Module 2 - 4 - Merged

MODULE
Manufacturing Processes:
Theory of Metal Cutting &
Machine Tools
Tool
Materials
Joyjeet Ghose
Email: joyjeetghose@gmail.com
Associate Professor,
Department of Production Engineering,
Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi
Cutting tools & its characteristics
Cutting tool is a device, used to remove the unwanted material from given
workpiece. For carrying out the machining process, cutting tool is
fundamental and essential requirement. A cutting tool must have the
following characteristics:
• Hardness: The tool material must be harder than the work piece material.
Higher the hardness, easier it is for the tool to penetrate the work material.
• Hot hardness: Hot Hardness is the ability of the cutting tool must to
maintain its Hardness and strength at elevated temperatures. This property is
more important when the tool is used at higher cutting speeds, for increased
productivity.
• Toughness: Inspite of the tool being tough, it should have enough toughness
to withstand the impact loads that come in the start of the cut to force
fluctuations due to imperfections in the work material. Toughness of cutting
tools is needed so that tools don’t chip or fracture, especially during
interrupted cutting operations like milling.
Cutting tools & its characteristics
• Wear Resistance: The tool-chip and chip-work interface are exposed to
severe conditions that adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. Wear
resistance means the attainment of acceptable tool life before tools need to
be replaced.
• Low friction: The coefficient of friction between the tool and chip should
be low. This would lower wear rates and allow better chip flow.
• Thermal characteristics: Since a lot of heat is generated at the cutting
zone, the tool material should have higher thermal conductivity to dissipate
the heat in shortest possible time, otherwise the tool temperature would
become high, reducing its life.
Cutting Tool Materials
• Carbon and Medium alloy steels : These are the oldest of the tool materials dating
back hundreds of years. In simple terms it is a high carbon steel (steel which contains
about 0.9 to 1.3% carbon). Inexpensive, easily shaped, sharpened. No sufficient
hardness and wear resistance. Limited to low cutting speed operation
• High Speed Steel (1900, Taylor and White): The major difference between high
speed tool steel and plain high carbon steel is the addition of alloying elements
(manganese, chromium, tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum, cobalt, and niobium) to
harden and strengthen the steel and make it more resistant to heat (hot hardness).
They are of two types: Tungsten HSS (denoted by T), Molybdenum HSS (denoted by
M).
Source: The Fundamentals of

Modern Manufacturing, M.
Groover, 4th Edition, John
Wiley
EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS PRESENT IN HSS
• Carbon : forms carbides, increases wear resistance, is responsible
for the basic matrix hardness.
• Tungsten and molybdenum: improve red hardness, retention of
hardness and high temperature strength of the matrix, form special
carbides of great hardness.
• Vanadium: forms special carbides of supreme hardness, increases
high temperature wear resistance, retention of hardness and high
temperature strength of the matrix.
• Chromium: promotes depth hardening, produces readily soluble
carbides.
• Cobalt: improves red hardness and retention of hardness of the
matrix.
• Cemented Carbides or Sintered Carbides (1926-30): These tools are produced
by powder metallurgy. Carbide tools are basically of three types of carbides:
tungsten carbide (WC), tantalum carbide (TaC), and titanium carbide (TiC). The
carbides or combined carbides are mixed with a binder of cobalt. They are able to
retain hardness to a temperature of about 10000C. So they can be used at high
speeds. Carbide tool are available as brazed tip tools (carbide tip is brazed to steel
tool) and inserts (inserts are of various shapes- triangular, square diamond and
round).
• When the straight WC–Co tools were used to cut steel, crater wear occurred
rapidly, leading to early failure of the tools. A strong chemical affinity exists
between steel and the carbon in WC, resulting in accelerated wear by diffusion
and chemical reaction at the tool–chip interface for this work-tool combination.
Consequently, straight WC–Co tools cannot be used effectively to machine steel.
It was subsequently discovered that additions of titanium carbide and tantalum
carbide to the WC–Co mix significantly retarded the rate of crater wear when
cutting steel. These new WC–TiC–TaC–Co tools could be used for steel
machining. The result is that cemented carbides are divided into two basic types:
(1) nonsteel-cutting grades, consisting of only WC–Co; and (2) steel-cutting
grades, with combinations of TiC and TaC added to the WC–Co.
Typical carbide inserts
FIGURE: (a) Typical carbide

inserts with various shapes
and chip-breaker features.
Round inserts are also
available. The holes in the
inserts are standardized for
interchangeability. Source:
Courtesy of Kyocera
Engineered Ceramics, Inc.,
and Manufacturing
Engineering, Society of
Manufacturing Engineers.
(b) Methods of attaching
inserts to a tool shank by
clamping, (c) with wing
lockpins, and (d) with a
brazed insert on a shank
FIGURE: Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping and breaking of inserts with various
shapes. Strength refers to that of the cutting edge shown by the included angles. Source: Kennametal,
Inc.
• Coated cemented carbide (1960): Tool life to about 200 to 300 % or more. A thin, chemically
stable, hard refractory coating of TiC, TiN or Al2O3 is used. The bulk of the tool is tough, shock
resistant carbide that can withstand high temperatures. Because of its wear resistance, coated tool
can be used at still higher speeds. The first generation of coated carbides had only a single layer
coating (TiC, TiN, or Al2O3). More recently, coated inserts have been developed that consist of
multiple layers. The first layer applied to the WC–Co base is usually TiN or TiCN because of good
adhesion and similar coefficient of thermal expansion. Additional layers of various combinations of
TiN, TiCN, Al2O3, and TiAlN are subsequently applied.
• Cast cobalt alloys or Stellites (1915): It is a non-ferrous alloy consisting mainly of cobalt, tungsten
and chromium (40% to 50% Cobalt, 25% to 30% Chromium, and 15% to 20% Tungsten). Other
elements added in varying proportions are molybdenum, manganese, silicon and carbon. It has good
shock and wear resistance properties and retains its harness up to 9000C. Stellite tools can operate at
speed about 25% higher than that of HSS tools . These tools are made into the desired shape by
casting in graphite molds and then grinding to final size and cutting-edge sharpness. High hardness
is achieved as cast, an advantage over HSS, which requires heat treatment to achieve its hardness.
Wear resistance of the cast cobalt is better than high-speed steel, but not as good as cemented
carbide. Toughness of cast cobalt tools is better than carbides but not as good as HSS. Hot hardness
also lies between these two materials.
• Cemented oxides or Ceramic Cutting Tools (1950s): Non-metallic materials made of pure
Aluminum oxide by powder metallurgy. The application ceramic cutting tools are limited because
of their extreme brittleness. The transverse rupture strength (TRS) is very low. This means that they
will fracture more easily when making heavy interrupted cuts. However, the strength of ceramics
under compression is much higher than HSS and carbide tools. It has high hot hardness (up to
12000C), so capable of running at high speeds. Other commercially available ceramic cutting-tool
materials include silicon nitride (SiN), sialon (silicon nitride and aluminum oxide, SiN–Al2O3),
aluminum oxide and titanium carbide (Al2O3–TiC), and aluminum oxide reinforced with single
crystalwhiskers\of silicon carbide. These tools are usually intended for special applications, a
discussion of which is beyond our scope.
• Cermets (1954 commercially 1970’s): Cermets are ceramic material in metal
binders. TiC, nickel, TiN, and other carbides are used as binders. In cutting-
tool terminology, the term cermet is applied to ceramic-metal composites
containing TiC, TiN, and certain other ceramics not including WC. Cermets
have higher hot hardness and oxidation resistance than cemented carbides but
less toughness. They are used for finishing operation. The main problem with
cermets is that due to thermal shock the inserts crack.
• Diamond: They are of two types - industrial grade natural diamonds, and
synthetic polycrystalline diamonds (GE 1950’s). Because diamonds are pure
carbon, they have an affinity for the carbon of ferrous metals. Therefore, they
can only be used on non-ferrous metals. Feeds should be very light and high
speeds. Rigidity in the machine tool and the setup is very critical because of
the extreme hardness and brittleness of diamond.
• Cubic Boron Nitride (1969, GE, trade name BORAZON)): Cubic boron
nitride (CBN) is similar to diamond in its polycrystalline structure and is also
bonded to a carbide base. With the exception of titanium, or titanium-alloyed
materials, CBN will work effectively as a cutting tool on most common work
materials. However, the use of CBN should be reserved for very hard and
difficult-to-machine materials.
Cutting tool material and recommended speed range:
FIGURE : The range of applicable cutting speeds and fees for a variety of tool materials.
Source: Valenite, Inc.
Figure from: “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian,
Schmid, Prentice Hall 2003
Cutting tool materials hardness and strength
(a) Hardness of various cutting-tool materials as a function of temperature. (b)

Ranges of properties of various groups of materials.
Source: George Schneider,Jr. CMfgE, Cutting Tool Applications
References
1. Kalpakjian, Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th
edition,, Prentice Hall 2003
2. DeGarmo, E. P., J. T. Black, and R. A. Kohser, Materials and processes in
Manufacturing, PHI.
3. P.N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology – Metal Cutting and Machine Tools, TMH.
4. George Schneider,Jr. CMfgE, Cutting Tool Applications
5. Amstead, B. H., P. F. Ostwald, and M. L. Begeman, Manufacturing Processes,
8th ed., Wiley, New York, 1988.
6. Amitabha Battacharya , Metal Cutting Theory and Practice
7. Shaw, M. C., Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984.
8. Schey, J. A., Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1977.
9. Lindberg, R. A., Processes and Materials of Manufacture,
10. William J Patton, Machine tool Operations, Reston publishing company
11. O W Boston, Metal Processing, 2nd edition 1951, John Wiley and Sons
12. B.S.Raghuwanshi, A course in Workshop Technology-Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
13. Hajra Choudhury, Elements of Workshop Technology–Vol.-II, Media Promoters
and Publishers.
14. O P Khanna, Production Technology-(Vol. II)
15. HMT, Production Technology, HMT
MODULE
Machine Tools
Chip
Formation
and Tool
Joyjeet Ghose
Associate Professor, Failure

Chip Formation
• Regardless of the tool being used or the metal being cut, the chip forming
process occurs by a mechanism called plastic deformation. This
deformation can be visualized as shearing. That is when a metal is
subjected to a load exceeding its elastic limit.
• This action, shown in Figure is similar to the action that takes place when a
deck of cards is given a push and sliding or shearing occurs between the
individual cards.
Types of chip
• Discontinuous or segmented
• Continuous
• Continuous with a built-up edge.
Source: George Schneider,Jr. CMfgE, Cutting Tool Applications

Types of chip
Fig: Basic chip types: (a) Discontinuous (b) Continuous (c)

Built-up edge. Source: Tool Design, C. Donalson, Joyjeet
Ghose et. al., Tata McGraw Hill 2012
Types of chip
FIGURE : Various chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and breaks; (c)
continuous chip moving away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off. Source: G.
Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine Tools.
Types of chip (video)
Video showing different types of chip formation

Types of chip
Continuous Chip
• During cutting of ductile materials a continuous ribbon type chip is
produced.
• The pressure of the tool makes the material ahead of cutting edge
deformed plastically.
• It generally suffers compression and shear. The material then slides over
the tool rake face for some distance and then leaves the tool.
• Factors favorable to its formation are ductile metals, such as mild steel,
copper etc., fine feed, high cutting speed, large rake angle, keen cutting
edge, smooth tool face and efficient lubrication system.
Continuous Chip with a Built-up Edge (BUE)
As discussed in continuous chips, the temperature is higher at interface between
chip and the tool during cutting. Also, the work material; slides under heavy
pressure on the rake face before being transformed into a free chip. Therefore in
these conditions some portion of the chip may stick to the rake face of the tool.
Because of such closed contact, it discharges its heat to the tool and thus
becomes stringer than the rest of the material following over it. Naturally it
attracts more of the deforming work material and thus the size of the BUE goes
on increasing. When it reaches a certain “critical” size, it becomes unstable and
portion of it may disengage and break up. These broken portions and BUE get
embedded in the machine surface or get attached to the underside of the
following chip.
Favorable condition are low cutting speed, excessive feed, small rake angle, and
lack of lubricant.
Discontinuous Chip
• Discontinuous or segmented chips are produced when brittle metal such as cast
iron and hard bronze are cut or when some ductile metals are cut under poor
cutting conditions.
• The chip formation mechanism in this case is quite different from that in the case
of ductile materials. Even a slight plastic deformation produced by a small
advance of the cutting edge into the job leads to a crack formation in the
deforming zone. With further advance of the cutting tool, the crack travels and a
small lump of material starts moving up the rake face. The force and constraints
in the motion acting on the lump make the crack propagate towards the surface,
and thus a small fragment of the chip gets detached. As the tool moves further,
this sequence is repeated.
• Conditions tending to promote discontinuous chip formation include: brittle
metal, greater depth of cut, low cutting speed and small rake angle.
Continuous Chip: A video
Discontinuous Chip: A video
BUE continuous Chip: A video
Tool wear
• Cutting tools are subjected to extremely severe cutting conditions such as:
1. metal to metal contact with chip and work
2. very high stress
3. very high temperature
4. very high temperature gradients
5. very high stress gradients
• Because of all the above-mentioned factors, the tool-chip interface exhibit
the type of wears found. As tool wear progresses, cutting forces increase
and vibrations increase. Tool tip softens and flows plastically and gets
blunt edge which will result in further progressing of plastic deformation
from the tool tip to the interior.
• Cutting tool life is one of the most important economic considerations in
metal cutting.
• Conditions giving a very short tool life will not be economical because
tool-grinding, indexing, and tool replacement costs will be high.
• On the other hand, the use of very low speeds and feeds to give long tool
life will not be economical because of the low production rate.
• Efforts are thus made to understand the behavior of the tool, how it
physically wears, the wear mechanisms, and forms of tool failure.
Tool wear
Tool wear
Source: “ Manufacturing
Processes for
Engineering Materials”,
6th edition, Kalpakjian,
Schmid, Pearson
Education 2018
Wear Mechanisms
Four basic wear mechanisms is categorized as:
Abrasion: Because hard inclusions in the workpiece microstructure plow into
the tool face and flank surfaces, abrasion wear predominates at relatively low
cutting temperatures. The abrasion resistance of a tool material is proportional
to its hardness.
Adhesion: Caused by formation and subsequent destruction of minute welded
junctions, adhesion wear is commonly observed as built-up edge (BUE) on
the top face of the tool. This BUE may eventually disengage from the tool,
causing a crater like wear. Adhesion can also occur when minute particles of
the tool surface are instantaneously welded to the chip surface at the tool chip
interface and carried away with the chip.
Diffusion: When a metal is in sliding contact with another metal and the
temperature at their interface is high, conditions may become right for the
alloying atoms from the harder metal to diffuse into the softer matrix; thereby
increasing the latter’s hardness and abrasiveness. On the other hand atoms
from the softer metals may also diffuse into harder metal, thus weakening the
surface layer of the latter to such an extent that particles on it are dislodged
and are carried away by flowing chip material. Because of high temperatures
and pressures in diffusion wear, micro transfer on an atomic scale takes place.
The rate of diffusion increases exponentially with increases in temperature. .
Oxidation: At elevated temperature, the oxidation of the tool material can
cause high tool wear rates. The oxides that are formed are easily carried away,
leading to increased wear.
Crater Wear
Typically, crater wear occurs on the rake face of the tool. It is essentially the erosion
of an area parallel to the cutting edge. This erosion process takes place as the chip
being cut, rubs the top face of the tool. Under very high-speed cutting conditions and
when machining tough materials, crater wear can be the factor which determines the
life of the tool. However, when tools are used under economical conditions, the edge
wear and not the crater wear is more commonly the controlling factor in the life of
the tool. Crater wear is caused mainly by diffusion and adhesion.
Flank or Edge Wear
Flank wear occurs on the clearance face of the tool and is mainly caused by the
rubbing of the newly machined workpiece surface on the contact area of the tool
edge. This type of wear occurs on all tools while cutting any type of work material.
Flank wear begins along the lead cutting edge and generally moves downward, away
from the cutting edge. The edge wear is also commonly known as the wear land.
During the initial and steady wear phase (stage I & II), the root cause is due to
abrasion, whereas during stage III, it is by diffusion.
Flank or Edge Wear
• Three regions can usually be identified in the typical wear growth curve. The first is the break-in
period, in which the sharp cutting edge wears rapidly at the beginning of its use. This first region
occurs within the first few minutes of cutting. The break-in period is followed by wear that occurs
at a fairly uniform rate. This is called the steady-state wear region. In our figure, this region is
pictured as a linear function of time, although there are deviations from the straight line in actual
machining. Finally, wear reaches a level at which the wear rate begins to accelerate. This marks the
beginning of the failure region, in which cutting temperatures are higher, and the general efficiency
of the machining process is reduced. If allowed to continue, the tool finally fails by temperature
failure. The slope of the tool wear curve in the steady-state region is affected by work material and
cutting conditions. Harder work materials cause the wear rate (slope of the tool wear curve) to
increase. Increased speed, feed, and depth of cut have a similar effect, with speed being the most
important of the three. If the tool wear curves are plotted for several different cutting speeds, the
results appear as in Figure. As cutting speed is increased, wear rate increases so the same level of
wear is reached in less time.
Source: The Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, M. Groover, 4th Edition, John Wiley
Tool Failure
A tool that no longer performs the desired functions is said to have failed and
hence reached the end of its useful life. At such an end point the tool is not
necessarily unable to cut the workpiece but is merely unsatisfactory for the
purpose required. The tool may be resharpened and used again.
Following are the some of the possible criterion for limiting the tool life:
Flank wear: Flank wear is not of uniform width. It is larger at or near the tow
ends of the active portions of the side cutting edge. At the nose portion the chip
flow is rather complicated and wearing conditions severe. At the rear portion of
the flank wear land, groove or notch gets formed on account of accelerated wear.
It has been suggested that accelerated wear is caused by abrasion and metal
transfer, enhanced by chemical interaction with the surrounding atmosphere. The
width of the wear land is maximum at the rear end of the flank land. According
to ISO recommendation, following wear land criterion are appropriate for tool
made from different materials, both roughing and finishing cuts: VB=0.3mm;
VBmax=0.6mm.
Tool Failure Criterion
Crater wear: The two parameters of interest in Crater wear are its maximum
depth KT and the distance KM between the cutting edge and the location where
maximum Crater depth occurs. It is obvious that the larger the depth of the
Crater becomes weaker is the tool rendered. ISO recommends the following
value of crater depth as the tool failure criterion: KT = 0.06 + 0.3f, where f is
the feed per revolutions,
Optiz and Weber have suggested that the ratio of KT / KM is related to the
catastrophic failure of the tool and its maximum permissible value may lie
between 0.2 and 0.4.
KM
Combination of flank wear and crater wear:

Plastic Deformation: Edge depression and body bulging appear, due to excessive
heat. The tool loses strength and consequently flows plastically.
Mechanical Breakage: Excessive loads may cause immediate failure.
Alternatively, the mechanical failure (chipping) may result from a fatigue type
failure. Thermal shock also causes mechanical failure.
The spalling or crumbling of the cutting edge, as when cutting extremely
hard material.
Tool Failure Criterion
• FIGURE: (a) Types of wear observed in

cutting tools. The thermal cracks shown
are usually observed in interrupted
cutting operations, such as in milling.
(b) Catastrophic failure of tools. (c)
Features of tool wear in a turning
operation. The VB indicates average
flank wear. Source: (a) and (b) After V.
C. Venkatesh. (c) International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
References
edition,, Pearson Education, 2018
2. Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems,
Fourth Edition, Mikell P. Groover, JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
Manufacturing, PHI.
1977.
and Publishers.
MODULE
Machine Tools
Tool Life,
Machinability
and Cutting
Joyjeet Ghose
Fluid
Tool life
Tool life represents the useful life of the tool, expressed generally in time
units from the start of a cut to some end point defined by failure criterion.
A common method of forecasting tool wear is to use Taylor’s equation; his
study on tool life was done in 1907.
Taylor thought that there is an optimum cutting speed for
best productivity. This is reasoned from the fact that at low
cutting speeds, tools have higher life, but productivity is
low, and at higher speeds the reverse is true. This inspired
him to check up the relationship of tool life and cutting
speed. Based on the experimental work he proposed the
Frederick W. Taylor 1856-1915
formula for tool life.
Taylor’s Empirical Equation: VT n =C
Where, T = tool lifetime; usually in minutes
V = cutting velocity, m/min
C = constant; the cutting velocity for 1 minute of elapsed time before reaching the wear limit of
the tool
n = constant which is considered a characteristic of the tool material, called tool life index.
Note: at T = 1 minute, C becomes equal to the cutting speed
Each combination of workpiece, tool material and cutting condition has its own n and C
values, both of which are determined experimentally
Tool life (C and n values)
Sl Work Values of “C” for different

No materials Tool Materials
.
HSS Carbide Cera Sl Tool Materials Values of
mic No “n”
1 Carbon steel 40 – 100 200 – 160 2500 1 HSS 0.08 - 0.2
2 Cast Iron 30 – 60 100 – 150 9000 2 Cemented 0.3 - 0.49

Carbide
3 Stainless 20 – 35 120 – 200
Steel 3 Ceramic 0.5 - 0.7
4 Titanium 10 – 20 100 – 150
5 Tungsten 120 - 400 - 600

160
Effect of Workpiece Microstructure on Tool Life in Turning
FIGURE : Effect of workpiece microstructure on tool life in turning. Tool life is given in terms of the
time (in minutes) required to reach a flank wear land of a specified dimension. (a) ductile cast iron. (b)
Steels, with identical hardness. Note the rapid decrease in tool life as the cutting speed increases.
Source “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid,
Prentice Hall 2003
Effect of Workpiece Microstructure on Tool Life in Turning
• The tool life curves above are obtained in cutting various ductile cast irons. Note
the rapid decrease in tool life as the cutting speed increases and the strong
influence of the condition of the work piece material microstructure on the tool
life.
• Effect of cutting speed upon material removal: a material is being machined in
the “a” condition – 265 HB; see the figure above
 if the cutting speed is 70 m/min, tool life is about 40 min and the tool has
“traveled” 70 m/min X 40 min = 2800 m before being replaced.
 if the cutting speed is increased to 120 m/min, tool life is about 5 min and the tool
“travels” 120 m/min X 5 min = 600m.
 the lower cutting speed allows more material removal per tool but the part cannot
be produced as quickly – this is an economic trade-off.
Tool life
Tool life curves are usually plotted on log-log paper or are plotted taking log of the equation,
from which we can easily determine the exponent “n”.
Note that dependent variable tool life is plotted on the x axis and the independent variable
cutting speed is plotted on the y axis. Although this is contrary to the normal convention, it
nevertheless is the way Taylor’s tool life relationship is presented.
Tool-Life Curves
FIGURE : (a) Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse of the
slope of these curves is the exponent n in tool-life equations. (b) Relationship between measured
temperature during cutting and tool life (flank wear). Note that high cutting temperatures
severely reduce tool life. Source: After H. Takeyama and Y. Murata
Factors affecting tool life
• Cutting conditions: Cutting conditions like speed, feed and depth of cut
affects tool life. As has been discussed, increase in cutting speed decreases
tool life. From the above equation it is clear that if the feed rate or depth of
cut is increased, cutting speed must be decreased and vice-versa.
Depending on the exponents, a reduction in speed can then result in an
increase in the volume of material removed, because of the increased feed
rate and/or depth of cut. It therefore necessary to select optimum feed and
depth of cut for optimum tool life.
• Tool geometry: Tool geometry also affects the tool life. Increasing the
rake angle decreases the cutting force and heat produced at the tool tip.
However increasing the rake angle to a large value reduces the tool
material available at the tool tip for conducting heat generated, thus
increasing the tool tip temperature. This would decrease tool life, thus
again an optimum value has to be selected.
• Tool material: Tool material also affects the tool life. For example
carbides have higher tool life than HSS.
• Work material: Work material also affects the tool life. It is not the
hardness alone, but the physical microstructure and the constituent phases
which make a large difference inn the tool life values.
• Cutting fluid: Use of right quality cutting fluid helps improving tool life.
Tool life (Example 1)
Tool life (Example 1)
Machinability of metals
Machinability is used to refer to the ease with which a given work material
can be machined under a given set of cutting conditions. Machinability is a
term indicating how the work material responds to the cutting process. In the
most general case good machinability means that material is cut with good
surface finish, long tool life, low force and power requirements, and low cost.
It is of considerable economic importance for the production engineer to
know in advance the machinability of a work material so that its processing
can be efficiently planned.
• Because of complex nature of cutting operation, it is difficult to establish

relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material.
• In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface finish are generally considered
to be the most important factors in machinability.
• Although not used much anymore, approximate, machinability ratings are
used to get an idea about the machinability of any material.
• Thus machinability is not a basic standard but is related.
Machinability
Machinability of different materials
Steels
Leaded steels: lead acts as a solid lubricant in cutting to improve considerably
machinability.
Resulphurized steels: sulphur forms inclusions that act as stress raisers in the
chip formation zone thus increasing machinability.
Difficult-to-cut steels: a group of steels of low machinability, such as stainless
steels, high manganese steels, precipitation-hardening steels.
Other metals
Aluminum: easy-to-cut material except for some cast aluminum alloys with
silicon content that may be abrasive.
Cast iron: gray cast iron is generally easy-to-cut material, but some
modifications and alloys are abrasive or very hard and may cause various
problems in cutting.
Cooper-based alloys: easy to machine metals. Bronzes are more difficult to
machine than brass.
Machinability
Methods for improvement of machinability
Adding some elements:

Adding lead and sulphur to obtain so-called free-machining steels.
Thermally assisted machining:

To relieve machining of difficult-to-cut materials, some heat can be added to
the cutting zone to lower shear strength of work material. The heat source is a
oxyfuel torch, laser beam or plasma arc, focused on an area just ahead of the
cutting tool.
Although effective, thermally-assisted machining has a limited practical
application because of the high cost and difficult process control.
Machinability Ratings
• Specific cutting speed is defined as the cutting speed corresponding to the
predetermined tool life.
• Machinability ratings can be very easily understood with the help of a
example.
• For example if the tool life during a turning operation under standard
condition (of feed, depth of cut, tool material and tool geometry) is found to
be 60min at a cutting speed of 100 m/min, the specific cutting speed for 60
min tool life, V60 = 100 m/min.
• Further if Vt60 is the specific cutting speed for 60 min tool life for a test
material and Vs60 is the corresponding specific speed for a standard
material, then the machinability ratings MR of the test material is given by
t
V
MR   100%
60
s
V 60
SAE 1212 is taken as standard material for testing machinability.

Machinability Ratings
Example: The reference material for steels, AISI 1112 steel has an index of
1. Machining of this steel at cutting speed of 0.5 m/s gives tool life of 60
min. For the austenitic 302 SS steel, machining at cutting speed of 0.23 m/s
gives tool life of 60 min. And for a tool life of 60 min, the AISI 1045 steel
should be machined at 0.36 m/s. Find out the machinability of these steel in
terms of their machinability ratings.
Solution:
Given: V s60 = 0.5 m/s.
For the austenitic 302 SS steel, V t60 = 0.23 m/s, therefore, the machinability
rating is MR = 0.23/0.5 = 0.46.
For AISI 1045 steel, V t60 = 0.36 m/s, therefore, the machinability rating is MR
= 0.36/0.5 = 0.72.
This index is smaller than 1, therefore, AISI 1045 steel has a worse
workability than AISI 1112, but better than 302 SS.
So, we can rate these steels in a descending order of machinability:
AISI 1112 » AISI 1045 » 302 SS
Cutting fluids
Cutting fluids, sometimes referred to as lubricants or coolants are liquids and
gases applied to the tool and work piece to assist the cutting operation.
Functions of cutting fluids:
•To cool the tool.
•To cool the work piece.
•To lubricate and reduce friction
•To improve surface finish.
•To protect the finished surface from corrosion.
•To wash the chips away from the tool.
Properties of cutting fluids:
• High heat absorption capability.
• Good lubricating quality.
• High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire.
• Stability so as not to get oxidized in presence of air.
• Neutral so as not to react chemically.
• Odourless so as not to produce bad smell even when heated.
• Harmless to the skin of the operators.
• Non corrosive to the work or the machine.
• Transparency so that the cutting action of tool may be observed by the operators.
• Low viscosity to permit free flow of the liquid.
• Low priced to minimize production cost.
Cutting fluids: Methods of application
Manual application
Application of a fluid from a can manually by the operator. It is not acceptable
even in job-shop situations except for tapping and some other operations
where cutting speeds are very low and friction is a problem. In this case,
cutting fluids are used as lubricants.
Flooding
In flooding, a steady stream of fluid is directed at the chip or tool-workpiece
interface. Most machine tools are equipped with a recirculating system that
incorporates filters for cleaning of cutting fluids.
Cutting fluids are applied to the chip although better cooling is obtained by
applying it to the flank face under pressure:
Cutting fluids: Methods of application
Tool fed coolant
Some tools, especially drills for deep drilling, are provided with axial holes
through the body of the tool so that the cutting fluid can be pumped directly to
the tool cutting edge.
Mist applications
Fluid droplets suspended in air provide effective cooling by evaporation of the
fluid. Mist application in general is not as effective as flooding, but can
deliver cutting fluid to inaccessible areas that cannot be reached by
conventional flooding.
Types of cutting fluid
Water: Water provided good cooling effect but is not a good lubricant. Water
is hardly used as cutting fluid because of its corrosiveness.
Straight cutting oils: Cutting oils are based on oil derived from petroleum,
animal, marine, or vegetable origin. Mineral oils (petroleum based) are the
principal type because of their abundance and generally desirable lubricating
characteristics. These oils have good lubricating but poor heat absorption
properties and therefore are suitable only for low cutting speed. These are of
three types: Mineral oil: Kerosene, low viscosity petroleum fraction, Fatty
oil: Lard oil and Combination of mineral and fatty oil
Soluble oil or water miscible cutting fluids: These are also called water based
cutting fluids. The fluid is made by blending oil (usually mineral oil) in water
using an emulsifying agent to promote blending and stability of the emulsion.
The emulsifier breaks the oil into minute particles and disperses them
throughout water. A typical ratio of water to oil is 30:1. Because they contain
both oil and water, the emulsified oils combine cooling and lubricating
qualities in one cutting fluid. These cutting fluids have excellent lubricating
properties. It has milky appearance. Emulsified oils consist of oil droplets
suspended in water.
Types of cutting fluid
Oils with Additives: The benefits of mineral oils can be improved with the
help of additives. These additives contain compounds of sulfur, chlorine, and
phosphorus, and are designed to react chemically with the chip and tool
surfaces to form solid films(extreme pressure lubrication, EPL)that help to
avoid metal-to-metal contact between the two. Thus addition of additives
reduces chances of chip welding on the tool rake face. Besides these there are
other additives which are also added to improve corrosion protection, prevent
any organic growth. Germicides are added to prevent or control bacterial
growth. Amines and Nitrites are added for rust prevention. Nitrates are added
for nitrites stabilization.
Chemical fluids: Chemical fluids are chemicals in a water solution rather
than oils in emulsion. The dissolved chemicals include compounds of sulfur,
chlorine, and phosphorus, plus wetting agents. The chemicals are intended to
provide some degree of lubrication to the solution. Chemical fluids provide
good coolant qualities, but their lubricating qualities are less than the other
cutting fluid types.
Semichemical fluids: Semichemical fluids have small amounts of emulsified
oil added to increase the lubricating characteristics of the cutting fluid. In
effect, they are a hybrid class between chemical fluids and emulsified oils.
Cutting fluids: Environmental issues
Cutting fluids become contaminated with garbage, small chips, bacteria, etc.,
over time. Alternative ways of dealing with the problem of contamination are:
• replace the cutting fluid at least twice per month,
• machine without cutting fluids (dry cutting),
• use a filtration system to continuously clean the cutting fluid.
Disposed cutting fluids must be collected and reclaimed. There are a number
of methods of reclaiming cutting fluids removed from working area. Systems
used range from simple settlement tanks to complex filtration and purification
systems. Chips are emptied from the skips into a pulverizer and progress to
centrifugal separators to become a scrap material. Neat oil after separation can
be processed and returned, after cleaning and sterilizing to destroy bacteria.
References
edition,, Prentice Hall 2003
Manufacturing, PHI.
4. George Schneider,Jr. CMfgE, Cutting Tool Applications
1977.
and Publishers.
14. O P Khanna, Production Technology-(Vol. II)
15. HMT, Production Technology, HMT
MODULE Manufacturing Processes :
Machine Tools
The
Lathe
Joyjeet Ghose
Associate Professor, Machine
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi
The Lathe Machine
Types of Lathes
Engine/Centre lathes
The basic engine lathe, which is one of the most widely used machine
tools, is very versatile when used by a skilled machinist. However, it is
not particularly efficient when many identical parts must be machined
as rapidly as possible.
•The standard engine lathe is not a high production machine, but it can
be readily tooled up for many one-piece or short-run jobs.
•It is also possible to modify the basic machine for many higher
production applications.
•The modern engine lathe provides a wide range of speeds and feeds
which allow optimum settings for almost any operation.
•There have been advances in headstock design to provide greater
strength and rigidity.
•This allows the use of high horsepower motors so that heavy cuts
with carbide tools are practical.
•To utilize this high power without losing accuracy, new lathes
incorporate heavier beds, wider hardened ways, and deeper-sectioned
carriages.
A Centre lathe
http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/mlathe1.htm
A Centre lathe
Toolroom Lathe
- more accurate
-wider range of speeds and feed
-smaller, more precise version of engine lathe
https://images.jdmagicbox.com/quickquo
tes/images_main/tool-room-lathe-
machine-321642771-trnt0.png
A typical toolroom engine lathe with face plate, square turrent, follower, and steady
rest.
TURRET LATHES
-Semi-automatic
-used for high production work.
-In this lathe the tail stock is replaced by a hexagonal turret, on the
face of which multiple tools can be fitted and fed into the work piece in
proper sequence.
-Machining of more than one surface can be done at the same time.
AUTOMATIC BAR MACHINE ( AUTOMATIC SCREW MACHINES)
-Automatic
-long pieces can be fed through headstock.
-these are similar to turret lathe operations,
- but with the cutting tools operated by a set cams
-Used mostly in screw production that is why it is most frequently called automatic
screw machines. These are sometimes called Swiss Machines
- These are of two types
-Single - spindle screw machines (1 tool cuts at each time)
- multiple -spindle screw machines (4-6 tools cuts at the same time)
Schematic diagram of a six-spindle automatic bar machine
Copy lathe
These types of lathe use hydraulic attachment to copy the shape of a part from a master.
Copy lathe
CNC LATHE
•Computer controlled
•Wide variety of process capability
•Multiple axis
•Indexing and contouring head
•On- line and off- line programming available
Retrofitting lathe
High speed lathe
All Geared engine lathe
An engine lathe
Engine lathe
A conventional engine lathe
A mini engine lathe
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Introduction/introduction.htm
Component of an standard engine lathe
Block diagram of a standard engine lathe
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Introduction/introduction.htm
Headstock
• The headstock is the powered end and is always at the operator’s left.
• This contains the speed changing gears and the revolving, driving spindle,
to which any one of several types of work holders is attached. The center
of the spindle is hollow so that long bars may be put through it for
machining. .
• A live centre, a face plate, collet or a chuck can be fitted to the spindle
nose to hold and drive the work.
• Headstock spindle can be driven by a stepped pulley and a belt or by
transmission gears in the headstock.
Headstock
Bed
• The Bed forms the base of a Lathe machine.
• It provides a heavy rigid frame on which all the other basic components are
mounted. It must be rigid enough to resist deflection in any direction under
load.
• The bed is made of cast iron or a steel weldment, in a box or I-beam shape,
and is supported on legs, a cabinet, or a bench.
• The headstock and the tailstock are located at either end of the bed and the
carriage rests over the Lathe bed and slides over it.
Bed ways
• The ways of the lathe are the flat or V-shaped surfaces on which the
carriage and the tailstock are moved left and right.
• Each has its separate pair of ways, often one flat surface, for stability, and
one V-way for guidance in a perfectly straight line.
• These ways are hardened and scraped or ground to close tolerances.
• The basic accuracy of movement of the carriage depends on the ways.
Headstock
Back Gear arrangement
Headstock belt drive

Headstock
Nose of the head stock, where various work

holding devices may be fitted
Tailstock
• The tailstock is located on the inner ways at the right end of the bed.
• It supports the other end of the work when it is being machined between
centers, and
• It holds a tool for performing operations such as drilling, reaming
• The tailstock is non-rotating but on hardened ways, it can be moved, to
the left or right, to adjust to the length of the work. It can also be offset
for cutting small angle tapers.
Carriage
• The carriage can be moved left or right either by hand wheel or power
feed. This provides the motion along the Z-axis.
• During this travel turning cuts are made.
• Carriage consists of the following parts: (1) Saddle, (2) Cross-slide, (3)
Compound-slide or compound rest, (4) Tool post, and (5) Apron.
Carriage
Saddle
• The saddle is an H-shaped casting that fits over the bed and slides along
the bed ways.
• It carries the cross-slide and tool post.
Cross Slide
• The cross slide is mounted on the carriage and can be moved in and out
(X-axis) perpendicular to the carriage motion.
• This is the part that moves when facing cuts are made with power feed,
or at any time a cut must be made ‘square’ with the Z-axis.
• This, or the compound, is also used to set the depth of cut when turning.
• The cross slide can be moved by its hand wheel or by power feed.
Cross Slide
Compound Rest:
• The compound rest is fitted on the top of the cross-slide, is used to support
the cutting tool.
• It can be swiveled to any angle for taper turning operations and is moved
manually.
• It can be moved in and out by its hand wheel for facing or for setting the
depth of cut.
• It can also be rotated 360 degrees and fed by its hand wheel at any angle.
• he compound does not have any power feed but it always moves
longitudinally with the cross slide and the carriage.
Compound rest
Compound Rest:
Tool Post
• The tool post is mounted on the compound rest.
• This can be any of several varieties but in its simplest form is merely a
slotted cylinder, which can be moved, left or right in the T-slot in the
compound and clamped in place.
• It can also be rotated so as to present the cutter to the work at whatever
angle is best for the job.
Tool Post
(a) A tool post for single-point tools and (b) a quick change indexing square
turret, which can hold up to four tools.
Apron
• The apron attached to the front of the carriage, holds most of the control
levers. These include the levers, which engage and reverse the feed
lengthwise (Z-axis) or crosswise (X-axis) and the lever which engages the
threading gears.
• The apron is fastened to the saddle, houses the gears and mechanisms
required to move the carriage and cross-slide automatically.
• The apron hand wheel can be turned manually to move the carriage along
the Lathe bed. This hand wheel is connected to a gear that meshes in a
rack fastened to the Lathe bed.
• The automatic feed lever engages a clutch that provides the automatic feed
to the carriage
Feedrod
• The feedrod is a long shaft that has a keyway.
• The power is transmitted from the lathe spindle to the apron gears through
a feedrod via a large number of gears.
• The feedrod is used to move the carriage or crossslide for turning, facing
and all other operations except thread cutting.
Leadscrew
• The leadscrew is powered by gears from the head stock and is used for
providing specific accurate mechanized movement to the carriage for
cutting threads on the workpiece.
• The leadscrew has a definite pitch.
• A splint nut is used to engage the leadscrew with the carriage.
• In some lathes, the leadscrew performs the functions of feed rod and there
is no separate feed rod.
LATHE SPECIFICATIONS
The size of a lathe is specified by two or three dimensions:
• Maximum swing diameter without touching the bed (C) : The largest diameter
workpiece which will clear the bed of the lathe. The center is the headstock
spindle center.
• Maximum swing diameter without touching the cross slide (D): The largest
diameter workpiece which will clear the cross slide is sometimes also specified.
• Distance Between Centres (B): The longest workpiece which can be held on
centers between the headstock and the tailstock.
• Length of Bed (A).
• The range of speeds and feeds, and the horsepower available.
Cutting tools for Lathes
Cutting Conditions
After deciding on the machine tool and cutting tool, the following main
cutting conditions have to be considered:
• Cutting speed
• Depth of cut
• Feed rate
Feed, speed, and depth of cut have a direct effect on productivity, tool
life, and machine requirements. Therefore these elements must be
carefully chosen for each operation. Whether the objective is rough
cutting or finishing will have a great influence on the cutting conditions
selected.
Cutting Conditions (Changing cutting speed)
In belt driven lathes the cutting speed may be changed using different
pulley combinations
Cutting Conditions (Changing feed)
In some lathes feed can be changed automatically using the levers in

different positions as given in the chart
Cutting Conditions (Changing feed)
Work Holding Devices
In lathe work the three most common work holding methods are:
• Held in a chuck
• Held between centers
Chucks
•A chuck is one of the most important devices for holding and rotating
workpieces in a lathe.
•Workpiece of short length and large diameter or of irregular shape which
cannot be conveniently mounted between centers are held quickly and rigidly
in a chuck.
•A chuck is attached to the lathe spindle by means of bolts with the back plate
or screwed on the spindle nose.
•There are different kinds of chucks:
•Three jaw self centering chuck:
•Four jaw independent chuck:
•Combination chuck: It is a combination of self centering and independent chuck.
•Magnetic chuck: The workpieces are held in this chuck by means of powerful
electro- magnets.
•Air or hydraulic operated chuck: The workpieces are held in this chuck by means
of fluid pressure.
•Collet chuck:
Three jaw self centering chuck
A three jaw chuck is used for gripping cylindrical workpieces when
the operations to be performed are such that the machined surface
is concentric with the work surfaces. The jaws have a series of teeth
that mesh with spiral grooves on a circular plate within the chuck.
This plate can be rotated by the key inserted in the square socket,
resulting in simultaneous radial motion of the jaws. Since the jaws
maintain an equal distance from the chuck axis, cylindrical
workpieces are automatically centered when gripped.
Three jaw self centering chuck
Four jaw independent chuck
• With the four jaw chuck, each jaw can be adjusted
independently by rotation of the radially mounted
threaded screws.
• Although accurate mounting of a workpiece can be time
consuming, a four-jaw chuck is often necessary for non-
cylindrical workpieces.
Collet chuck
• Collets are used when smooth bar stock, or workpieces that have
been machined to a given diameter, must be held more accurately
than normally can be achieved in a regular three or four jaw chuck.
• Collets are relatively thin tubular steel bushings that are split into
three longitudinal segments over about two thirds of their length.
• The smooth internal surface of the split end is shaped to fit the
piece of stock that is to be held.
• The external surface at the split end is a taper that fits within an
internal taper of a collet sleeve placed in the spindle hole.
• When the collet is pulled inward into the spindle, by means of the
draw bar that engages threads on the inner end of the collet, the
action of the two mating tapers squeezes the collet segments
together, causing them to grip the workpiece.
A collet (a) and a collet mounting assembly (b) are shown here.
Collet chuck:
Collet chuck:
Collet Chuck
Work holding between Centers
• For accurate turning operations or in cases where the long work surface
is not truly cylindrical, the workpiece can be turned between centers.
• Initially the workpiece has a conical center hole drilled at each end to
provide location for the lathe centers.
• Before supporting the workpiece between the centers (one in the
headstock and one in the tailstock), a clamping device called a ‘dog’ is
secured to the workpiece.
• The dog is arranged so that the tip is inserted into a slot in the drive plate
mounted on the main spindle, ensuring that the workpiece will rotate with
the spindle.
•Lathe centers support the workpiece between the headstock and
the tailstock.
• The center used in the headstock spindle is called the ‘live’ center.
It rotates with the headstock spindle.
•The ‘dead’ center is located in the tailstock spindle. This center
usually does not rotate and must be hardened and lubricated to
withstand the wear of the revolving work.
•The workpiece must have perfectly drilled and countersunk holes
to receive the centers.
•The center must have a 60-degree point.
For accurate machining, cylindrical parts can be turned between centers.
Hardened “dead” centers are

Hardened “live” centers are mounted in the
mounted in the tailstock; they do not
tailstock; they rotate with the workpiece and
rotate with the workpiece and must
do not need lubricatio
be lubricated.
Lathe dogs
Carriers or lathe dogs and Catch plates or Drive plates
• Carriers or lathe dogs and catch plates are used to hold workpiece
when it is held between centers.
• Carriers or lathe dogs are attached to the end of the workpiece by
setscrews; catch plates are either screwed or bolted to the nose of
head stock spindle.
• A projecting pin from the carriers fits into the slots provided in the
catch plate
A catch plate with live centre

Face plate
• A face plate consists of a circular disc bored out and
thread to fit the nose of the spindle.
• This has radial, plain and T slots for holding work by bolts
and clamps.
• Face plates are used for holding workpieces which
cannot be held conveniently held between centers or
chucks.
A face plate
Lathe accessories
Angle plates
• This is a cast iron plate having two faces machined to make them
absolutely at right angles to each other.
• Holes and slots are provided on both faces so that it may be clamped
on the face plate and can hold the workpiece on the other face by
clamps and bolts.
• Angle plates are used in conjunction with a face plate when the
holding surface of the workpiece should be kept horizontal, as for
example, in machining a flange of a pipe elbow.
• When eccentric jobs are bolted on the face plate, a balance weight or
counter weight must be added.
Lathe accessories
Mandrels
• A mandrel is a device for holding and rotating hollow workpiece
that has been previous drilled or bored.
• The work revolves with the mandrel which is mounted between
two centers.
• It is generally made of high carbon steel.
• The ends are slightly smaller in diameter and flattened to provide
effective gripping surface of the lathe dog screws.
Lathe accessories
Steady rest
• A steady rest consists of cast iron base, which may be made to
slide on the lathe bed ways and clamped at any desired position
where support is necessary.
• This is so designed that the upper position is hinged at one end
which facilitates setting and removal of the workpiece without
disturbing the position of the steady rest.
• There are three jaws on the steady rest, two on the lower base
and one on the upper frame, the jaws may be adjusted radially by
rotating individual screws to accommodate work of different
diameters.
• The main function of the steady rest is to provide support to a long
slender work.
• For a very long work more than one steady rest may be used.
• However the carriage cannot be fed to the full length of the work
when steady rest is used.
Lathe accessories
Steady rest
• The steady rest supports long, small diameter stock that otherwise could
not be turned. The steady rest can also replace the tailstock to allow for
cutting tool access at the outboard end of your workpiece.
• To mount the steady rest:
1. Secure to bedway from below with the locking plate.
2. A single hex bolt, along with a nut and washer, is used to hold the
steady rest in place. See Figure.
3. The bearing surfaces on the steady rest should receive periodic
lubrication while in use to prevent premature wear.
Lathe accessories
Steady rest
• To adjust the Steady Rest:
1. Loosen the lock nuts.
2. Open the sliding fingers by turning the knurled screws until they fit
around the workpiece. Secure the steady rest in position.
3. Tighten the knurled screws so that the fingers are snug, but not tight
against the workpiece. Tighten the setscrews and the lock nuts.
4. Lubricate the brass points with machine oil.
Lathe accessories
Follower rest:
• A follower rest consists of a “C” like casting having two adjustable jaws
which support the work.
• The rest is bolted to the back end of the carriage and moves with it.
• Before setting the follower rest, the end of the workpiece is machined
slightly wider than the jaws to provide the true bearing surface.
• The tool is slightly in advance position than the jaws, and the tool is fed
longitudinally be the carriage, the jaws always follow the tool giving
continuous support to the workpiece.
• The follower rest prevents the job from springing away when the cut is
made and is used in finish turning operation.
Lathe accessories
Follower rest:
• The reason this tool is called a “follower” is because the brass supports actually
move along with or “follow” the cutter. It is used to support a piece of round stock
while it is still being machined to keep the part from deflecting away from the
tool.
• A follower rest works because it counters the two main forces applied by the tool.
When a tool is cutting, the stock wants to climb up on the tool as well as be
pushed away. The top brass pad will keep the stock from climbing up, and the
brass pad in the rear will keep the stock from being pushed away. The stock will
then be cut concentric with the outside diameter because that is where it is
supported. It isn’t necessary to have the free end of the stock supported by a center
when using a follower, but it does make for a better setup, especially for larger
diameters.
Lathe accessories
Follower rest:
• The follow rest is normally used with small diameter stock to prevent the
workpiece from “springing” under pressure from the turning tool. To
install the follow rest:
1. The follow rest is secured to the saddle with two cap screws. See
Figure .
2. The bearing surfaces on the follow rest are similar to those on the
steady rest, and should be lubricated to prevent premature wear.
Lathe accessories
Lathe operations
Turning
• Turning is a metal cutting process used for the generation of
cylindrical surfaces.
• Normally the workpiece is rotated on a spindle and the tool is fed
into it radially, axially, or both ways simultaneously, to give the
required surface.
• The term ‘turning’, in the general sense, refers to the generation of
any cylindrical surface with a single point tool.
• Turning is the most commonly used operation in Lathe. By turning
operation excess material from the work piece is removed to
produce a cylindrical or cone shaped surface.
• Two of the common types of turning are: Straight turning and taper
turning.
Straight turning
•In this operation the work is held in the spindle and is rotated whole
the tool is fed past the work piece in a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation.
•The surface generated is a cylindrical surface.
Design Considerations for Turning Operations
• Parts should be designed so that can be fixtured and clamped in
the work holding devices
• Dimensional accuracy and surface finish specified should be as
wide as possible
• Avoid sharp corners, tapers, and major dimensional variations in
the part
• Use near-net-shape forming
• Cutting tools should be able to travel across workpiece without
obstruction
• Standard cutting tools, inserts, and toolholders should be used
• Materials should be selected for their machineability
Guidelines for Turning Operations
• Minimize tool overhang
• Support workpiece rigidly
• Use machine tools with high stiffness and high damping capacity
• When tools begin to vibrate and chatter, modify one or more of the
process parameters, such as tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate,
depth of cut, or use of cutting fluid
Chip Collection Systems

• Drop them on a conveyor belt
• Dragging the chips from a setting tank
• Using augers with feed screws
• Magnetic conveyors
• Vacuum methods
Taper turning
•A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in
diameter of a work piece measured along its length.
•In a Lathe taper turning is an operation to produce a conical surface
by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical job.
•Taper turning can be done by the following ways;
• By a form tool.
• By setting over the tailstock.
• By swiveling the compound rest.
• By taper turning attachment.
• By compound feed.
Taper Geometry
D d α
B
α C
Where, D = Large diameter of taper in mm.
A d = small diameter of taper in mm.
l
l = length of taper part in mm
2α = full taper angle
α = angle of taper angle or half taper angle.
The amount of taper in a workpiece is specified by ratio of the difference in diameters of the
taper to its length. This is termed as conicity and designated by letter K.
From figure
Dd Dd
AB 
K 2
l BC  l
Dd
 tan 
2l
K
 tan 
2
 K  2 tan
Taper turning methods
Taper turning by a form tool
Taper turning by a form tool uses a tool which is a broad nose tool having straight
cutting edge.
The tool is set on the work piece at half taper angle, and is fed straight into the work
to generate a tapered angle.
This method is limited to turn limited length taper only.
This is due to the reason that the metal is removed by entire cutting edge, and any
increase in length of the taper will necessitate the use of a wider cutting edge.
This will require excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work due to
vibration and spoil the work due to vibration and spoil the work surface.
Work piece
Tool
feed
Taper turning by setting over the tailstock
The principle of turning taper by this method is to shift the axis of rotation
of the workpiece, at an angle to the lathe axis, and feeding the tool
parallel to the lathe axis. The angle at which axis of rotation of the
workpiece is shifted is equal to half angle of taper. The amount of setover
is limited. This method is suitable for turning small taper on long jobs. The
main disadvantage of this method is that the live and dead centres are
not equally stressed and the wear is not uniform. Moreover, the lathe dog
being set at an angle, the angular velocity is not constant.
From geometry :
BC  setover
BC  AB sin 
D setover  L sin 
If the angle  , the anle of taper, is very small, for all practical purposes
B sin   tan
S
d α  setover  L tan
A C Dd
α  setover  L
2l
l entire length of the work X conicity
 setover 
2
if the taper is turned on the entire length of the workpiece,then l  L
Dd
 setover 
2
Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest
This method employs the principle of taper turning by rotating the workpiece on the
lathe axis and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
The tool is mounted on the compound rest, is attached to a circular base, graduated
in degrees, which may be swiveled and clamped at any desired angle.
Once the compound rest is set at the desired half taper angle, rotation of the
compound slide will cause the tool to be fed at an angle and generate the
corresponding taper.
This method is limited to turn a short but steep taper owing to limited movement of
the cross slide.
The movement of the tool in this method is controlled by hand, thus this gives low
production rate and poor surface capacity.
Taper turning by taper turning attachment
• The principle of taper turning by taper
turning attachment is to guide the tool in
a straight path set at an angle to the axis
of rotation of the workpiece, while the
work is being held by a chuck or between
centres aligned to the lathe axis.
• A taper turning attachment consists of a
frame or bracket which is attached to the
rear end of the lathe bed and supports a
guide bar pivoted at the centre.
• The bar having graduations in degrees
may be swiveled on either side of the
zero graduation and is set at any desired
angle with the lathe axis.
• When taper turning attachment is used,
the cross slide is first made free from the
lead screw by removing the binder screw.
Taper turning by taper turning attachment
• The rear end of the cross slide is

tightened with the guide block by
means of bolt. When longitudinal feed
is engaged, the tool mounted on the
cross slide will follow the angular path,
as the guide block will slide on the
guide bar set at an angle to the lathe
axis.
• Taper turning by this method does not
disturb the alignment of the live and
dead centre.
• By this process both steep and small
taper can be made over any length of
the workpiece.
Taper turning attachment

Other related lathe operations
Related turning operations: (a) chamfering, (b) parting, (c) threading, (d) boring, (e)
drilling, (f) knurling.
Facing: Facing is an operation for generating flat surface at the ends of a work
piece. In this operation the feed given is in a direction perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
• First, clamp the part securely in a lathe chuck.

• Then, install a facing tool
• Bring the tool approximately into position, but slightly off of the part.
• Always turn the spindle by hand before turning it on. This ensures that no parts
interfere with the rotation of the spindle.
• Move the tool outside the part and adjust the saddle to take the desired depth
of cut.
• Then, feed the tool across the face with the cross slide.
• After facing, there is a very sharp edge on the part. Break the edge with a file.
• Chamfering: It is a operation of beveling the extreme end of a work
piece. This done to remove unwanted metal projections at the ends and to
protect end of the work piece from being damaged and to have a better
look.
• Knurling: Knurling is process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on
the surface of the work piece. The purpose of knurling is to provide an
effective gripping surface on a work piece to prevent it from slipping
when operated by hand. Knurling is done with a special tool called
knurling tool. This tool consists of a set of hardened steel rollers in a
holder with teeth cut on their surface in definite pattern.
• Grooving or Recessing Operations: Grooving or recessing operations is the
operation of reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a very narrow
surface. Grooving or recessing operations, sometimes also called necking
operations, are often done on workpiece shoulders to ensure the correct fit
for mating parts.
• Drilling/reaming/ Boring: These are operations to accurately make holes on
a workpiece. These operations uses the tailstock of the lathe. The tool is held
on the tailstock and is fed toward the rotating work piece.
Parting: In. this operation a flat nose tool is used to cut the work piece, with feed in
the direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation. A parting tool is deeper and
narrower than a turning tool. It is designed for making narrow grooves and for cutting
off parts. When a parting tool is installed, ensure that it hangs over the tool holder
enough that the holder will clear the workpiece (but no more than that). Ensure that
the parting tool is perpendicular to the axis of rotation and that the tip is the same
height as the center of the part. A good way to do this is to hold the tool against the
face of the part. Set the height of the tool, lay it flat against the face of the part, then
lock the tool in place. When the cut is deep, the side of the part can rub against
sides of the groove, so it's especially important to apply cutting fluid. In this clip, a
part is cut off from a piece of stock.
Cutting Screw Threads
Fig : (a) Cutting screw threads on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool. (b) Cutting screw threads with a single-
point tool in several passes, normally utilized for large threads. The small arrows in the figures show the
direction of feed, and the broken lines show the position of the cutting tool as time progresses. (c) A typical
carbide insert and toolholder for cutting screw threads. (d) Cutting internal screw threads with a carbide
insert.
Thread cutting operation
1. In thread cutting operation the first step is to
remove the excess material from the workpiece
to make its diameter equal to the major
diameter of the thread to be cut.
2. The shape or form of the thread depends on the
shape of the cutting tool to be used. The tool
point must be ground so that it has the same
angle as the thread to be cut. In a metric thread
the included angle of the cutting edge should
be ground exactly 600.Typical angles are 60° for
Vee threads, and 29° for ACME threads. A
thread gauge can be used to measure thread
angles. (also called Centre Gauge or Fish Tail
Gauge).
3. The top of the nose of the tool should be set at
the same height as the centre of the workpiece.
4. The correct gear ratio is required between the
machine spindle and the lead screw. This can
be determined in the following manner:
Thread cutting calculations:
To calculate the gears required for cutting a thread of certain pitch can be
calculated from the following formula:
The gear of the spindle shaft is the driver and the gear on the leadscrew is the
driven gear.
Driver teeth Speed of the leadscrew Pitch of the screw to be cut
 
Driven teeth Speed of the spindle Pitch of the lead screw
Note: Often engine lathes are equipped with a set of gears ranging from 20 to
120 teeth in steps of 5 teeth, and one gear with 127 teeth.
To cut metric thread on English leadscrews: The cutting of metric thread on a

lathe with an English leadscrew may be carried out by introducing a translating gear
of 127 teeth.
If the leadscrew has n threads per inch to cut p mm pitch then,
Driver teeth Pitch of the screw to be cut (p) 5 pn

 
Driven teeth  1 127  127
Pitch of the lead screw   
n 5 
The factor 127/5 from the fact that 25.4 mm is equal to 1 inch. So one translating gear, with
127 teeth is necessary.
5. Change gears of correct sizes are then fitted between the spindle and the
leadscrew.
When the Change gears are not fitted and when the Change gears are fitted (in this case a
compound drive is used)
To change gears in a lathe:
1. Loosen the nut below the middle gear and rotate the bracket so the middle gear
moves away from gear F.
2. Loosen the cap screw at the center of the middle gear and slide it away from
gear G.
3. Gear F can be removed by loosening the cap screw in its middle. Gear G has a
setscrew in its rim. Loosen this screw and pull the gear off of the shaft.
4. Replace these two gears with the gears which will produce the desired pitch and
secure with screws provided.
6. The speed of the spindle should be at a lower value and the half nut is engaged.
7. In thread cutting there are two methods of feeding the tool into the workpiece. In
the first method the tool is feed perpendicularly into the workpiece. In the second
method the tool is feed at half the angle of thread by swiveling the compound
rest. The second method has distinct advantages over the first as it permits to
have a top rake, cuts with single cutting edge, allows chips to flow easily, and
reduces the strain on the tool. So the later method is used for roughing cuts and
the first method is used for finishing cuts.
8. After the tool has produced a helical groove upto the end of the work, the tool is
withdrawn by the use of cross slide.
9. Thread catching: The complete depth of cut of the thread cannot be attained in a
single pass. Several cuts have to be taken till the required depth of cut is
obtained. For this, the tool has to be withdrawn from the thread groove after
completing each cut and then brought back to the starting position. Therefore we
should have a suitable method so that the tool follows the previously cut thread
groove, otherwise the threads will be spoiled. The process of engaging the
thread with the same groove is called thread catching or thread chasing. The
following methods can be used for thread catching:
I. When the length of the threaded part is short, after each cut, the carriage is
brought back to its starting position by reversing the direction of rotation of lead
screw. Therefore in this case the half nut is not disengaged from the leadscrew
so the relative position is maintained.
II. When threading long jobs, the above mentioned method is not suitable, as it
requires lot of time. So after each cut the machine is stopped, the carriage is
disengaged from the leadscrew, by disengaging the half nut. It is then brought
back to the starting position by rotating the hand wheel in suitable direction. If
the leadscrew pitch is an exact multiple of the pitch to be cut than the half nut
can engaged anywhere and the tool will follow the previously cut groove. But if
not, a reference dial present on the right hand side of the apron called thread
chasing dial has to be used. A fixed zero mark is provided on the saddle
surface adjacent to the periphery of the dial. When the first cut is to be taken,
the half nut is engaged when zero mark and in subsequent cuts the half nut
should be engaged when the zero mark coincides with the same mark on the
dial.
MODULE Manufacturing Processes :
Machine Tools
Turret
and
Joyjeet Ghose Capstan
Department of Production Engineering, Lathe
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi
CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE
CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE
The standard engine lathe is versatile, but it is not a high production
machine. When production requirements are high, more automated turning
machines must be used. The turret lathe represents the first step from the
engine lathe toward high production turning machines. The turret lathe is
similar to the engine lathe except that tool-holding turrets replace the
tailstock and the tool post-compound assembly. The ‘skill of the worker’ is
built into these machines, making it possible for inexperienced operators to
reproduce identical parts. In contrast, engine lathe requires a skilled operator
and requires more time to produce parts that are dimensionally the same.
The principal characteristic of turret lathes is that the tools for consecutive
operations are set up for use in the proper sequence. Although skill is
required to set and adjust the tools properly, once they are correct, less skill
is required to operate the turret lathe.
Advantages of Turret Lathes
The difference between the engine and turret lathes is that the
turret lathe is adapted to quantity production work, whereas the
engine lathe is used primarily for miscellaneous jobbing, toolroom,
or single-operation work. The features of a turret lathe that make it
a quantity production machine are:
•Tools may be set up in the turret in the proper sequence for the
operation.
•Each station is provided with a feed stop or feed trip so that each
cut of a tool is the same as its previous cut.
•Multiple cuts can be taken from the same station at the same time,
such as two or more turning and/or boring cuts.
•Combined cuts can be made; tools on the cross slide can be used
at the same time that tools on the turret are cutting.
•Rigidity in holding work and tools is built into the machine to permit
multiple and combined cuts.
•Turret lathes can also have attachments for taper turning, thread
chasing and duplicating, and can be made.
Horizontal Turret Lathes
Horizontal turret lathes are made in two general designs and are
known as the ram and saddle-types. The ram-type turret lathe is
shown in Figure has the turret mounted on a slide or ram which
moves back and forth on a saddle clamped to the lathe bed. The
saddle-type turret lathe shown in Figure has the turret mounted
directly on a saddle which moves back and forth with the turret.
Ram-type horizontal turret lathe has the turret mounted on a slide or ram.
Horizontal Turret Lathes
Saddle-type turret lathe has the turret mounted directly on the saddle.
Differences between a Ram type or Capstan and
Saddle type or a Turret lathe
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hbNmMYoIAtg
• The turret of a capstan lathe is
mounted on a short slide or ram which
:
slides on the saddle. The saddle is
clamped on bedways after adjusting
the length of the workpiece. Thus in a
capstan lathe, the travel of the turret is
dependent upon the length of the travel
of the ram. This limits the maximum
length of the work to be machined in
one setting.
• The turret of a turret lathe is mounted

on a saddle which slides directly on
the bed. This feature enables the turret
to be moved on the entire length of the
bed and can machine longer work.
• In the case of turret lathe, the turret is
:
mounted on the saddle which slides
directly on the lathe bedways. This
type of construction provides utmost
rigidity to the tool support as the
entire cutting load is taken up by the
lathe bed directly. In the case of a
capstan lathe as the ram feeds into the
work, the overhanging of the ram
from the stationary saddle presents a
non-rigid construction which is
subjected to bending, deflection or
vibration under heavy cutting load..
• On a capstan lathe the hexagonal
:
turret can be moved back and forth
much more rapidly without having to
move the entire saddle unit. Thus
capstan lathes are particularly handy
for small articles which require light
and fast cuts. While operating the
machine by hand, there is less fatigue
to the operator, due to lightness of
the ram, whereas in the case of turret
lathe hand feeding is a laborious
process due to the movement of the
entire saddle unit.
• Some turret lathes are equipped with crosswise movement of the
:
hexagonal turret. The crosswise movement may be effected by hand or
power. This feature enables turning of large diameters, facing, contour
turning and many other operation on the lathe.
• Heavier turret lathes are equipped with power chucks like air operated
chucks for holding large workpieces quickly.
• In the case of a capstan lathe, the cross slide is mounted on a carriage
which rests on the bedways between head stock and the ram. The
carriages rests on both the front and rear ways on the top of the bed. Some
turret lathe are equips with side hung type carriage. The carriage of this
type does not require support from the rear bedways but slides on the top
and bottom guideways provided at the front of the lathe. This construction
enables larger diameter of work to be swung above the lathe bedways.
There is no rear tool post on this type of machine as the carriage does not
extend upto rear bedways.
Turret indexing mechanism
• The turret 1 is mounted on the spindle 5, which rests on bearing on the

turret saddle.
• The index plate 2, the bevel gear 3 and the indexing ratchet 4 are keyed
to the spindle 5.
• The plunger 14 fitted within the housing and mounted on the saddle locks the
index plate by spring pressure 15 and prevents any rotary movement of the turret
as the tool feeds into the work.
• A pin 13 fitted on the plunger 14 projects out of the housing.
• An actuating cam 10 and indexing pawl 7 are attached to the lathe bed 9 at the
desired position.
• Both the cam and the pawl are spring loaded.

• As the turret reaches the backward position , the actuating cam 10 lifts the
plunger 14 out of the groove in the index plate due to the riding of the pin 13 on
the beveled surface of the cam 10 and thus unlocks the index plate 2.
• The spring loaded pawl 7 which by this time engages with a groove on the
ratchet plate 4 causes the turret to rotate as the turret head moves backward.
• When the index plate or the turret rotates through one sixth of revolution, the pin
13 and plunger 14 drops out of cam 10 and the plunger locks the index plate at
the next groove.
• The turret is thus index by one sixth of revolution and again locked into the new
position automatically.
• The turret holding the next tool is now fed forward and the pawl is released from
the ratchet plate by the spring pressure.
• The synchronized movement of the stop rods with the indexing of the turret can
also be understood from the figure above.
• The bevel pinion 6 meshes with bevel gear 3 mounted on the turret spindle.
• The extension of the pinion shaft carries a plate holding six adjustable stops rods
8.
• As the turret rotates through one sixth of revolution the bevel gear 3 caused the
plate to rotate.
• The ratio of the teeth between the pinion and gear are so chosen that when the
tool mounted on the face of the turret is indexed to bring it to the cutting
position, the particular stop rod for controlling the longitudinal travel of the tool
is aligned with stop 12.
• The setting of the stop rods 8 for limiting the feed of each operation may be
adjusted by unscrewing the lock nuts and rotating the stop rods on the plate.
• Thus six stop rods may be adjusted for controlling the longitudinal travel of the
tools mounted on the six faces of the turret.
Some common tool holder of turret lathe
Typical tool layout of turret lathe machine
Source: https://lathedmachine.blogspot.com/2014/01/capstan-lathe-machine-block-diagram.html

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MODULE

Source: The Fundamentals of

FIGURE: (a) Typical carbide

(a) Hardness of various cutting-tool materials as a function of temperature. (b)

Associate Professor, Failure

Source: George Schneider,Jr. CMfgE, Cutting Tool Applications

Fig: Basic chip types: (a) Discontinuous (b) Continuous (c)

Video showing different types of chip formation

Combination of flank wear and crater wear:

• FIGURE: (a) Types of wear observed in

Sl Work Values of “C” for different

1 Carbon steel 40 – 100 200 – 160 2500 1 HSS 0.08 - 0.2

2 Cast Iron 30 – 60 100 – 150 9000 2 Cemented 0.3 - 0.49

5 Tungsten 120 - 400 - 600

• Because of complex nature of cutting operation, it is difficult to establish

Adding some elements:

Thermally assisted machining:

SAE 1212 is taken as standard material for testing machinability.

Back Gear arrangement

Headstock belt drive

Nose of the head stock, where various work

In some lathes feed can be changed automatically using the levers in

For accurate machining, cylindrical parts can be turned between centers.

Hardened “dead” centers are

A catch plate with live centre

Chip Collection Systems

• The rear end of the cross slide is

Taper turning attachment

• First, clamp the part securely in a lathe chuck.

To cut metric thread on English leadscrews: The cutting of metric thread on a

Driver teeth Pitch of the screw to be cut (p) 5 pn

• The turret of a turret lathe is mounted

• The turret 1 is mounted on the spindle 5, which rests on bearing on the

• Both the cam and the pawl are spring loaded.

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