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CCE306 Lec.03

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CCE 306

Electronic Circuits (2)


Lec. 3: Operational Amplifiers
Instructor
Dr. Maher Abdelrasoul
http://www.bu.edu.eg/staff/mahersalem3

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Introduction to Op-Amps
• Early operational amplifiers (op-amps) were used primarily to perform
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and
differentiation—thus the term operational.
• These early devices were constructed with vacuum tubes and worked with
high voltages.
• Today’s op-amps are linear integrated circuits (ICs) that use relatively low dc
supply voltages and are reliable and inexpensive.

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Ideal & Practical Op-Amp

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Differential Amplifier

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Differential Amplifier Circuit

Input signal combinations:


• Single-ended : If an input signal is
applied to either input with the
other input connected to ground.
• Double-ended: If two opposite-
polarity input signals are applied.
• Common-mode : If the same input
is applied to both inputs.

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DC Biasing
The two transistors are matched.
With ac inputs obtained from voltage
sources, the dc voltage at each input is
essentially connected to 0 V.

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AC Operation (Single-Ended AC Voltage Gain )

RE very large (ideally infinite)


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AC Operation (Double-Ended AC Voltage Gain )

A similar analysis can be used to show that for the condition of


signals applied to both inputs, the differential voltage gain
magnitude is:

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AC Operation (Common Mode Operation)

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Use of Constant-Current Source
• A good differential amplifier has a
very large difference gain Ad, which
is much larger than the common-
mode gain Ac.
• The common-mode rejection ability
of the circuit can be considerably
improved by making the common-
mode gain as small as possible
(ideally 0)
• The larger RE , the smaller is Ac .
• One popular method for increasing
the ac value of RE is using a
constant-current source circuit.
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Op-Amps with Negative Feedback

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Why Use Negative Feedback?
• Negative feedback is the process whereby a portion of the
output voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a
phase angle that opposes (or subtracts from) the input
signal.

• Open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is very


high.
• Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the
op-amp into its saturated output states.
• In fact, even the input offset voltage of the op-amp
can drive it into saturation.
• An op-amp can be connected using negative feedback
to stabilize the gain and increase frequency response.
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Non-inverting Amplifier

• Voltage-Follower
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Inverting Amplifier

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Comparators

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Level Detection
• Operational amplifiers are often used as comparators to compare the
amplitude of one voltage with another.

• In this application, the op-amp is used in the open-loop configuration, with the
input voltage on one input and a reference voltage on the other.

• The output is always at either one of two states, indicating the greater or less
than relationship between the inputs.

• Comparators provide very fast switching times.

• Comparators are often used to interface between an analog and digital circuit (
output is in one of two states).
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Zero and Nonzero-Level Detection

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Effects of Input Noise on Comparator Operation
• To make the comparator less sensitive to
noise, a technique uses positive feedback,
called hysteresis, can be used.

• Hysteresis means that there is a higher


reference level when the input voltage goes
from a lower to higher value than when it
goes from a higher to a lower value.

• A good example of hysteresis is a common


house-hold thermostat that turns the furnace
on at one temperature and off at another.
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Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis

• A comparator with built-in


hysteresis is sometimes known as a
Schmitt trigger.
• The amount of hysteresis is defined
by the difference of the two trigger
levels. 20
Output Bounding
• The process of limiting the output range is called bounding.

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Comparator Applications
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion
• The simultaneous, or flash, method of A/D
conversion uses parallel comparators to
compare the linear input signal with various
reference voltages developed by a voltage
divider.
• When the input voltage exceeds the
reference voltage for a given comparator, a
high level is produced on that comparator’s
output.
2n- 1 comparators are required for
conversion to an n-digit binary number.
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Comparator Applications
Over-Temperature Sensing Circuit

Specific Comparators
• The LM111 and LM311 are examples of specific comparators that exhibit high switching
speeds and other features not normally found on the general type of op-amp.
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Summing Amplifiers

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Summing Amplifier with Unity/ Non Unity Gain
• The summing amplifier is an application of the inverting op-amp configuration.
• A summing amplifier has two or more inputs, and its output voltage is
proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltages.

 Unity Gain

 Gain greater than Unity

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Averaging & Scaling Amplifiers
• Averaging: • Scaling:
A different weight can be assigned to each
input by adjusting the values of the input
resistors.

Example:
Vout= - (3VIN1+ 0.5VIN2)

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Applications
DAC, Scaling Adder as a four-digit DAC
I0=+V/8R Vout(D0)=-Rf I0
I1=+V/4R Vout(D1)=-Rf I1
I2=+V/2R Vout(D2)=-Rf I2
I3=+V/R Vout(D3)=-Rf I3

• Example

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Integrators & Differentiators
• An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical integration, which is basically a
summing process that determines the total area under the curve of a function.

• An op-amp differentiator simulates mathematical differentiation, which is a


process of determining the instantaneous rate of change of a function.

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The Op-Amp Integrator
Ideal

rate of change or slope of the integrator’s output voltage:

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The Op-Amp Differentiator
Ideal

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