such as steel,
as steel, plastic,
is oftenor orused
composites are commonly
in the construction commonly usedand
of slabs [53].walls, and durable materials
as steel, plastic,
Insulating
such Insulating concrete
plastic,
concrete or composites
forms (ICFs)
composites
forms (ICFs)
are are
areare a type ofused
commonly
a type of used
SIP
[53].
SIP formwork
[53].
formwork
that not only mold the
that not not only
only moldmold the the
such asInsulating
steel, plastic, or composites
concrete are commonly used [53].
concrete but also
Insulating provideforms
concrete thermal
forms (ICFs)
(ICFs) are
insulation
are aa type
for the
type of
of SIP
SIP formwork
finished
formwork structurethat
that [54].
not ICFsmold
only are typi-
the
concrete
concreteInsulatingbut also
but also provide
concrete
provide formsthermal
thermal(ICFs) insulation
are a type
insulation forofthe
for the finished
SIPfinished
formwork structure
that not
structure [54].
[54].onlyICFs
ICFs moldare typi-
are typi-
the
cally made
concrete from
butfrom expanded
also expanded
provide thermal polystyreneinsulation (EPS)for ortheother insulating
finished structurematerials,
[54]. ICFssandwiching
are typi-
cally
concrete
cally made
but also provide thermal polystyrene
insulation (EPS) foror the other
finishedinsulating
structure materials,
[54]. ICFs sandwiching
are typi-
a coremade
cally where
made from
from theexpanded
concrete ispolystyrene
expanded poured [55].
polystyrene (EPS)
(EPS)ICFsoror other
offer
other a insulating
high degree
insulating materials,
of thermal
materials, sandwiching
and noise
sandwiching
aaainsulation,
cally core
coremade where
where
corewhere
where
from
which
the
the concretepolystyrene
expanded
concrete is poured
is
can significantly
theconcrete
concrete
poured [55].
ispoured
poured
[55].
(EPS)
improve
[55].ICFs
ICFs
ICFs offer aainsulating
or other
the offer
ICFs energy
offer
high degree
high
ahigh
degree
efficiency
high degree and
of thermal
materials,
of thermal
acoustic
ofthermal
thermaland
and noise
sandwiching
and noise
properties
andnoise
noise
insulation,
a insulation,
core which
the
which can
can significantly
is
significantly improve
[55].
improve the
the energy
offer
energy a efficiency
degree
efficiency and
of
and acoustic
acoustic properties
properties
of buildings
insulation,
insulation, [56,57].
which
which can The insulating
significantly
can significantly properties
improve
improve the of
the energy walls
energy with
efficiencyICF remains
and throughout
acoustic properties the
ofof buildings
buildings [56,57].
[56,57]. The insulating
The insulating properties
properties of wallsefficiency
of walls with ICF
with ICFand remains
remains
acoustic properties
throughout
throughout the
the
ofof lifespan
buildings
buildings of the structure,
[56,57].
[56,57]. leading
Theinsulating
The insulating to long-term
propertiesof energy
ofwalls
walls savings
withICF and
ICF improved
remains sustainability
throughout the
lifespan
lifespan of the
of the structure,
structure, leading
leading toproperties
to long-term
long-term energy
energy
with
savings
savings and
and
remains
improved
improved
throughout the
sustainability
sustainability
[58].
lifespan
lifespan ICFs of
of the can
the provide
structure, a smooth
leading tosurface
long-term that requires
energy minimal
savings and additional
improved finishing,
sustainability and
[58]. ICFs
[58]. ICFs canstructure,
can provide aaleading
provide smoothtosurface long-term
surface thatenergy
requires savings
minimal andadditional
improvedfinishing, sustainabil- and
ity they
[58].
they[58].areICFs
ICFs
are
typically
cancan
typically provide
provide a smooth
resistant
resistant
to moisture,
smooth
a to
smooth surface
moisture, surface
that
reducing
that requires
requires
that
reducing
the risk
requires
the
minimal
minimal
risk
of mold
minimal
of mold
additional
and mildew.
additional
additional
and
finishing,
mildew.finishing,
finishing,
ICF
and
ICF con-
and
con-
they
they are
struction
are typically
can
typically be resistant
more expensive
resistant to
to moisture,
than
moisture, reducing
traditional
reducing the
formwork
the risk
risk of
of mold
methods
mold and
anddue mildew.
to
mildew. the ICF
cost
ICF ofcon-
the
con-
and they are
struction cantypically moreresistant
be more expensive tothan
moisture,
traditionalreducing formwork the risk of molddue
methods and tomildew.
the cost
cost ofICF
of the
struction
insulating
struction can
can be
forms,
be but
more expensive
the high
expensive than
initial
than traditional
costs may
traditional beformwork
regained
formwork methods
by the
methods due
long-term
due to
to the
the energy
cost of the
sav-
the
construction
insulating forms, can bebut
forms, more theexpensive
high initial
initialthan traditional
costs may be formworkby
be regained
regained methods
the long-term due to the
long-term energycostsav-
of
insulating
ings [59]. ICFs
insulating forms, alsobut
but the
require
the high
highcareful
initial costs
installation
costs may
may to
be prevent
regained by the
misalignment
by the long-term energy
or displacement
energy sav-
sav-
the insulating
ings [59].
[59]. ICFs forms,
ICFs also but
also require the
require carefulhigh initial
careful installation costs
installation to may be
to prevent regained
prevent misalignment by the
misalignment or long-term energy
or displacement
displacement
ings
during
ings concrete
[59]. ICFs pouring. Despite the challenges, the benefits of energyoror efficiency, noise
savings
during [59].
concreteICFsalso also require
require
pouring. careful
carefulthe
Despite installation
installation
challenges, to prevent
to prevent
the misalignment
misalignment
benefits of energy displacement
displacement
efficiency, noise
during
reduction,
during concrete
durability,
concrete pouring.
pouring. and Despite
speed the
Despite ofthe
the challenges,
construction
challenges, the
have
the benefits
led to an
benefits of
of energy
increasing
energy efficiency,
use of ICFs
efficiency, noise
noise in
during concrete
reduction, durability, pouring.
durability, and Despite
and speed
speed of challenges,
of construction
construction have the
have ledbenefits
led to to anof energy
an increasing
increasing useefficiency,
use of noise
of ICFs
ICFs inin
reduction,
residential
reduction, and
durability,commercial
and buildings
speed of [60].
construction Other have categories
led to anof formwork
increasing systems
use of ICFs and
in
reduction,
residentialdurability,
and commercial and speed
commercial of construction
buildings [60]. Other
Otherhavecategories
led to an of increasing
formwork usesystems
of ICFs and in
residential
technologies
residential and
and include,
commercial buildings
for example,
buildings [60].
dissolvable
[60]. Other categories
materials
categories of
[61,62],
of formwork
3D-printed
formwork systems
forms [59],
systems and
and
technologies include,
technologies include, for for example,
example, dissolvable
dissolvable materialsmaterials [61,62], [61,62], 3D-printed
3D-printed forms forms [59],
[59],
sliding formsinclude,
technologies [63], self-climbing
for example, formwork
dissolvable [64], materials
and self-supporting formworkforms
[61,62], 3D-printed [65]. [59],
sliding
sliding forms
forms [63],
[63], self-climbing
self-climbing formwork
formwork [64],
[64], and self-supporting formwork [65].
sliding The
The
selection
forms
selection [63], ofof suitable formwork
self-climbing
suitable formwork formwork
formwork [64], and
materials
materials andis aself-supporting
critical decisionformwork
is aaself-supportingdecisionformwork
critical decision
in construction
in construction
construction
[65]. pro-
[65]. pro-
The
jects,The selection
as itselection
significantly of
of suitable
impacts
suitable the cost,
formwork materials
timeline,
materials is
is and
a critical
quality
critical in
of theinproject.
decision construction Factors pro-
pro-to
jects, as
jects, as itit significantly
significantly impacts impacts the the cost,
cost, timeline,
timeline, and and quality
quality of of the
the project.
project. Factors
Factors to to
consider
jects, as when
it selectingimpacts
significantly formwork the materials
cost, are summarized
timeline, and quality in Table
of the 2.project.
A comprehensive
Factors to
consider when selecting formwork materials are summarized in Table 2. A comprehensive
CivilEng 2023, 4 1103

residential and commercial buildings [60]. Other categories of formwork systems and
technologies include, for example, dissolvable materials [61,62], 3D-printed forms [59],
sliding forms [63], self-climbing formwork [64], and self-supporting formwork [65].
The selection of suitable formwork materials is a critical decision in construction
projects, as it significantly impacts the cost, timeline, and quality of the project. Factors to
consider when selecting formwork materials are summarized in Table 2. A comprehensive
understanding of the properties and implications of each formwork type can help engineers
and construction professionals to choose the best solution for their project, leading to safer,
more efficient, and cost-effective construction [4,5,8].

Table 2. Factors to consider when choosing type and material for formwork in concrete construction.

Factor to Consider Description

The size, complexity, and design of the project will determine the formwork type. For instance, for
complex designs with curves, flexible formwork such as timber or plywood may be more suitable.
Project requirements
For large projects requiring high load-bearing capacity, steel, or aluminum formwork would be
more appropriate.
Formwork can constitute a significant portion of the project cost. Therefore, cost considerations such
as the initial investment, the number of reuses, and maintenance costs should be considered. While
Cost considerations
steel and aluminum formwork may have a higher initial cost, they offer a higher number of reuses,
which could be cost effective in the long run.
The formwork material can influence the finish of the concrete surface. For instance, steel and
Concrete surface quality
aluminum formwork typically leave a smooth finish, while timber may leave a rougher texture.
Labor skills and Some formwork types require skilled labor for assembly and disassembly. The availability and the
availability cost of personnel should also be considered in the selection of formwork.

3. Formwork Design
The structural design of formwork is another critical aspect of concrete construction,
requiring a balance between different considerations such as safety, cost, and performance.
One of the central aspects of formwork design is managing the form pressure exerted by
the fresh concrete [66–70]. Form pressure is the pressure generated by fresh concrete as
it is poured inside the formwork system during construction, and it is the decisive factor
in formwork design, as the formwork must have the capacity to withstand the concrete’s
pressure without deformation or failure. The design process begins with the calculation of
form pressure, which depends on several material parameters of the concrete, the rate of
placement, and the ambient conditions [71], as discussed in Table 3.

Table 3. Factors to consider when calculating the form pressure generated by fresh concrete.

Factor to Consider Description

Highly workable concrete, such as self-consolidating concrete, exerts a higher initial pressure on the
Workability formwork due to its fluid nature. This requires a stronger formwork design in comparison to
traditional vibrated concrete [72].
The rate at which concrete hardens affects the form pressure. The pressure is typically higher in the
beginning when the concrete is still very fluid and reduces as the concrete gains its material
Rate of strength [73]. A faster thixotropic hardening reduces the duration of maximum pressure, allowing for
Hardening lighter formwork design [74]. Different types and contents of cement harden and gain strength at
different rates. Rapid hardening cement and the inclusion of certain additives lead to quicker strength
gain, and the formwork removal can be performed earlier than for ordinary Portland cement [75].
CivilEng 2023, 4 1104

Table 3. Cont.

Factor to Consider Description

The temperature affects the rate of concrete hardening, and hence the form pressure. Higher
temperatures accelerate the hardening process and strength development of concrete, which
ultimately reduces the form pressure [76]. Rapid drying can however lead to shrinkage and
Temperature
cracking [77], so measures such as curing under wet burlap or plastic sheets may be necessary [78].
Lower temperatures can on the other hand delay the hardening [79], and therefore increase the
form pressure.
Certain chemical admixtures can alter the material properties of the concrete, ultimately affecting the
form pressure. Superplasticizers can, for example, be implemented in the mix to increase the
Use of Admixtures
workability, which can also increase the form pressure [67]. Accelerating admixtures can be used to
increase the rate of hydration and therefore also the form pressure [80].

The hydrostatic pressure theory has traditionally been used to calculate form pressure,
especially for self-consolidating concrete, assuming that the pressure distribution is the
same as that of a fluid at rest [81]. Pascal’s principle states that the hydrostatic pressure (Ph )
of a fluid at rest is the product of the material density (ρ), the gravity (g), and the height
of the concrete (h), as calculated in Equation (1). The pressure is considered equal in all
directions and can therefore represent the pressure a self-consolidating concrete exerts on
the formwork before its initial setting [82].

Ph = ρgh (1)

Concrete is however not a fluid, and the pressure distribution is influenced by its
thixotropic nature, meaning that the pressure reduces as the chemical reactions within
the concrete proceed and generates a material that can carry more and more of its own
weight [83]. At some point, the concrete will be able to carry its own weight without
generating any pressure to the formwork, and further on the concrete structure will be
able to carry large additional loads [84]. More accurate models have been developed over
the years to better estimate the form pressure generated by self-consolidating concrete
and account for the rate of concrete hardening, but many countries have not implemented
design guidelines and still rely on hydrostatic models for SCC [85–91].
Once the form pressure has been estimated, the formwork components can be designed
to withstand the maximum pressure. Formwork design involves selecting the appropriate
material and thickness for the formwork panels, determining the size, and spacing of
supporting members, and designing the connections and bracing to ensure stability [92].
Several other factors in addition to the form pressure also affect the formwork design, as
discussed in Table 4, and it is important to understand their contribution to create safe and
efficient form systems for concrete construction.

Table 4. Factors to consider when designing formwork for concrete construction.

Factor to Consider Description

In addition to the form pressure from the concrete, formwork must also withstand other loads,
Loading Conditions
including construction loads, wind loads, and the weight of workers and equipment [93].
The material of the formwork affects its strength, stiffness, weight, and durability, all of which
influence the design. For instance, steel formwork can withstand higher pressures than timber
Formwork Material
formwork, but it is also heavier and may require more support [94]. The formwork material affects
the adhesion and surface properties of the concrete.
CivilEng 2023, 4 1105

Table 4. Cont.

Factor to Consider Description

The size and complexity of the structure, the required surface finish, and the construction schedule
Project Requirements all influence the design and requirements of the formwork. More complex structures may require
custom-designed formwork, while simpler structures can use standard modular systems [95].
The cost of formwork can significantly impact the overall project cost. Therefore, the formwork
Cost Considerations design must balance cost and performance. This includes considering the initial cost, the cost of
assembly and disassembly, the number of reuses, and maintenance costs [96].

4. Engineering Considerations in Formwork Design and Use

4.1. Form Stripping
Form stripping, or striking, is a critical step in the construction process of concrete
structures. It involves removing the formwork after the concrete has gained sufficient stabil-
ity and strength to carry its own weight and any additional loads during construction [97].
Stripping must be carried out very carefully to ensure the quality of the concrete structure
and the safety of workers [98]. The process of form stripping typically begins with assessing
the strength and stability of the concrete. This is usually assessed by testing the compressive
strength on cube or cylinder samples, but there are a variety of experience-based methods
that have been historically used in concrete construction. The concrete strength can also
be evaluated using several other non-destructive testing methods, such as the maturity
method, rebound hammer tests, penetration resistance tests, pullout tests, or ultrasonic
pulse velocity tests [99]. As soon as the concrete strength is sufficient, the formwork must
be removed carefully to reduce the construction costs and prevent damage to the concrete
surface [61]. This often involves removing fasteners and supports, starting from the top
of vertical forms or the bottom of horizontal forms, and working downwards or upwards,
respectively [1].
Form stripping can have a significant impact on the surface quality of the finished
concrete structure. Properly timed and executed stripping can result in a smooth, uniform
surface with minimal aesthetic or structural defects. Premature form stripping can lead to
surface damage, such as chipping or spalling, and structural defects, such as cracking or
deformation [100]. Thermal shocking and early freezing are two additional phenomena
that can occur if the form is stripped prematurely in cold weather [19,101]. A compressive
strength of 5 MPa is usually recommended to avoid severe problems due to the early
freezing of concrete [102]. Late stripping can cause surface damage due to adhesion
of concrete to the formwork and may also hinder the curing process [103]. The ideal
stripping time depends on several factors, including the concrete mix, curing conditions,
and additional construction loads [104]. Another important consideration is the project
time and cost, as previous studies have shown, is that formwork operations may take
50–75% of the total time spent in concrete construction [105] and account for 35–60% of the
costs [4].
The process of form stripping can differ between vertical and horizontal structures.
For vertical structures such as walls and columns, stripping typically starts from the top
and works downwards. This allows the lower portions of the formwork to continue
supporting the concrete as the upper portions are removed. The strength requirement
for the form stripping of vertical members is that they should be able to carry their self-
weight and only small additional loads, which typically implies a compressive strength of
2–10 MPa [97,106]. There are, however, studies demonstrating that a compressive strength
of 1.5 MPa is sufficient for the form stripping of vertical columns without risking damage
or deformations [76].
For horizontal structures such as beams and slabs, stripping usually starts from the
bottom (the sides of the slab) and continues upwards. The supports under the slab are
removed last, considering it is not a ground slab. The general strength requirement for
removing the supporting formwork under horizontal members is a compressive strength
CivilEng 2023, 4 1106

of a minimum of 70% of the concrete’s final (28 d) strength for members spanning up to
6 m, and 85% for spans over 6 m [107]. Shores are typically installed under horizontal
forms to carry and transfer the loads from the slab downwards through the structure until
sufficient strength has been achieved [108], as shown in Figure 2. For projects requiring
CivilEng 2023, 4, FOR PEER REVIEWearly form stripping, reshoring may be applied to continue supporting the horizontal9
concrete members during construction [109].

Figure 2. Cast-in-place construction of a multi-story concrete structure with horizontal and vertical
Figure 2. Cast-in-place construction of a multi-story concrete structure with horizontal and vertical
formwork and supporting shores.
formwork and supporting shores.

4.2.Alternative
4.2. AlternativeBinders
BindersandandTheir
TheirImpact
Impact
As the
As the construction industry
industry seeks
seeksmoremoresustainable
sustainableand andefficient practices,
efficient practices,the the
use
of alternative
use binders
of alternative in concrete
binders has gained
in concrete moremore
has gained and more
and moreinterest over over
interest the last
theyears
last
[18,110–114].
years TheseThese
[18,110–114]. new types of binders
new types can improve
of binders can improve the environmental
the environmental footprint of con-
footprint of
crete and offer unique material properties that can ultimately influence
concrete and offer unique material properties that can ultimately influence the formwork the formwork de-
sign and
design andrequirements
requirementsfor forform
formstripping
stripping [15,115].
[15,115]. Alternative
Alternative binders,
binders, including supple-
supple-
mentarycementitious
mentary cementitiousmaterials
materials(SCMs),
(SCMs),are arematerials
materialsthat thatcan
canpartially
partiallyreplace
replacePortland
Portland
cementin
cement inthe
theconcrete
concretemix mix[116].
[116].
Common
Common SCMs SCMs include fly fly ash,
ash, slag,
slag,and
andsilica
silicafume,
fume,but but more
more recently,
recently, binders
binders in-
including geopolymersand
cluding geopolymers andlimestone
limestone calcined
calcined clay cement (LC3) have have also
also been
beenintroduced
introduced
as
asalternatives
alternativestotocement
cement [117–120].
[117–120]. A short
A short description
description of common
of common alternative binders
alternative and
binders
their
and impact on theon
their impact concrete properties
the concrete is given
properties is in Table
given in 5. Fly ash
Table and
5. Fly ashslag
andtypically slows
slag typically
down
slowsthe setting
down the and hardening,
setting resulting resulting
and hardening, in a prolonged need of formwork
in a prolonged need of and ultimately
formwork and
aultimately
slower construction rate, which rate,
a slower construction may which
be negative
may be fornegative
projects for with tight time
projects withschedules.
tight time
Other alternative
schedules. binders, such
Other alternative as silica
binders, suchfume, mayfume,
as silica have may the impact
have the ofimpact
accelerating the
of acceler-
setting and hardening of concrete, and can therefore be used to reduce
ating the setting and hardening of concrete, and can therefore be used to reduce the form the form stripping
time.
stripping time.

Table5.5.Alternative
Table Alternativebinders
bindersand
andtheir
theirimpact
impacton
onconcrete
concreteand
andformwork.
formwork.

Alternative Binder
Alternative Binder Description
Description
FlyFly
ash is isa abyproduct
ash byproduct of coal
coalcombustion
combustion in in power
power plants.
plants. Fly can
Fly ash ashimprove
can improve the workabil-
the workability and
Flyash
Fly ash durability of concrete, but it slows the setting and hardening process, which can affect
ity and durability of concrete, but it slows the setting and hardening process, which can affect formwork
formwork design and stripping
design [121]. [121].
and stripping
Slag cement or ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) is a byproduct of iron produc-
Slag tion. Slag cement enhances the durability and workability of concrete, but like fly ash, it slows
the setting and hardening process [122].
Silica fume is a byproduct of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy production. It can replace 5–10% of
the cement. Silica fume increases the strength and durability of concrete, but it can reduce
Silica fume
workability and accelerate the setting, which can reduce the time required to initiate form-
work stripping [123].
CivilEng 2023, 4 1107

Table 5. Cont.

Alternative Binder Description

Slag cement or ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) is a byproduct of iron production. Slag
Slag cement enhances the durability and workability of concrete, but like fly ash, it slows the setting and
hardening process [122].
Silica fume is a byproduct of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy production. It can replace 5–10% of the
Silica fume cement. Silica fume increases the strength and durability of concrete, but it can reduce workability
and accelerate the setting, which can reduce the time required to initiate formwork stripping [123].
Geopolymers are a type of inorganic polymer produced from aluminosilicate materials, such as fly
Geopolymers ash or metakaolin. They offer high strength and durability, but their setting behavior is different from
traditional cement, which requires adjustments in formwork design and stripping [124].
LC3 is a blend of limestone, calcined clay, and clinker. It offers similar performance to ordinary
LC3 Portland cement, but with a significantly lower carbon footprint. The impact of LC3 on formwork is
similar to that of ordinary cement [125].

4.3. Sustainability of Formwork

Sustainability has become a crucial concern in civil engineering and construction
industries due to the increasing pressure on the world’s resources and the effects of climate
change [126–129]. As an important component of concrete construction, formwork affects
the overall sustainability of the construction process [130]. Formwork materials vary in their
environmental footprint. Traditional timber formwork, while renewable, often involves
significant energy use and carbon emissions in harvesting and transportation [131]. Fur-
thermore, the use of certain types of timber, such as tropical hardwoods, can contribute to
deforestation and loss of biodiversity [132]. However, timber formwork can be sustainably
sourced from managed forests, which mitigates these environmental impacts [133]. Metal
formwork, such as steel or aluminium, requires high energy for extraction and production,
contributing to large carbon emissions [134]. However, these materials are durable and
can be reused many times, reducing their environmental impact over their lifetime. Plastic
formwork, particularly that made from recycled plastics, has the potential to reduce waste
and carbon emissions [135]. However, the production process of plastic can also be energy
intensive, and the disposal of plastic formwork at the end of its life can contribute to plastic
waste if not properly managed [136].
Construction activities are known to generate a significant amount of waste, and
formwork is no exception [137]. Damaged formwork components, offcuts from formwork
installation, and residue from concrete casting all contribute to construction waste. Reduc-
ing formwork waste can be achieved through careful planning and design to minimize
offcuts, using adjustable formwork systems, and implementing quality control measures to
prevent damage [138]. The sustainability of formwork is significantly improved by reusing
and recycling formwork materials [139]. Steel and aluminium formwork can be reused
many times due to their durability, and can be recycled at the end of their life [140]. Timber
formwork may also be reused if properly cared for and can also be repurposed or recycled
at the end of its life as shown in Figure 3 [29]. Plastic formwork can be recycled, although
the feasibility of this depends on the type of plastic used and local recycling facilities [141].
 to prevent damage [138]. The sustainability of formwork is significantly improved by re-
using and recycling formwork materials [139]. Steel and aluminium formwork can be re-
used many times due to their durability, and can be recycled at the end of their life [140].
Timber formwork may also be reused if properly cared for and can also be repurposed or
recycled at the end of its life as shown in Figure 3 [29]. Plastic formwork can be recycled,
CivilEng 2023, 4 1108
although the feasibility of this depends on the type of plastic used and local recycling
facilities [141].

(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a)
Figure 3. (a) Depot
Depot of
of timber
timber formwork
formwork for reuse. ((b)
for reuse. b) Reused
Reused formwork
formwork [29].
[29].

The application of digital technology in formwork design and management can also
help to improve the overall sustainability of concrete construction. For example, Building
Information Modeling
Modeling(BIM)(BIM)can
canbebeused
usedtotoenhance formwork
enhance design
formwork by optimizing
design the
by optimizing
the material use and reducing waste [142]. BIM can also improve formwork planning,
allowing for better coordination and reducing the risk of damage or errors that could result
in waste [50,140]. The sustainability of formwork in concrete construction is a complex
issue that involves the consideration of material choices, waste management, and the
implementation of technology. While significant progress has been made over the last
years, there is still substantial potential for further improvement in formwork practices.

4.4. Safety Considerations

Formwork construction and operations, like all construction activities, comes with cer-
tain risks and hazards [143]. Ensuring the safety of construction workers and maintaining
the structural integrity of formwork systems are paramount to the successful execution of
concrete construction projects [144]. This section will discuss critical safety considerations
in formwork design, construction, and stripping, and outline best practices to mitigate
potential risks. The formwork design phase sets the foundation for the safe execution of
the construction project [145]. Design considerations include load calculations, anticipated
concrete pressures, lateral stability, and the use of appropriate safety measures such as
guardrails, braces, and ties [146]. Accurate load calculations account for the concrete’s
weight, any additional loads (e.g., equipment, workers), and potential dynamic loads
caused by concrete pouring and vibrations [71]. During the construction phase, it is critical
to ensure that the formwork is installed according to the design specifications. Deviations
can compromise the structure’s integrity and lead to catastrophic failures [1]. Workers
should be trained to recognize and manage risks associated with working at heights, han-
dling heavy materials, and working around concrete pours. Proper personal protective
equipment (PPE) should be worn at all times, including helmets, safety shoes, gloves, and
high-visibility clothing.
Formwork stripping poses a unique set of risks as workers may be injured by falling
components, concrete residues, or sudden collapses [93,98]. To mitigate these risks, strip-
ping should be planned and executed under the supervision of a competent person. Work-
ers should be properly trained and use appropriate PPE. Furthermore, stripping should be
performed in a sequence that maintains the stability of the structure at all times. Several
best practices can enhance safety in formwork operations as discussed in Table 6.
CivilEng 2023, 4 1109

Table 6. Practices to enhance safety in formwork operations.

Safety Practice Description

Regular inspections can help identify potential issues before they escalate into serious problems [147].
Regular inspections Inspections should be carried out before pouring concrete, during the pour, and before formwork
stripping.
Workers should be trained not only in the tasks they need to perform but also in recognizing and
Worker training managing potential risks. This includes understanding load limits, handling materials safely, and
recognizing signs of potential structural instability [148].
All construction sites should have emergency plans in place, including evacuation procedures and
Emergency training
immediate action protocols in the event of a formwork failure [149].
Technology can aid in enhancing formwork safety. For example, Building Information Modeling
(BIM) can help in planning and visualizing formwork installation and stripping, reducing the
Use of technology
likelihood of errors [148]. Similarly, modern monitoring systems can track structural changes in real
time, providing early warnings of potential issues [15].

Safety is an integral aspect of formwork operations that should be addressed at every

stage of the process. By incorporating robust safety measures into formwork design,
construction, and stripping, construction sites can minimize risks, protect workers, and
ensure the successful execution of concrete construction projects. The development and
adoption of new technologies and best practices should continue to enhance formwork
safety in the future.

4.5. Cost Considerations

Formwork constitutes a significant portion (35–60%) of the total cost in concrete
construction projects [4]. Hence, understanding and managing the costs associated with
formwork is essential for project success. This section will reflect on various aspects of
formwork cost analysis, including formwork material costs, labor costs, reuse and recycling
considerations, and the impact of technology on formwork costs. The cost of formwork
materials can vary widely depending on the type of formwork system used. Traditional
timber formwork is generally the cheapest material option, but it has a limited lifespan
and can only be reused a few times before its quality degrades [5,29]. On the other hand,
metal formwork systems, such as steel or aluminium, have a higher upfront cost but offer
a longer lifespan and higher reusability, leading to lower costs in the long run [31,36].
Plastic formwork can also be a cost-effective solution, especially when recycled materials
are used [5,32,35]. Labor costs are a major component of formwork costs [150,151]. These
include the costs of assembling and disassembling the formwork, inspecting the formwork
for safety, and repairing and maintaining the formwork. Factors that can impact labor costs
include the complexity of the formwork system, the skill level of the workers, and local
wage rates. Labor costs can be reduced through efficient formwork design, worker training,
and the use of formwork systems that are easy to assemble and disassemble [95,152].
The ability to reuse and recycle formwork materials can significantly impact the
overall formwork cost [5,29,153]. Reusable formwork systems, such as modular or system
formwork, may have a higher initial cost but can result in lower costs per use if reused
many times [26,95]. Additionally, the salvage value of formwork materials that can be
recycled, such as steel or aluminium, can help offset the overall cost [31]. Technological
advancements can have a significant impact on formwork costs. Digital technology, such
as Building Information Modeling (BIM), can improve formwork design efficiency, reduce
material waste, and streamline the construction process, leading to cost savings [50,126,145].
Additionally, technologies like 3D printing offer the potential to create custom formwork
components at lower costs [2,40,59]. However, these technologies also require investment in
software, equipment, and training. Strategies for optimizing formwork costs are discussed
in Table 7.
CivilEng 2023,
CivilEng 2023, 44, FOR PEER REVIEW 14
1110

implementation of BIM in
Table 7. Strategies to formwork design has
optimize formwork the potential to enable con-
costs.
struction managers to make more cost-conscious decisions regarding form-
Strategy work [96]. Description
A case study Choosing the right
examining theformwork
applicationsystem for the projectformwork
of self-climbing can result ininsubstantial
construct-cost savings. This
Formwork selection decision should consider the cost of the formwork material, its lifespan and reusability, labor costs for
ing the Taizhou Bridge in China was performed by Liu et al. The Taizhou
assembly and disassembly, and the complexity of the concrete structure [94,95].
Bridge, with a main span of 1080 m and a maximum tower height of 192 m,
presentedEfficient
unique formwork
engineering design can minimize material use, reduce labor needs, and prevent costly
challenges. The study revealed how self-climb-
Self-climb-
Efficient design mistakes. This can be facilitated through the use of digital tools like BIM and deep
ing formwork was leveraged to address several learningof[66,71,92,96].
these concrete construction
7 ing form-
challenges. Despite the initial high cost, the advantages of speedy construction
work Well-trained workers can assemble and disassemble formwork more efficiently and make fewer
Worker trainingtimes (30 m3/h), safety benefits, and excellent quality concrete finishes were ev-
mistakes, reducing labor costs and material waste [150,151].
ident. This study exemplifies how climbing formwork can be applied to large-
Proper maintenance and care of formwork materials can extend their lifespan and reusability,
Maintenance and care
scale infrastructure projects where typical formwork systems might not be suit-
lowering the overall cost [154].
able [160]. Formwork for spe-
Huber et al. investigated the use of 3D-printed plastic forms in a study of auto- cial purposes
Formwork cost analysis is a multifaceted issue that involves considering material costs,
mated formwork construction. The project addressed several engineering chal-
labor costs, the impacts of reuse and recycling, and the role of technology. By understanding
lenges as it investigated the construction of ribbed concrete slabs with complex
these factors and applying cost-optimization strategies, it is possible to control and reduce
geometries, using custom-designed plastic formwork. The research highlighted
3D-printed the costs associated with formwork in concrete construction.
the cost effectiveness of the customized forms, as they enabled the construction
8 plastic
of reinforced concrete
5. Case Studiesslabs with a 40% reduction of concrete compared to solid
formwork
slabs constructed
Casewith traditional
studies provideforms. In addition,
valuable the real-world
insights into study found that the and outcomes of
applications
automated production of plastic formwork significantly reduced the require-
formwork in concrete construction. This section will briefly examine eight diverse case
ment forstudies,
skilled labor,
whichenabling
have been structurally
previouslyefficient
reported,slabs,
andand offering
discuss theirdura-
main findings. The cases
are presented in Table 8.
ble, quality finishes [161].

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4. The KnitCandela concrete shell [156]. (a) Knitted textile formwork (photo: Maria Verhulst);
Figure 4. The KnitCandela concrete shell [156]. (a) Knitted textile formwork (photo: Maria Verhulst);
(b) first layer of concrete (photo: Mariana Popescu); (c) finished concrete shell with textile interior
(b) first Angelica
(photo: layer of concrete
Ibarra). (photo: Mariana Popescu); (c) finished concrete shell with textile interior
(photo: Angelica Ibarra).
studies demonstrate
These first three case studies demonstrate the diverse
diverse applications and benefits of
different formwork
different formwork systems
systemsininconcrete
concreteconstruction
construction projects. They
projects. alsoalso
They illustrate howhow
illustrate the
the selection
selection of formwork
of formwork can impact
can impact projectproject outcomes
outcomes in of
in terms terms
cost, of cost, quality,
quality, and
and sustain-
sustainability. Cases
ability. Cases 4–6 4–6 provide
provide further
further insights
insights into into the versatile
the versatile applications
applications of formwork
of formwork in
in concrete
concrete construction
construction and
and highlightthe
highlight thecrucial
crucialrole
roleformwork
formworkplays
plays in
in achieving
achieving project
objectives such as energy efficiency,
efficiency, architectural
architectural precision,
precision, and
and process
process efficiency.
efficiency. The
final two cases show how formwork systems can be selected and adapted to meet specific
project needs and
and constraints. All cases demonstrate
constraints. All demonstrate that the type of formwork chosen
plays a crucial role in the project’s success, from large complex shell structures to low-cost
housing.
housing.
CivilEng 2023, 4 1111

Table 8. Previously reported case studies and their main findings.

Case Type of Formwork Findings Demonstration

Rahim and Haron presented a case study of a 260-unit condominium project in
Malaysia, where system formwork was used. The research highlighted the benefits
of system formwork in such projects, including faster construction times, lower
1 System formwork
labor requirements, and high-quality concrete finishes. Despite the higher initial
cost of system formwork, the study demonstrated significant cost savings over the
project’s lifecycle due to the repeated use of the formwork [155].
A study by Popescu et al. demonstrated the design and application of a custom
formwork system in the construction of KnitCandela, a complex curved concrete
waffle shell structure, as shown in Figure 4. The research demonstrated that the
2 Knitted formwork custom-knitted textile formwork allowed for precision in shaping the concrete Selection of formwork
elements of the structure, despite the high upfront cost. The ability to create
advanced concrete elements and shapes, with minimal need for correction or
finishing, may lead to overall cost savings in similar projects [156].
Lo presented a case study of how the transition from traditional timber formwork
to recycled plastic formwork can improve the overall sustainability of the
construction industry in Taiwan. The study showed that the use of recycled plastic
3 Recycled plastic formwork formwork has the potential to reduce environmental impacts and contribute to
achieving sustainability goals in different construction projects. The plastic
formwork was found to be lightweight, easy to handle, and provide improved
potential for reduced costs and improved recyclability [157].
The use of permanent insulated concrete formwork (ICF) to improve energy
efficiency was examined by Oloke. They explored a project in the UK that used PIF
for the construction of 30 apartments in a two-story residential building. The study
discussed that ICF not only offers benefits during the construction phase, such as
4 Insulated concrete formwork
quick assembly and excellent concrete finishes, but also improves the energy
efficiency of the building significantly, reducing heating and cooling costs for the
inhabitants. They also mentioned that ICFs offer better soundproofing and reduce
the need for maintenance [158].
The role of traditional timber formwork in restoration projects was investigated by
Miranda et al. They studied the restoration project of Piscina das Marés, saltwater
swimming pools and facilities in Portugal, that required the use of timber Versatility of formwork
5 Timber formwork formwork to replicate the original architectural details of the concrete surfaces. The
study showed that in such specialized scenarios, traditional timber formwork
could offer advantages in terms of flexibility and adaptability, even though it
required skilled craftsmanship and was more time consuming [159].
Hyun et al. carried out a study on the impact of Building Information Modeling
(BIM) in formwork design for a hospital project. The study demonstrated that the
use of BIM technology resulted in a more efficient design process, reduced material
6 BIM optimized formwork wastage, and facilitated better coordination among different construction teams,
leading to cost and time savings. They concluded that the implementation of BIM
in formwork design has the potential to enable construction managers to make
more cost-conscious decisions regarding formwork [96].
A case study examining the application of self-climbing formwork in constructing
the Taizhou Bridge in China was performed by Liu et al. The Taizhou Bridge, with
a main span of 1080 m and a maximum tower height of 192 m, presented unique
engineering challenges. The study revealed how self-climbing formwork was
7 Self-climbing formwork leveraged to address several of these concrete construction challenges. Despite the
initial high cost, the advantages of speedy construction times (30 m3 /h), safety
benefits, and excellent quality concrete finishes were evident. This study
exemplifies how climbing formwork can be applied to large-scale infrastructure
projects where typical formwork systems might not be suitable [160]. Formwork for special purposes
Huber et al. investigated the use of 3D-printed plastic forms in a study of
automated formwork construction. The project addressed several engineering
challenges as it investigated the construction of ribbed concrete slabs with complex
geometries, using custom-designed plastic formwork. The research highlighted the
cost effectiveness of the customized forms, as they enabled the construction of
8 3D-printed plastic formwork
reinforced concrete slabs with a 40% reduction of concrete compared to solid slabs
constructed with traditional forms. In addition, the study found that the
automated production of plastic formwork significantly reduced the requirement
for skilled labor, enabling structurally efficient slabs, and offering durable, quality
finishes [161].

6. Future Trends
The field of formwork design and use is evolving rapidly, driven by technological
innovations, increasing environmental concerns, and the ongoing quest for efficiency and
cost effectiveness in the construction industry. This section explores several emerging
trends in the scope of formwork design and use, which could potentially revolutionize how
concrete construction will be approached in the future.
Digital technologies are predicted to have a significant impact on formwork design
and use over the upcoming years. These technologies, including Building Information
Modeling (BIM) [162], Augmented Reality (AR) [163], 3D printing [164], and Artificial
CivilEng 2023, 4 1112

Intelligence (AI) [165], offer promising solutions to enhance efficiency, accuracy, and safety
in formwork processes [166]. Building Information Modeling (BIM) involves the digital
representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility and is being increas-
ingly used in matters of formwork design and optimization. It allows for more precise
planning, leading to optimized formwork solutions, reduced material use and waste, and
improved coordination among different construction teams. As BIM technology continues
to advance, its wide range of application in formwork design is likely to become more
widespread. Augmented Reality (AR) superimposes a computer-generated image on a
user’s view of the real world and can therefore provide valuable assistance in terms of
formwork assembly and inspection processes. By visualizing the correct assembly of form-
work components and identifying potential issues before they occur, AR can contribute
to enhanced safety, accuracy, and efficiency on construction sites. The fast advancements
in the field of 3D-printing technologies have highlighted exciting possibilities for a wide
range of specialized and complex applications in formwork design and production. 3D
printing offers the potential to produce complex formwork shapes that would be difficult
and time consuming to create using traditional methods. This can lead to more architectural
freedom, reduced labor costs, and quicker construction times. Moreover, 3D-printed form-
work can be made from a variety of novel or recycled materials, contributing to important
sustainability improvements in the field of concrete construction.
Sustainability is becoming a key concern in the construction industry, which is con-
stantly exploring the opportunities of reduced environmental impact through the develop-
ment of new materials [130], technologies [167], and circular concepts [168]. This has led
to the development of more sustainable formwork systems, including the use of recycled
or recyclable materials, reusable formwork, and permanent formwork that becomes an
integral part of the final structure. The use of recycled materials in formwork production
can significantly reduce the environmental impact of construction activities. Examples
include recycled plastic formwork and formwork including waste products such as fly ash
or rubber. Reusable formwork systems offer the advantage of reducing material consump-
tion and waste over a period of several construction projects. They can also be more cost
effective over the lifespan of only one single project, as the formwork can be used multiple
times even within the same project. Permanent formwork systems, such as Insulating
Concrete Forms (ICFs) or Permanent Insulated Formworks (PIFs), can enhance the energy
efficiency, as well as the acoustic properties of buildings, but it also offers the advantage of
reducing waste from formwork removal and disposal.
Safety is always a key concern in the construction industry and is also important to
consider during formwork design and operation. Innovations in formwork safety include
the development of safer formwork systems [169] and the use of safety enhancing tech-
nologies [170]. Safer formwork systems focus on improving the stability and robustness
of formwork structures, reducing the risk of failures that can affect both the safety and
the quality of the concrete structure. They also aim to enhance worker safety during
formwork assembly and disassembly, for instance, through safer connecting mechanisms
and protection systems against falls. Technological innovations can also enhance safety in
formwork operations. For example, sensors can be used to monitor formwork loads and
environmental conditions, providing early warnings of potential safety issues. Advanced
sensors and intelligent systems can be embedded into the formwork to continuously mon-
itor and predict the form pressure, but they can also improve safety by detecting early
signs of failure. Real-time data from sensors can provide valuable insights for adjusting
the construction processes, enhancing the overall safety, productivity, and quality of con-
crete operations. Robotic technology is another promising trend in enhancing safety [171].
Robots can be utilized for heavy lifting, precise placement of formwork panels, and per-
forming repetitive tasks, reducing human exposure to hazardous situations. While the
initial implementation of robotic technology could be expensive, the long-term benefits
in terms of safety, efficiency, and cost savings have the potential of becoming substantial.
Prefabricated and modular formwork systems are gaining popularity due to their potential
CivilEng 2023, 4 1113

to reduce construction times, improve the quality of concrete structures, and decrease
labor requirements [172]. These systems typically involve the production of formwork
components off site, which are then transported to the construction site for assembly. The
advantages include increased control over formwork quality, reduced need for skilled labor
on site, and faster construction times due to the ability to assemble large formwork sections
simultaneously.
The future will most likely witness the development of ‘smart’ formwork systems
that integrate a combination of the above trends. These systems could for example include
digitally designed and prefabricated formwork systems, utilizing recycled and sustainable
materials, while being equipped with integrated sensors for the real-time monitoring and
utilizing of Artificial Intelligence to predict the outcome. Such systems will offer unparal-
leled benefits in terms of cost effectiveness, quality control, safety, and sustainability. The
future of formwork design and use offers many emerging possibilities as the understanding
and technologies continue to develop. Emerging technologies, combined with a drive
towards more sustainable and safer construction practices, offer several opportunities to
transform formwork practices in the construction industry.

7. Conclusions
The engineering aspects of formwork for concrete construction include several com-
plex but critical considerations in the construction process. This paper provided a com-
prehensive examination of these aspects, including the application of different formwork
types, their design based on form pressure, the requirements of formwork stripping, the
impact of alternative binders, and their part in improving the sustainability of concrete
construction. Different types of formwork systems present unique benefits and drawbacks
in terms of cost, durability, flexibility, and environmental impact. The choice of a suitable
system depends on the specifics of the project in consideration, from its scope to its allo-
cated budget. For example, the emerging use of Insulated Concrete Forms (ICFs) presents
promising possibilities for energy-efficient and cost-effective houses. In terms of formwork
design, accurate form pressure calculation, influenced by factors like the mix design of
concrete, the rate of placement, and ambient temperature, is crucial for the overall safety
and can therefore be used as a type of quality assurance. The form stripping process is
another important aspect, with its timing and methodology impacting the integrity and
appearance of the final structure.
The paper also discussed the significance of sustainability in formwork systems. This
can be achieved by choosing sustainable materials to promote recycling and reuse, as
the industry moves rapidly towards more environmentally friendly practices. Safety
considerations are also important aspects of formwork use in construction, with proper
design, assembly and dismantling practices, worker training, and technological systems
contributing to improved safety. A comprehensive understanding of formwork costs must
consider material expenses, as well as labor costs, assembly and dismantling times, and
maintenance requirements. The case studies of the paper illustrated the diverse applications
and versatility of formwork systems in various projects, demonstrating the need to adapt
formwork solutions to specific project requirements and constraints.
Promising future trends such as digital technologies, modular formwork, and ‘smart’
systems provide excellent opportunities to enhance efficiency, safety, and sustainability
in formwork operations. The adoption of innovative technologies and materials offers
significant benefits compared to traditional options, but this also presents new challenges
such as the need for training, uncertainty of new materials, and the requirement for
regulatory frameworks. Future research could further investigate the real-world application
and performance of the new formwork materials and technologies discussed in this paper.
Further exploration in these areas will support the journey towards more effective and
sustainable practices in concrete construction.
CivilEng 2023, 4 1114

Author Contributions: J.N.: conceptualization, methodology, writing—original draft; Y.G.: concep-

tualization, writing—reviewing and editing. V.Z.: conceptualization, writing—reviewing and editing.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by Formas, SBUF, and LTU.
Data Availability Statement: All data are available upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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