UNIT 3 .

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT;
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.Z Principles of Development
.3.2.1 Directionof Development
3.2.2 Rate of Development,
3.2.3 Differentiation and Integration
3.2.4 Critical Periods
3.3 Influences on Development
3.4 Summing Up
3.5 Glossary
3.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.1 INTRODUCTION.
In the earlier Units you have been reading about the experiences of chil.dren and some
basic concepts in Child Development. You learnt that there are universal patterns in .
development. Development also (ollows certain principles that an: common for all
. individuals. In this Unit you will read about these principles. Development is mtlusnced
by many factors. These factors can be grouped under the two main heads of heredity
and environment. In' this Unit you will also read how heredity and environment
influence development.

.Objectives
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
• describe the principles of development
• understand the meaning of 'heredity' and 'environment" and explain how they
interact to. influence development in all areas

3.2 PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

In the second Unit of this Block, you read about certain characteristics of development
Can you recall them? They are as follows: development is orderly, progressive and
results in changes. that are long lasting. In this Section, you will read about. the
principles that govern development.

3.2.1 Direction of Development

, 'Physical and motor development follow two directions. One direction is the bead-to-toe
direction. Development proceeds from the head to the feet. In other words, .
improvements in structure and functions come first in the head region, then in the trunk.
.and finally in the leg .region. This principle is applicable in the case of prenatal (before
birth) as well as postnatal (after birth) development. It has been observed that in the
embryo, the bead region is the first to develop, followed by the trunk and then the
limbs.In fact, at eight weeks after conception, the head comprises half the entire length
of the embryo. In the entire prenatal' life,'.head continues to be the fastest growing part
of the. body.-This is not to say that the rest of the body is not developing .
simultaneously. It is simply that the head is developing faster.

As a matter of fact, in the contextof direction of development in general, it is important

to point out that when one part of the body is growing rapidly, the other parts are also
developing at the same time, but at a slower rate compared to the part which is the
focus of growth and development.

Since the head developed fastest in prenatal life, it is obviously more developed than.
any other p~ of the body at birth. After birth, the focus of development shifts
34 .. - - ".
downwards to other areas of the body. The focus first becomes the torso, followed by
the arms and the legs. This is clear when we look at the growth in 'size of the different
body parts from birth to maturity. While the head only doubles in size between birth
and maturity, the lower parts of the body have to do more growing to reach adult size.
The torso triples in length, the arms and hands increase in length by about four times,
and the legs and feet increase by about five times.

Motor development also follows the head-to-toe direction of development. The muscles
of the head region come under control first leading to the control of movements of the
eyes and mouth. Then the neck muscles come under control, later the arms and torso
and fmally the legs. As a result of this, you would have seen that babies learn to hold
their head up before they acquire the ability to sit, and they are able to sit before they
are able to walk.
,.
The second direction that physical and motor development follow is from the centre or
the body to the ends, that is, development proceeds outwards. Figure 3.1 shows the
central axis of the body. The body parts and the muscles which are near the axis grow
earlier and those which are the farthest are the last to develop. In the prenatal period the
head, spinal cord, heart and the trunk which are towards the centre of the body are the
first to develop. The arms and the legs, which are away from the axis, develop later.
The fingers and toes that are at extreme ends are the last to develop. This principle is
also evident in motor coordination, The movement of the arms which the child can
control earliest are those which use the shoulder muscles (nearer the centre of the body).
Gradually, the child learns to control the muscles of the elbow, then the ~st and last
.of all the fingers. This will become clear if you observe an infant reaching for an
object lying near her.' At three months the baby uses her whole arm while reaching for
the object. As she grows older she is able to reach for' the object by using only the
elbow. Similarly, to pick up an object the child initially uses 'her whole hand. She can

Fig. 3.1 : Central axis Fig. 3.2 : Centre-to-perjphery and

head-to-toe directions of development

35
introduction to ClUId Care pick it up using the fingers only at a later stage. This shows that the child uses the
aDd Development
muscles of her shoulders, which are close to the centre, before she is able to use the
muscles of the fingers which are at the periphery of the body. Similarly, the child is
able to control the movements of her legs before she can use the toes. These examples
show that the child first achieves the coordination of large muscles (such as shoulders)
of the body since they are closer to the axis, before she can coordinate the small
muscles (such as fingers and toes) which are towards the periphery. Figure 3.2
illustrates the head-to-toe and centre-to-ends directions of development.

3.2.2 Rate- of Development

Individual differences In rate of development: You have read that development of all
children follows a particular sequence. 'For example, in the case of motor development
all children will first learn to roll on their backs, then sit, creep, walk, run, climb and so
on. Each child's development will pass through these stages. You would also recall
reading in the earlier Unit that the ages at which children acquire these abilities are
different. One child may begin to walk at nine months and another may do so at 13
months of age. This means that while development follows the same sequence, there are
individual differences in the rate of development Consequently, there are differences in
the age when children reach a particular milestone of development or acquire a
particular ability. Because of these individual differences in development, some children
may recognize and name colours at three years of age while others may do so at five
years of age. One girl may start menstruating at 10 years of age and another at , 13
years. One boy may grow fast and attain his full height by 12 years while another's
growth may be slow and he may achieve his height only by 16 years.

Sex differences In rate of development: There are differences in the rate _of
development of boys and girls. In prenatal period the skeletal system of girls grows
faster as compared to boys. Therefore, at birth girls .are ahead of boys in their skeletal
development. The period of puberty is about two years earlier for girls than for boys.

3.2.3 Differentiation and Integration

Development follows the principles of differentiation and integration. Let us understand
these through the following example. The fertilization of the ovum with the sperm
results in a single cell, which is called a zygote. The zygote then starts multiplying at a
very fast rate into cells that are all of the same kind. These cells then acquire different-
characteristics and form different tissues like nerves, bones, blood and so forth; each
having a special function. These different tissues subsequently- coordinate with each
other to form complex systems like the digestive, circulatory and respiratory systems.

When the similar cells of the zygote change to form different tissues like nerves and
bones, the process is differentiation. DIITerentlatlon means that development proceeds
from simple to complex, from general to specific. In the above process, development
was seen to proceed from identical cells to complex tissues, each of which had its own
specific functions. When different tissues coordinate to form a system, the process is
called integration. Integration means coordination of various parts to form an
increasingly complex structure. It also refers to coordination of different behaviour
patterns that result in a higher level of complexity.

The principles of differentiation and integration can be seen in all areas of development.
Let us see how this principle applies to social development. Initially, the infant smiles at
all faces. This is because she cannot recognize different people. A little later she learns
to differentiate the mother's face from the faces of others and smiles only at her.·
Gradually the infant recognizes other people who interact with her regularly and smiles -
only at those people who are familiar to her. Thus she learns to differentiate the faces of
people she knows from ones she does not know. She can also differentiate the mother's
touch and smell from that of the others. Then she integrates the mother's face, voice,
smell and touch and so learns that all these aspects belong to one person.
.
,I' ~-
\' Cognitive development also proceeds through differentiation and integration. The child
rust learns to differentiate between more and less. This later helps her to learn the more
specific concept of number, that is, understand the meaning of one, two, three and so '
on. Using these concepts she then integrates them to learn new and complicated
36
concepts of addition, subtraction, division and multip1jcation.
Similarly, the child learns to walk and as she grows older the walking differentiates into Ft!--~l..,. fit
De"~opm,,,n
hopping, running, skipping, and so forth. When the child learns to walk, she walks
simply for the pleasure of it. Later she walks to take a..~object from one place to
another. Walking thus becomes integrated with the purpose of carrying things from one
place to another.

3.2.4 Critical Periods

There are some periods in the life of the child _that are crucial for development and
learning. During these periods if the child has favourable experiences, her development
will be fostered. If in these periods experiences are unfavourable, development suffers.
At times, the damage done because of unfavourable experiences may be irreversible.
These periods when a child is particularly sensitive to the conditions in her environment
are referred to as critical periods or sensitive periods.

A critical or sensitive period is that time period in life when an environmental influence
has its greatest impact on the development of the child. During this period, specific
experiences affect the development of the child more than they do at other times.

Such periods are critical for development because during these periods the child is ready
to learn a particular skill. For example, a child begins to speak only when she is able to
control the movements of the tongue, lips and vocal chords and the brain has developed
further. That is, the child must be biologically ready to speak. This biological readiness
refers to maturation. However, besides being mature the child needs to hear language
in order to be able to speak. Therefore, in 'order to learn speech the child must be
biologically ready as well as get opportunities to hear language and speak it. You may
have noticed that by and large it is around twelve months of age that the child utters the
first word. Before this, though the child understands words, she cannot speak them and
no amount of effort will help her speak since she is not biologically mature. But
opportunities to hear and practise speech are also important. If she does not have them,
she will not be able to speak in spite of being biologically mature. This is clear from
the study of deaf children. A child who cannot hear speech will not be able to talk.
Thus children who are deaf or hard of hearing in the early years of life do not learn to
speak unless efforts are made to enable them to hear language, for instance through
bearing aids. It is observed that children generally have a readiness to distinguish sounds
and thus learn speech in the early years of life. The first few years are thus considered
critical for acquiring language.

You would have understood that a critical period is one when the child is maturationally
ready to acquire a skill. During this period the child must have favourable experiences
(in the above example, opportunities to hear and practise speech), whicb will help her to
acquire the skill. If the favourable experiences come after the critical period is over, the
child finds it difficult to learn.

There are critical periods in prenatal development as well. It has been observed that the
first three months of pregnancy are by and large critical for most body systems and
exposure to harmful environmental factors during these months can cause major
developmental defects. The first three months of pregnancy correspond to the embryonic
and early foetal periods of prenatal development It is during this time that cell
differentiation, tissue specialization and organ formation is taking place. As a result,
most of the harmful environmental elements have maximum impact on the unborn child
during this period. In subsequent months, the foetus is less susceptible and vulnerable to
environmental influences. Let us consider an example. German measles may cause
blindness,.deafness, heart defects, brain damage or limb deformity in a child developing
in the mot,ber's womb, depending upon the particular time in the developmental
sequence when the mother contracts the disease. While considerable damage is caused in
the first three months of pregnancy, the disease does not harm the foetus in any
significant way if the mother contracts it in later months of pregnancy. Thus in this
particular example, unfavourable conditions had an impact only during the period critical
for development

Critical periods are observed in social and emotional.development also. The infant forms
her first relationship with the caregiver, who is usually the mother, during the first six
 , ' ,

, IntrodudJon to Child Care months of life, Research shows that the child can form this relationship only if the
and Development
caregiver is loving and nurturant. Children who are unable to form an emotional
attachment during the first six months show distress, They cry more, are fearful, do not
respond to people and withdraw from social contact. If this neglect of the child
, continues. she may find it difficult to form strong relationships later in life. Thus the
first six months .are critical for social development
\,

Though you have been reading that critical periods are the best time for learning, you
must remember that they are not the only time for learning, Human beings are very
resilient and a child can learn after a critical period is over, though with some difficulty,
In one particular case a six-and-a-half year old girl had been isolated with her mute
mother from the time of her birth, The girl could not speak. She was then given special
instruction, Gradually she learnt to speak and at 14 years of age she appeared to be
normal, According to recent research. in fact the brain is particularly capable of learning
language till one reaches puberty,

Similarly. that children can recover from unfavourable emotional experiences is seen
from the experiences of children who were deprived of a loving caregiver in the first six
months of life, Though these children started showing the symptoms described above.
- , when they were provided f loving environment after this period. they recovered, Most of
I their symptoms disappeared and they learnt to relate to people and form relationships.
.
\, .

, Check Your Progress Exercise 1

.",
..
,
..

1) Match the items given in column 1 with those in column 2,

COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2

a) Head-to-toe development i) the child initially uses the whole arm to

reach for an object. Gradually she
learns to use muscles of the wrist and
fingers to,pick up an object.

b) Centre-to-ends development ii) first the child learns to control the

movements of the neck and later
develops the coordination of lower
limbs because of which she learns to
crawl and walk.
~',
c) Differentiation Hi) the understanding of numbers leads to
learning of more complex concepts like
addition and subtraction.

d) Integration iv) the child learns to recognize the

mother's voice from other people's
voices.

2) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate words.

a) The rate of development of the various parts of the body is ~ .

b) There are in the rate of development of boys and girls.

c) There are in tbe ages at which

children reach a particular milestone of development.

3) Read the following statements carefully, Write whether. they are true or false in the
space provided after each statement.

a) Maturation refers to the biological readiness to perform a task or learn a skill.

, (

'I" b) Both biological readiness and experiences and opportunities to practise are
essential for any learning or development. (
.c) Critical periods are the only times for learning particular skills. (
38 '
\
 Principles of
3.3 INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT Development

You have read in the earlier subsection on critical periods that development and learning
take place when the child is mature or ready to \earn and when opportunities for
learning are available. The biological readiness or maturation is mainly determined by
heredity. The child also inherits many other traits and characteristics. Heredity is one
factor that influences development. The other factors are the experiences of the child
and opportunities available to her. These are determined by the child's environment.
Development and learning are the result of interaction between heredity and
environment. Let us now read what is meant by these two terms.

Environment refers to the external conditions that influence development. We can

consider environment as prenatal and postnatal. The prenatal environment is the mother's
womb. The foetus is affected by the kind and amount of food the mother eats, physical
work done by her, illnesses she may have during pregnancy and drugs consumed by her.
The mother's feelings and emotions will also affect the foetus.

After birth the environment influences the development of the child in many ways. We.
refer to this as the postnatal environment. TIle postnatal environment can be divided into
physical and social influences. Physical environment refers to the ecological conditions:
the type of food eaten, tile occupation of the people, the amount of living space, the
surroundings, facilities (hospitals, electricity, water, etc.) and media (television, radio,
newspapers, etc.). Social environment refers to the settings in which the child has
. interactions with other people. The interaction is influenced by size and type of family,
gender, culture, religion and social class. Environment provides the experiences to the
child.

Heredity refers to the inborn traits and characteristics. These characteristics are
transmitted to the child from the parents. The colour of one's hair, skin and eyes, the
shape of one's nose and the body structure are determined by heredity. A person's
mental capacity and some personality traits are also determined by heredity to a certain
extent. Genes transmit the hereditary characteristics from parents to children. They carry
the codes of the biological development of an individual. The maturation of different
parts of the body is also determined by genes. At what stage in life a particular organ/
system matures is determined by genes. Some genes are common to all human beings
such as for two arms, two legs, a heart, a digestive system, and a code for the pattern of
development. These genes make human beings different from a tree or a horse.'
However, the length of the arms and legs, the size of fingers and toes, colour of eyes,
hair, skin etc. are unique for every individual. This makes each person different from
every other. No two people have an identical set of genes except in the case of identical
twins. Identical twins are two babies born from the division of a single zygote. Some
time two ova are fertilized by two sperms at the same time, which results in two
zygotes and the twins, are called fraternal twins. Each of these twins has different
genetic material because they result from the fusion of a separate ovum and sperm.

Let us now understand the complex roles of heredity and environment in human
development. There have been many views concerning the relative influence of heredity
and environment on development. Atone time environment was regarded to be playing
a greater role than heredity. At another time the role of heredity was considered greater
than that of environment. Neither view is now central. The issue is not whether it is
heredity or environment that influences development, neither is it how much of the
development is to be attributed solely to heredity or environment. Both heredity and
environment interact to influence various aspects of development. It: is not easy to
separate the effects of the two since interaction between them is continuous and
complex.

In the case/of physical development, characteristics like height, weight, rate of growth,
physical features, blood pressure and heart beat are to a large extent determined by .
genes. However, environment does have an effect on these. For example, if one of the
identical twifts suffers from a severe infection at an early age and is seriously ill for a
long time, it is most likely that she will not have the same gain in weight and height as
the healthy twin. This may result in the sick twin being shorter and lighter than the
healthy twin in spite of the fact that both had the same genes for height and weight.
39
 ... i

Introduction to Child Care In relation to motor development you have read that a child needs to be biologically
and Development
ready or mature to learn motor skills. A child's muscles, bones and nerves must be
developed to a certain level to allow walking. Thus acquiring of motor skills is greatly
determined by maturation. Further evidence for this is obtained when you read that
motor development follows a universal pattern and sequence. This shows the role of
genes. However, the role of environment cannot be ruled out. The environment provides
opportunities for practice which is very essential for acquiring motor skills. A child will
learn to ride a cycle only if she gets the opportunity to do so; The interaction between
heredity and environment is continuous.
Studies have been done to understand the interaction of heredity and environment on
cognitive development. In one particular study infants living in orphanages were
observed. In these institutions one caregiver looked after many children. She, therefore,
did not have enough time to talk to or play with U1C children. The cognitive
development of these children was found to' be below the norms for their age.
Subsequently, thirteen of these children were put in the care of women in an institution
where they got nurturance, care and attention. These women had time to play with them.
After a period of two years 'all the thirteen children showed an increase in their
cognitive functioning compared to children who had remained in the orphanage. After
twenty years it was found that all thirteen children were economically independent. The
children who had stayed continuously in the orphanage were still dependent on adult
help and institutional care. This study illustrates the role of a nurturing and stimulating
environment in cognitive development.
Intelligence is influenced by genes as well. A certain genetic abnormality results in the
absence of a gene because of which a particular enzyme is not produced in the body.
Due to tJ1C lack of this enzyme, toxic substances get accumulated in the body. These
toxic chemicals affect the nervous system and may cause mental retardaucn. But
environment has a role to play here also. If the condition is identified early and the
needed treatment is given, in general the harm to the nervous system can be controlled
and the' child will not be mentally retarded. Heredity provides a certain potential for
intelligence and the environment determines how much of the individual's potential is
realized.
The interaction of heredity and environment can be observed in language development
also. Children who are born deaf do not learn to speak in the normal course of life. But
it has been observed that the infant did babble in the early months but the frequency of
babbling decreased because she could not hear the response of the caregivers. Thus she
had no feedback regarding the sounds she was producing and failed to develop speech.
If the problem is detected early and hearing aids provided, the child can learn to speak
and gradually catch up with.others of her age.
How do heredity and environment influence the behaviour and personality of an
individual? You have read that the height ofa person is determined by heredity to a
large extent. One's height can influence one's self-image. If a person is less than the
average height she may feel self-conscious or inadequate, which may interfere with her
social interactions. From the earlier Units you will remember that environment
determines the type of experiences the child has. These experiences will also influence
the child's personality development.
One cannot say that personality is directly influenced by heredity. Genes do not directly
produce anger, likes and dislikes, jealousy, a love of fun or a serious nature. Genes may
act on the physiology of an individual which leads to the development of certain
personality characteris~ics. For example, the level of activity of a child seems to be
determined by heredity. Studies also reveal that children who are active at birth may
start walking earlier and they continue to be more active than other children. This may
influence development in other areas and specific aspects of the personality.
The genetic make-up ofan individual may also account for certain emotional
disturbances. It has been observed that children whose parents are suffering from an
emotional disturbance are more likely to have an emotional problem. In the case of
identical twins, if one twin develops a problem the chances are that the other will also
develop it. It can not be said that the child inherits the emotional disturbance itself.
What is actually inherited is the level of stress a person can tolerate. Whether the
disturbance is manifested or not will depend on the experiences of the child. If the
environment is stressful. the child is likely to be emotionally disturbed. In a favourable
setting the child can be normal despite a genetic predisposition to emotional problems.
 Principles 01
From the above discussion one can conclude that heredity and environment interact in
Development
all areas of development. Heredity sets the limits to what a person can achieve and
environment determines how much of this potential is realized. In no case can we say
that development is a consequence of only heredity or only environment. It is a result of
the interaction between the two. The different genetic material that each one of us
i inherits and. the varied experiences we have account for the differences among us.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) The following figure includes the factors that influence development. Complete the
blanks in the figure.

Factors influencing development

Heredity Environment

Prenatal
environment

Ph~1
ysica
environment

2) Fill in the blanks in the sentences given below with appropriate words.

a) -Environment refers to the conditions thar influence development.

b) are transmitted from the parents to the children.

c) No two individuals have the genetic material except in the case

of twins.

L. d) Heredity and environment to influence all areas of development.

3.4 .SUMMING UP
In this Unit you read about the principles of development. The direction of physical and
motor development is governed by two principles. These are: that development proceeds
from head-to-toe and centre-to-ends. The rates of development of the various parts of
the body at anyone period of life are different. Though there is a universal pattern in
, development, there are differences in the pace at which every individual develops. There
are sex differences as well in the aspects of development. Development follows the
principle of differentiation and integration. Differentiation means that development
proceeds from simple to complex, from general to specific. Integration means
coordination of various parts to form an increasingly complex structure. It also refers to
coordination of different behaviour patterns that result in a higher .level of complexity.
Both processes are involved in growth and development.

In the course of development there are some periods when the child is mature, i.e.,
biologically ready, to learn a particular skill. At this time it is important that the child
has the appropriate experience so that learning takes place. These periods are referred to
as critical periods. Critical periods are the best time periods to learn. However, even
after the critical period, learning can take place but it requires more effort. It may at
.times be impossible to learn a skill after the critical period is over.

You have also learnt that environment and heredity are the two factors that influence
development. Environment can be categorized as prenatal and postnatal. Postnatal
environment includes physical settings and social experiences. Heredity refers to the
traits and characteristics that the child.is bQm with. These are transmitted from the
parents to the children through genes. Human development is a result of the interaction
between heredity and environment. '
Introduction to Child Care
and Development 3.5 - GLOSSARY
Self-Image: One's' views about one's personality. It includes what one feels, thinks and
imagines about oneself. One may think oneself to be a .person who is friendly, outgoing.
or shy, intelligent. brave, serious natured, immature in dealing with people,
straightforward. one who speaks too much, etc.

Milestones of Development: Significant behaviours which are used to mark the progress
of development. Walking is a milestone in motor development; understanding that things
are present somewhere even if not visible is a milestone in cognitive development and
learning to recognize the mother in social development, etc.

Perlphery: External boundary.

Resilient: Capable of recovering from hardship.

Torso: The human body without the head and limbs.'

Creeping: Moving on hands and knees with the abdomen raised from the surface.'

•
3.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Chec~ YOUI"Progress Exercise 1

1) a) ii
b) I

c) iv
d) iii

2) 'a) different'
b) differences
c) individual differences
3) a) True
b) True
c) False. Critical periods an: the hest times for learning particular skills.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Factors influencing development

Heredity environment

I ~
genes Prenatal Postnatal
environment environment

~
Physical Social
environment environment

2) a) external
b) Genes
c) same, identical
d) interact