ISO/ASTM 51939:2002(E)

Standard Practice for

Blood Irradiation Dosimetry1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation ISO/ASTM 51939; the number immediately following the designation indicates the
year of original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision.

1. Scope E 668 Practice for Application of Thermoluminescence-

1.1 This practice outlines irradiator installation qualification Dosimetry (TLD) Systems for Determining Absorbed Dose
and dosimetric procedures to be followed in the irradiation of in Radiation-Hardness Testing of Electronic Devices2
blood and blood products by the blood-banking community. If E 1026 Practice for Using the Fricke Reference Standard
followed, these procedures will help to ensure that the products Dosimetry System2
processed with ionizing radiation from gamma, bremsstrahlung 2.2 ISO/ASTM Standards:
X-rays or electron sources receive absorbed doses within a 51261 Guide for Selection and Calibration of Dosimetry
predetermined range. Systems for Radiation Processing2
1.2 This practice covers dosimetry for the irradiation of 51275 Practice for Use of a Radiochromic Film Dosimetry
blood for these types of irradiators: self-contained dry-storage System2
137
Cs or 60Co irradiators (free-standing irradiators), tele- 51538 Practice for Use of the Ethanol-Chlorobenzene Do-
therapy units, self-contained bremsstrahlung X-ray units and simetry System2
electron accelerators. The absorbed dose range for blood 51539 Guide for the Use of Radiation-Sensitive Indicators2
irradiation is typically 15 Gy to 50 Gy. 51540 Practice for Use of a Radiochromic Liquid Dosim-
1.3 This practice also covers the use of radiation-sensitive etry System2
indicators for the visual and qualitative indication that the 51607 Practice for Use of the Alanine-EPR Dosimetry
product has been irradiated. System2
1.4 This practice is intended for use by technically and 51608 Practice for Dosimetry in an X-ray (Bremsstrahlung)
non-technically oriented people. It, therefore, contains more Facility for Radiation Processing2
tutorial information than many other ASTM and ISO/ASTM 51707 Guide for Estimating Uncertainties in Dosimetry for
dosimetry standards. Radiation Processing2
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the 2.3 National Council on Radiation Protection and Mea-
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the surements (NCRP) Publications5
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- NCRP Report No. 58, A Handbook of Radioactivity Mea-
priate safety and health practices and to determine the surement Procedures, 1985.
applicability or regulatory limitations prior to use. NCRP Report No. 69, Dosimetry of X-ray and Gamma-Ray
Beams for Radiation Therapy in the Energy Range 10 keV
2. Referenced Documents to 50 MeV, December 1981.
2.1 ASTM Standards: 2.4 International Commission on Radiation Units and
E 170 Terminology Relating to Radiation Measurements Measurements Reports (ICRU)6
and Dosimetry2 ICRU 14 Radiation Dosimetry: X-rays and Gamma Rays
E 177 Practice for Use of the Terms Precision and Bias in with Maximum Photon Energies Between 0.6 and 50 MeV
ASTM Test Methods3,4 ICRU 17 Radiation Dosimetry: X-rays Generated at Poten-
E 456 Terminology Relating to Quality and Statistics3,4 tials of 5 to 150 kV
E 666 Practice for Calculating Absorbed Dose from Gamma ICRU 30 International Comparison of Radiological Units
or X Radiation2 and Measurements Quantitative Concepts and Dosimetry
in Radiobiology
ICRU 34 The Dosimetry of Pulsed Radiation
1
This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E10 on Nuclear ICRU 35 Radiation Dosimetry: Electron Beams with Ener-
Technology and Applications and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee gies Between 1 and 50 MeV
E10.01 on Dosimetry for Radiation Processing, and is also under the jurisdiction of
ISO/TC 85/WG 3.
Current edition approved Jan. 22, 2002. Published March 15, 2002. Originally
5
published as ASTM E 1939–98. Last previous ASTM edition E 1939–98. Available from the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measure-
2
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 12.02. ments, 7910 Woodmont Ave., Suite 800, Bethesda, MD 20814 U.S.A.
3
ASTM Standards on Precision and Bias for Various Applications, 4th ed., 1992. 6
Available from the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measure-
4
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 14.02. ments, 7910 Woodmont Ave., Suite 800, Bethesda, MD 20814 U.S.A.

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 ISO/ASTM 51939:2002(E)

ICRU 60 Radiation Quantities and Units 3.1.5 dose uniformity ratio—ratio of maximum to minimum
2.5 Guidelines on Blood Irradiation absorbed dose within the irradiated blood or blood product.
Guidelines on Gamma Irradiation of Blood Components for This concept is also referred to as the “max/min ratio.”
the Prevention of Transfusion-associated Graft-versus- 3.1.5.1 Discussion—The central plane/minimum ratio is not
host Disease, Prepared by the BCSH Blood Transfusion used in this standard.
Task Force.7 3.1.6 dosimeter—a device that, when irradiated, exhibits a
Recommendations Regarding License Amendments and quantifiable change in some property of the device which can
Procedures for Gamma Irradiation of Blood Products. be related to absorbed dose in a given material using appro-
(1993) US Food and Drug Administration.8 priate analytical instrumentation and techniques.
3. Terminology 3.1.6.1 Discussion—A dosimeter must exhibit the reproduc-
ible and quantifiable properties that allow it to be calibrated
3.1 Definitions: and compared to national standards.
3.1.1 absorbed dose (D)—Quantity of ionizing radiation
3.1.7 dosimeter batch—Quantity of dosimeters made from a
energy imparted per unit mass of a specified material. The SI
specific mass of material with uniform composition, fabricated
unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), where 1 gray is
in a single production run under controlled, consistent condi-
equivalent to the absorption of 1 joule per kilogram of the
tions and having a unique identification code.
specified material (1 Gy = 1 J/kg). The mathematical relation-
ship is the quotient of dē by dm, where dē is the mean 3.1.8 dosimetry system—a system used for determining
incremental energy imparted by ionizing radiation to matter of absorbed dose, consisting of dosimeters, measurement instru-
incremental mass dm (see ICRU 60). ments and their associated reference standards, and procedures
for the system’s use.
D 5 dē / dm (1)
3.1.9 irradiator turntable—device used to rotate the canis-
3.1.1.1 Discussion— ter during the irradiation process to improve the dose unifor-
1. The discontinued unit for absorbed dose is the rad (1 rad = 100 mity ratio.
erg/g = 0.01 Gy). 3.1.9.1 Discussion—An irradiator turntable is often referred
2. Absorbed dose is sometimes referred to simply as dose. to as a turntable. Some irradiator geometries e.g. with a circular
3. For a photon source under conditions of charged particle equilib- array of radiation sources surrounding the product, may not
rium, the absorbed dose, D, may be expressed as follows:
need a turntable.
D 5 F@E~µ en/r!#, (2) 3.1.10 measurement quality assurance plan—A docu-
where: mented program for the measurement process that ensures on
F = particle fluence (particles/m 2), a continuing basis that the overall uncertainty meets the
E = energy of the ionizing radiation (J), and requirements of the specific application. This plan requires
µen/r = mass energy absorption coefficient (m2/kg). traceability to, and consistency with, nationally- or
internationally-recognized standards.
4. If bremsstrahlung production within the specified material is
negligible, the mass energy absorption coefficient (µen/r) is equal to the 3.1.11 radiation-sensitive indicator—a material such as
mass energy transfer coefficient (µtr/r), and absorbed dose is equal to coated or impregnated adhesive-back substrates, inks, or coat-
kerma. ings which may be affixed to or printed on the blood product or
3.1.2 absorbed-dose rate (Ḋ)—the absorbed dose in a blood component product and which undergo a visual change
material per incremental time interval, ie. the quotient of dD by when exposed to ionizing radiation (see ISO/ASTM Guide
dt. 51539).
3.1.11.1 Discussion—Radiation-sensitive indicators are of-
Ḋ 5 dD / dt (3) ten referred to as “indicators.” Radiation-sensitive indicators
–1
Unit: Gy·s . cannot be classified as a “label” under the U.S. FDA “Guide-
3.1.2.1 Discussion—The absorbed-dose rate can be speci- lines for the Uniform Labeling of Blood and Blood Products”
fied in terms of average value of D over long-time intervals, for (August, 1985).8 Indicators may be used to show that products
example, in units of Gy·min –1 or Gy·h–1. have been exposed to ionizing radiation. They can be used to
3.1.3 blood product—a unit of blood or specific blood provide a visual and qualitative indication of radiation expo-
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component. sure and can be used to distinguish between irradiation-

3.1.4 canister—a container, usually an aluminum or steel processed blood products and unprocessed blood products.
cylinder, used to house the blood product, or blood-equivalent Indicators cannot be used as a substitute for proper dosimetry.
product during the irradiation process. 3.1.12 reference–standard dosimeter—a dosimeter of high
metrological quality, used as a standard to provide measure-
ments traceable to and consistent with measurements made
7
Available from the National Blood Transfusion Service, East Anglian Blood with primary–standard dosimeters (see ISO/ASTM Guide
Transfusion Centre, Long Road, Cambridge, CB2 2PT United Kingdom, Tel (0223) 51261).
245921, Fax (0223) 411618.
8
Available from the Office of Blood Research and Review, US Food and Drug 3.1.13 routine dosimeter—dosimeter calibrated against a
Administration, 1401 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852, USA. primary–, reference-, or transfer-standard dosimeter and used

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 ISO/ASTM 51939:2002(E)

for routine absorbed-dose measurement (see ISO/ASTM Guide volume is measured by the manufacturer as part of acceptance
51261). testing using a reference-standard dosimetry system. That
3.1.14 simulated product—a mass of material with attenu- reference-standard measurement must be used to calculate the
ation and scattering properties similar to those of the product, timer setting required to deliver the specified absorbed dose to
material or substance to be irradiated. the center of the blood or blood component, or other reference
3.1.14.1 Discussion—Simulated product is used during ir- position of the container filled with blood products. Either
radiator characterization as a substitute for the actual product, relative or absolute absorbed-dose measurements are per-
material or substance to be irradiated. When used for absorbed- formed within the blood- or blood-equivalent volume for
dose mapping, simulated product is sometimes referred to as a determining the absorbed-dose distribution. Accurate radiation
phantom material. dosimetry at a reference position which could be the position of
3.1.15 transfer–standard dosimeter—a dosimeter, often a the maximum absorbed dose (Dmax) or minimum absorbed
reference–standard dosimeter, suitable for transport between dose (Dmin) offers a quantitative, independent method to
different locations for use as an intermediary to compare monitor the radiation process.
absorbed-dose measurements (see ISO/ASTM Guide 51261). 4.6 Dosimetry is part of a measurement quality assurance
3.1.16 transit dose—absorbed dose delivered to product program that is applied to ensure that the radiation process
while the product moves from the load/unload position to the meets predetermined specifications (4).
irradiate position, and back to the load/unload position. 4.7 Absorbed-dose mapping is often performed using simu-
3.1.17 validation—establishment of documented evidence lated product.
which provides a high degree of assurance that a specified 4.8 Proper documentation and record keeping are critical
process will consistently produce a product meeting its prede- components of radiation processing. This standard does not
termined specifications and quality attributes. address this issue since minimum requirements must be set by
3.2 Definitions of other terms used in this standard that the pertinent governing bodies.
pertain to radiation measurement and dosimetry may be found
in ASTM Terminology E 170. Definitions in ASTM E 170 are 5. Type of Facilities and Modes of Operation
compatible with ICRU 60; that document, therefore, may be
5.1 Self-Contained Blood Irradiators. (5) The majority of
used as an alternative reference.
blood components are irradiated by gamma rays from either
137
4. Significance and Use Cs or 60Co self-contained dry storage irradiators. These
devices house the radiation source in a protective lead shield
4.1 Blood products include whole blood, red cells, frozen (or other appropriate high atomic number material), and
cells, platelet concentrates, apheresis platelets, granulocyte usually have a mechanism to rotate or lower the canister from
concentrates, and fresh (frozen) plasma. The assurance that the load/unload position to the irradiation position.
blood or blood products have been properly irradiated is of
5.1.1 The most common method used to ensure a uniform
crucial importance for patient health. The irradiator operator
absorbed-dose distribution in the blood product is to rotate the
must demonstrate by means of accurate absorbed-dose mea-
canister holding the blood product on an irradiator turntable in
surements on the product, or in simulated product, that the
front of the radiation source.
specified absorbed dose has been achieved throughout the
5.1.2 A second method is to distribute the source in a
product.
circular array. The blood product is located at the center of the
4.2 Blood and various blood products are irradiated at
array, resulting in a relatively uniform absorbed-dose distribu-
pre-determined doses to inactivate viable lymphocytes to help
tion. In this design, irradiator turntables would not normally be
prevent transfusion-induced graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)
necessary.
in selected immunocompromised patients and those receiving
related-donor products (1,2).9 5.2 Teletherapy Equipment. 60Co equipment and linear
4.3 Blood products may be treated with ionizing radiation, accelerator teletherapy equipment (in electron or bremsstrahl-
such as gamma rays from 137Cs or 60Co sources, and from ung X-ray modes) are used primarily for the treatment of
self-contained bremsstrahlung X-ray units and medical linear tumors. These units may also be used to irradiate blood
X-ray and electron accelerators used primarily for radio- products. In both types of equipment, radiation is emitted or
therapy. generated and directed at the blood products placed beneath the
4.4 Blood irradiation specifications include a lower limit of collimator. The collimator is used to create a highly defined
absorbed dose, and may include an upper limit or central target beam of radiation.
dose. For a given application, any of these values may be 5.3 Electron Accelerator (Electron and Bremsstrahlung
prescribed by regulations that have been established on the X-ray modes). Accelerator-generated radiation is in the form of
basis of available scientific data. electrons or bremsstrahlung X-rays. Teletherapy accelerators
4.5 For each blood irradiator, an absorbed-dose rate at a can be used for this purpose.
reference dose position within the blood- or blood-equivalent 5.3.1 For an electron accelerator, the two principal beam
characteristics are the energy spectrum and the average beam
current. The electron energy spectrum affects the variation of
9
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the end of this absorbed dose with depth in a given material, and the average
standard. beam current affects the absorbed-dose rate.
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5.3.2 A bremsstrahlung X-ray accelerator emits short- (fields) and other dosimeters. The two most commonly used
wavelength electromagnetic radiation, similar in energy to primary–standard dosimeters are ionization chambers and
gamma radiation. Although their effects on materials are calorimeters (see ISO/ASTM Guide 51261, ICRU Reports 14,
generally similar, these kinds of radiation differ in their energy 17, 34 and 35 and NCRP Report 69).
spectra, angular distributions, and absorbed-dose rates. 7.1.2.2 Reference–Standard Dosimeters: Reference–stan-
5.3.3 Some blood components are irradiated using a self- dard dosimeters are used to calibrate radiation environments
contained portable bremsstrahlung X-ray blood irradiator. The and routine dosimeters. Reference–standard dosimeters may
bremsstrahlung X-rays are produced in a conventional manner, also be used as routine dosimeters. Examples of reference-
but the unit is totally self-contained (free standing). Spectrum –standard dosimeters used in blood irradiation, along with their
filtration is used to reduce the low energy component of the useful dose ranges are given in Table 1.
radiation, thus improving the dose uniformity ratio. In some 7.1.2.3 Transfer–Standard Dosimeters: Transfer–standard
cases, irradiator turntables are used. dosimeters are specially selected dosimeters used for transfer-
ring absorbed-dose information from an accredited or national
6. Radiation Source Characteristics
standards laboratory to an irradiation facility in order to
6.1 The radiation source used in a facility considered in this establish traceability for that facility. These dosimeters should
practice consists of sealed elements of 60Co or 137Cs which be used under conditions that are carefully controlled by the
are typically linear rods or “pencils” arranged in one or more issuing laboratory. Transfer–standard dosimeters may be se-
planar or cylindrical arrays, bremsstrahlung X-rays, or elec- lected from either reference–standard dosimeters or routine
trons. dosimeters and shall have performance characteristics that
6.2 Cobalt-60 emits photons with energies of approximately meet the requirements listed in a table in ISO/ASTM Guide
1.17 and 1.33 MeV in nearly equal proportions. Cesium-137 51261. Examples of transfer-standard dosimeters used in blood
produces photons with energies of approximately 0.662 MeV irradiation are given in Table 2.
(3). 7.1.2.4 Routine Dosimeters: Routine dosimeters may be
6.3 The half-lives for 60Co and 137Cs are approximately used for quality control and process monitoring. Proper dosi-
5.2708 years (14) and 30.07 years (15, 16), respectively. metric techniques, including calibration, shall be employed to
6.4 For gamma-ray sources, the only variation in the source ensure that measurements are reliable and accurate. Examples
output is the known reduction in the activity caused by of routine dosimeters used in blood irradiation, along with their
radioactive decay. The reduction in the source strength and the useful dose ranges are given in Table 3.
required increase in the irradiation time may be calculated (see 7.2 Dosimeter Applications: In general, routine dosimeters
9.4.6) or obtained from tables provided by the irradiator are used to monitor the radiation process on a routine basis as
manufacturer. an integral part of process control, and may be used to perform
6.5 Direct-action electron accelerators which employ dc or dose mapping to determine the absorbed-dose distribution
pulsed high-voltage generators typically produce electron en- throughout the product or simulated product. The absorbed-
ergies up to 5 MeV. Indirect-action electron accelerators use dose rate at a specific location, which will be used to determine
microwave or very high frequency (vhf) ac power to produce the time interval for the irradiation (or the timer setting), must
electron energies typically from 5 MeV to 15 MeV. be determined using higher-quality primary-, reference-, or
6.6 The continuous energy spectrum of the X-rays transfer-standard dosimeters.
(bremsstrahlung) ranges from approximately 35 keV up to the 7.2.1 Timer Setting Calculations: The reference-standard
maximum energy of the electrons incident on the X-ray target measurement must be used to calculate the timer setting
(see ISO/ASTM Practice 51608). required to deliver the specified absorbed dose to the center of
6.7 Regulations in some countries limit the maximum elec- the blood or blood component, or other reference position of
tron energy to 10 MeV and photon energy to 5 MeV. the container filled with blood products. The reference–stan-
7. Dosimetry Systems dard dosimeter most widely used is the ferrous sulfate (Fricke)
aqueous solution (see ASTM Practice E 1026 ). Other refer-
7.1 Description of Dosimeter Classes: ence–standard dosimeters include ionization chambers (see
7.1.1 Dosimetry systems are used to measure absorbed NCRP Report 69 and Ref (13)) and radiochromic solutions (see
dose. They consist of the dosimeters, measurement instruments ISO/ASTM Practice 51540 and Ref (6)).
and their associated reference standards, and procedures for the
7.2.1.1 Precise and accurate absorbed-dose measurements
systems’ use.
are made in simulated product routine-processing conditions.
7.1.2 Dosimeters may be divided into four basic classes
The irradiation time to deliver the required absorbed dose can
according to their accuracy and areas of application: primary
then be accurately determined.
standard, reference standard, transfer standard, and routine
dosimeters. ISO/ASTM Guide 51261 provides detailed infor- NOTE 1—For reference standard dosimetry, the absorbed dose and
mation about the selection of dosimetry systems for different absorbed-dose rate can be expressed in water or other material which has
applications. similar absorption properties to that of blood and simulated-blood
products.
7.1.2.1 Primary–Standard Dosimeters: Primary–standard
dosimeters are established and maintained by national stan- 7.2.2 Quality Control and Routine Monitoring—Routine
dards laboratories for calibration of radiation environments --`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
dosimeters may be used for quality control and routine

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TABLE 1 Examples of Reference-Standard Dosimeters

Dosimeter Readout System Useful Absorbed-dose Range (Gy) Reference

Alanine EPR Spectrometer 1 to 105 ISO/ASTM 51607

Ethanol-Chlorobenzene solution Spectrophotometer, color titration, high 10 to 2 3 106 ISO/ASTM 51538
frequency conductivity
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Fricke UV Spectrophotometer 20 to 400 ASTM E 1026

Ionization Chamber Electrometer Can be easily applied to the Blood-irradiation Dose (13)
RangeA
Radiochromic Dye Solution Spectrophotometer 10 to 4 3 104 ISO/ASTM 51540
A
In principle, an ion chamber can be used to make absolute absorbed–dose rate measurements at any dose rate. In the blood–irradiation dose-rate range (for example,
5 to 20 Gy/min), the ion chamber will perform satisfactorily if it has been calibrated within the applicable dose-rate range.

TABLE 2 Examples of Transfer-Standard Dosimeters

Dosimeter Readout System Useful Absorbed Dose Range (Gy) Reference

Alanine EPR Spectrometer 1 to 105 ISO/ASTM

51607
Ethanol-Chlorobenzene solution Spectrophotometer, color titration, high frequency conductivity 10 to 2 3 10 6
ISO/ASTM
51538
Fricke UV Spectrophotometer 20 to 400 ASTM E 1026
Radiochromic Dye Solution Spectrophotometer 10 to 4 3 104 ISO/ASTM
51540

TABLE 3 Examples of Routine Dosimeters

Dosimeter Readout System Useful Absorbed Dose Range (Gy) Reference

–4 3
TLD (e.g. LiF) Thermoluminescence reader 10 to 10 ASTM E 668
MOSFET semiconductor Electronic reader 1 to 200 (7, 8)
Radiochromic film UV/visible spectrophotometer, Transmission/Reflectance 10 to 105 ISO/ASTM
Densitometer 51275
Alanine EPR Spectrometer 1 to 105 ISO/ASTM
51607

monitoring. Proper dosimetric measurements shall be em- operating parameters (e.g. timer setting, product loading con-
ployed to ensure that the product receives the desired dose, and figuration). For self-contained dry storage irradiators, the blood
to identify unexpected changes in the process. Routine mea- product may be relatively close to the radiation source,
surements of absorbed dose to the blood product will help resulting in pronounced absorbed-dose gradients near the
ensure that the product has been treated with the minimum periphery of the blood or blood-component volume. It is
dose prescribed by the process. The absorbed dose may be important, therefore, to choose a dosimeter which is small
measured at a reference-dose position (see 10.3.2). Accurate enough to detect these gradients. The routine dosimetry system
radiation dosimetry at a reference position, which could be the may be used for relative or absolute absorbed-dose measure-
position of the maximum absorbed dose (Dmax) or minimum ments or for mapping the absorbed-dose distribution in the
absorbed dose (Dmin) offers a quantitative, independent blood-irradiation volume. For more information on dose map-
method to monitor the radiation process. In order to detect any ping, see 10.3.
anomalies during the course of the irradiation, more than one 7.3 Calibration of Dosimetry Systems:
routine monitoring position may be necessary. Routine dosim-
7.3.1 Prior to use, dosimetry systems shall be calibrated in
eters shall not be used to calculate or change the timer setting
required to deliver the specified absorbed dose to the product. accordance with the user’s documented procedure that speci-
For more information on routine monitoring, see Section 11. fies details of the calibration process and quality assurance
requirements. This calibration procedure shall be repeated at
NOTE 2—In the routine operation of a blood irradiator, absorbed-dose regular intervals to ensure that the accuracy of the absorbed-
measurements made on the product at regular intervals provide the dose measurement is maintained within required limits. Irra-
operator and regulatory authorities with an independent quality control
record for the process. When Dmin has been set by the regulatory
diation is a critical component of the calibration of the
authorities, the ability to measure that absorbed dose with proper dosimetry system. Detailed calibration procedures are provided
statistical control is a critical requisite of Good Manufacturing Practices in ISO/ASTM Guide 51261.
(GMPs). 7.3.2 Calibration Irradiation of Reference or Transfer-
7.2.3 Absorbed-dose Mapping—Ideally, the radiation pro- –Standard Dosimeters—Calibration irradiations shall be per-
cess is designed to irradiate the blood product uniformly; in formed by irradiating the reference or transfer–standard dosim-
reality, a certain variation in absorbed dose through the product eters using a calibration facility that provides an absorbed dose
will exist. Absorbed-dose mapping is used to determine the or an absorbed-dose rate having measurement traceability to
magnitude and locations of Dmax and Dmin for a given set of nationally or internationally recognized standards.

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7.3.3 Calibration Irradiation of Routine Dosimeters— some recommended steps in the following areas: manufactur-
Calibration irradiations may be performed in several ways, er’s release-for-shipment criteria, installation qualification,
including irradiating the routine dosimeters using: process qualification, and routine product processing. The
7.3.3.1 A calibration facility that provides an absorbed dose recommended steps in Annex A2 are not meant to be exhaus-
or an absorbed-dose rate having measurement traceability to tive. After the unit is installed at the user’s site, irradiator
nationally or internationally recognized standards, or qualification is performed as part of the user’s quality assur-
7.3.3.2 An in-house calibration facility that provides an ance plan.
absorbed dose or an absorbed-dose rate having measurement 9.2 Equipment Documentation: Establish and document an
traceability to nationally or internationally recognized stan- irradiator qualification program that demonstrates that the
dards irradiator is operating within specified limits, and will consis-
7.3.3.3 A production or research irradiation facility together tently produce an absorbed-dose distribution in simulated
with reference- or transfer-standard dosimeters that have mea- product to a predetermined specification. Retain documenta-
surement traceability to nationally or internationally recog- tion for the lifetime of the irradiator, including descriptions of
nized standards. instrumentation and equipment for ensuring the reproducibility
7.3.4 When a reference or transfer–standard dosimeter is to in absorbed-dose delivery, within specified limits.
be used as a routine dosimeter, calibration may also be 9.3 Equipment Testing and Calibration:
performed as stated in 7.3.3.2 or 7.3.3.3. 9.3.1 Processing Equipment—The absorbed dose in product
7.3.5 Instrument Calibration: Calibrations of the individual and simulated product depends on the operating parameters of

--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
instruments used in the analysis of the dosimeters shall be the irradiator.
verified at periodic intervals. These calibrations shall be 9.3.1.1 Test all processing equipment and instrumentation
traceable to nationally or internationally recognized standards. that may influence absorbed dose in order to verify satisfactory
7.4 Factors That Affect the Response of Dosimeters: operation of the irradiator within the design specifications.
7.4.1 Factors that affect the response of dosimeters, includ- 9.3.1.2 Implement a documented calibration program to
ing environmental conditions and variations of such conditions assure that all processing equipment and instrumentation that
within the processing facility, shall be known and taken into may influence absorbed-dose delivery are calibrated periodi-
account (see ISO/ASTM Guide 51261). Examples of routine cally (for example, the irradiator timing mechanism).
dosimeters are listed in Table 3, and described in more detail in 9.3.2 Analytical Equipment—The accuracy of the absorbed-
Annex A1. dose measurement depends on the correct operation and
8. Radiation-Sensitive Indicators calibration of the analytical equipment used in the analysis of
the dosimeters.
8.1 The purpose of radiation-sensitive indicators is to visu-
ally determine whether or not a product has received some 9.3.2.1 Check the performance of the analytical equipment
radiation, rather than to measure different absorbed-dose lev- periodically to ensure that the equipment is functioning accord-
els. Indicators are used to show that a specific product has been ing to performance specifications. Repeat this check following
exposed to ionizing radiation (see ISO/ASTM Guide 51539 any equipment modification or servicing and prior to the use of
and (9)). Indicators do not give a quantitative value of absorbed the equipment for a dosimetry system calibration. This check
dose, and therefore are not a substitute for routine dosimeters may be accomplished by using standards such as calibrated
used in routine process monitoring. optical density filters, wavelength standards, or calibrated
thickness gauges supplied by the manufacturer or national or
9. Pre- and Post-Installation Qualification accredited standards laboratories.
9.1 Objective: The qualification of a blood irradiator occurs 9.3.2.2 Implement a documented calibration program to
before and after the installation of the irradiator. Before the unit assure that all analytical equipment used in the analysis of
is shipped to the customer, the irradiator manufacturer per- dosimeters is calibrated periodically.
forms dosimetry as part of the release-for-shipment criteria. In 9.4 Irradiator Characterization: The absorbed dose re-
the case of self-contained dry storage irradiators, this dosim- ceived by any portion of product depends on the irradiator
etry can include absorbed-dose mapping to establish baseline parameters such as the source activity at the time of irradiation,
data for evaluating the facility effectiveness, predictability, and the geometry of the source, the source-to-product distance, the
reproducibility for the range of operating conditions. For irradiation geometry and the processing parameters such as the
example, dosimetry can be used to: (1) establish relationships irradiation time, the product composition and density, and the
between the absorbed dose for a reproducible geometry and the product loading configuration.
operating parameters of the irradiator; (2) characterize 9.4.1 In order to obtain accurate absorbed-dose delivery to
absorbed-dose variations when processing parameters fluctuate product or simulated product, it may be necessary to evaluate
statistically through normal operations; (3) measure absorbed- and compensate for the transit dose.
dose distributions in blood-equivalent material and other ref- 9.4.2 The irradiator characterization process includes map-
erence materials; and (4) measure the absorbed-dose rate at one ping the absorbed-dose distributions on actual product or
position (usually the center of the canister volume) within the simulated product (see 10.2). Dosimetry data from previously
canister filled with simulated product. Annex A2, “Recom- characterized irradiators of the same design or theoretical
mended Quality Assurance Steps for Blood Irradiation,” gives calculations may provide useful information for determining

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the number and locations of dosimeters needed for this Since the absorbed-dose rate due to a radionuclide source
characterization process. also varies exponentially, the dose rate, DR, is given by:
9.4.3 Map the absorbed-dose distribution by placing dosim- DRt 5 DRo · e –lt (9)
eters throughout the actual or simulated product. Select place-
ment patterns that can identify the locations of Dmax and Dmin where DRt is the dose rate at a time t; DRo is the dose rate at
(see for example, Ref (2)). some earlier time (t=0).
The timer setting (TS) necessary to deliver the targeted
NOTE 3—In the case of static irradiations (such as when the product is central dose varies inversely with the dose rate and source
located at the center of a circular source array of a self-contained
activity, and is given by:
dry-storage irradiator), the dose mapping should be done in three
dimensions. When product is irradiated on turntables, the dose mapping TSt 5 TSo / e–lt (10)
may be done in two dimensions, such as on an arbitrary vertical plane
through the axis of rotation. In this case, the result is a three-dimensional where TSt is the timer setting necessary to deliver the
mapping due to the product rotation. required target dose at a time t; TSo is the timer setting at some
earlier time (t=0) to deliver the same target dose. Typically for
9.4.4 Changes in the product handling system (for example, free-standing irradiators with a 137Cs radionuclide source, the
irradiator turntable) and radiation source characteristics require timer setting is adjusted (increased) by ;1.1 % every six
a new absorbed-dose mapping. months. Typically, for free-standing irradiators with a 60Co
9.4.5 A reference standard dosimetry system is used to radionuclide source, the timer setting is adjusted (increased) by
measure the absorbed-dose rate at a reference location within ;1.1 % every month.
simulated product (such as the center of the product or
simulated product volume) in a near worst-case geometry (such 10. Process Qualification
as when the product nearly completely fills the irradiation
volume). This measurement is used to calculated the timer 10.1 Objective: The purpose of dosimetry in process quali-
setting necessary to deliver the specified absorbed dose to the fication is to ensure that the absorbed-dose requirements for a
blood product. The continued usage of this timer setting, particular product can be satisfied. This is accomplished by
adjusted for source decay, will help to ensure that products absorbed-dose mapping (see 10.3) of specific products and
which occupy less than the total irradiation volume will be product loading configurations or in simulated product repre-
processed to the specified minimum absorbed dose. If the senting the near-worst case geometry to determine the magni-
blood product occupies much less than the available canister tude and location of Dmax and Dmin, and the irradiator timer
volume, care shall be taken to ensure that the Dmax delivered setting necessary to achieve the absorbed doses within the set
to the blood product is still within specification (see 11.5). requirements.
10.2 Product Loading Configuration: A loading configura-
9.4.6 An important calculation in the use of gamma-ray
tion should be established for each product type. The docu-
sources is the correction for radioactive decay. For a pure
mentation for this loading configuration shall include specifi-
radionuclide source, the reduction in activity with time is
cations for parameters such as product size, product mass or
exponential. For an initial activity of Ao (at time = 0), the
product density, which influence the absorbed-dose distribu-
activity at some later time, t, is given by:
tion.
At 5 Ao · e–lt (4)
NOTE 5—The canister of a self-contained dry storage irradiator shall
where At is the source activity at time t. l, the decay constant not be loaded beyond the designed maximum volume of the canister.
for a given radionuclide, is defined as: Overloading the canister is one cause of turntable malfunction or
non-rotation and can lead to a very non-uniform absorbed-dose distribu-
l 5 ln ~2! / T1/2 (5)
tion in the product such that some of the product may receive doses
where T1/2 is the half-life for a given radionuclide. The outside the specified limits.
half-lives for 60Co and 137Cs are 5.2708 years (14) and 30.07 10.3 Product or Simulated Product Absorbed-dose Map-
years (15, 16), respectively. ping: For each blood product treated, there is a minimum dose
Using 365.2422 days per year (14), the values for l in Eq 5 to achieve the desired effect and a maximum dose that the
for 60Co and 137Cs are: blood product can tolerate without degradation in quality.
For 60
Co, l 5 3.60054 3 10–4 day–1 (6) Often the process is defined by targeting a known absorbed
dose at the center of the blood product while achieving the
For 137
Cs, l 5 6.31119 3 10–5 day–1 (7) required minimum dose everywhere else. Establish the loca-
tions of the regions of Dmax and Dmin for the selected product
where no round-off has occurred until the final answer. and product loading pattern by placing dosimeters throughout
The decay factor is defined as: the volume of interest for one or more products or simulated
Decay Factor 5 At / Ao 5 e–lt (8) products. Concentrate the dosimeters in regions of Dmax and
Dmin with fewer dosimeters placed in areas likely to receive
NOTE 4—Examples of using these equations to obtain decay factors are
given as follows: for an elapsed time period of 500 days and using the
intermediate absorbed dose. Dosimeter film in strips or sheets
decay constants calculated in Eq 6 and Eq 7 and plugging into Eq 8, the may be employed to obtain useful information.
decay factors for 60Co and 137Cs are 0.835248 and 0.968933, respec- 10.3.1 If any changes that could affect the magnitude or
tively. location of the absorbed dose extremes are made to the
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irradiator or mode of operation, repeat the absorbed-dose verify that the absorbed dose received by the product falls
mapping to the extent necessary to establish the effect. within specified limits
10.3.2 Reference Position: If the locations of absorbed-
dose extremes identified during the mapping procedure of 10.3 NOTE 6—The absorbed-dose distribution in the simulated product is
already known from the pre- or post-installation, and the most recent dose
are not readily accessible during routine processing, alternative
mapping. However, the use of a sufficient number of strategically placed
“reference” positions may be used for routine dosimetry. The dosimeters serves to confirm that the absorbed dose delivered is within
relationships between the absorbed dose at these reference specification.
positions and the absorbed-dose extremes shall be established,
shown to be reproducible, and documented. 11.2.4 Radiation-sensitive Indicator Location—One or
10.3.3 Results from the absorbed-dose mapping will be more indicators should be placed on the bags at predetermined
used to determine the degree of dose uniformity, and to show locations of the Dmin (if accessible) or other reference
that the process was within specification for that irradiation. positions.
Routine dosimeters (for example, radiochromic film, TLDs, 11.2.5 Radiation-sensitive Indicator Placement
semiconductors) which are not categorized as reference stan- Frequency—Indicators should be placed on the bags in order to
dard or transfer–standard dosimeters and are used in a mailed- obtain a visual and qualitative indication that the product has
out dosimetry service shall not be used to calculate or change been irradiated.
the timer setting required to deliver the specified absorbed 11.3 Environmental Effects—If there is a change in the
dose.
environment (for example, temperature, humidity) of a dosim-
11. Routine Product Processing eter or radiation-sensitive indicator during the irradiation
11.1 Processing Parameters and Control—For product pro- process or pre- or post-irradiation storage, the response of the
cessing, set the operating parameters as established during dosimeter and indicator may be affected. If this occurs, correct
process qualification, taking into account source decay. All the dosimeter response for any such effect. A radiation-
critical process parameters that can affect the absorbed-dose sensitive indicator’s response cannot be corrected for such
distribution shall be controlled and monitored during routine conditions, and therefore, should not be used in those environ-
processing. These parameters include: product loading, timer ments. Care must also be taken in handling and storage of
setting and turntable rotation. Control, monitor and document dosimeters and indicators before and after irradiation (see
the operating parameters to help ensure that the product is ISO/ASTM Guides 51261 and 51539, and practices for indi-
processed in accordance with specifications. If the operating vidual dosimetry systems listed in 2.1 and 2.2).
parameters deviate from prescribed processing limits, take 11.4 Chilled or Frozen Blood Products—Absorbed dose is
appropriate actions. not a function of the blood or blood product temperature. The
11.2 Routine Monitoring of the Radiation Process—Routine response of the dosimeter and radiation-sensitive indicator,
measurements of absorbed dose to the blood product will help however, may be a function of their temperature. The dose-
ensure that the product has been treated with the minimum mapping information for simulated product (representing the
dose prescribed by the process. The absorbed dose may be actual product geometry or near-worst case geometry) at
measured at a reference-dose position (see 10.3.2). Radiation- ambient temperature can be applied to the chilled or frozen
sensitive indicators may also be used to monitor the radiation product. Determine the temperature of the dosimeter during
process. In order to detect any anomalies during the course of irradiation of chilled or frozen blood products and apply the
the irradiation, more than one routine monitoring position may appropriate temperature correction. Dosimeters that exhibit a
be necessary. Routine dosimeters shall not be used to calculate highly temperature-dependent response should not be placed in
or change the timer setting required to deliver the specified locations with large temperature gradients. Radiation-sensitive
absorbed dose to the product. indicators should not be used on chilled or frozen product. (See
11.2.1 Process Monitoring Using Dosimeters and
ISO/ASTM Guide 51261 and practices for individual dosim-
Radiation-sensitive Indicators—Routine processing monitor-
etry systems listed in 2.1 and 2.2).
ing may be performed using routine dosimetry and radiation-
sensitive indicators. Both can be part of the verification process 11.5 Partially Loaded Canisters—Irradiations may be per-
for establishing that the irradiation process is under control, formed using less product than the initial dose mapping and
although the indicators provide no information on the absorbed periodic dose mapping performed with the near-worst case
dose. geometry (for example, when the canister is nearly filled with
11.2.2 Dosimeter Location(s)—Place one or more dosim- simulated product). In that case, the Dmax received by the
eters on the blood bag or blood component bag at predeter- product may be greater than the Dmax measured in the
mined locations of the Dmax and Dmin or at a reference dose simulated product. Care must be taken, therefore, to ensure that
position (see 10.3.2 and 11.2). Under predefined conditions of the Dmax allowed by law (if applicable) is not exceeded during
operation, the absorbed dose at the reference dose position has routine use. Changes to the absorbed-dose distribution arising
a quantitative and reproducible relationship with Dmax and from partially loaded canisters may be minimized by the use of
Dmin (see 10.1 and 10.3). simulated product placed at the appropriate locations in the
11.2.3 Dosimeter Placement Frequency—Select a sufficient irradiation volume so that the near worst-case is approximated,
number of bags on which to place dosimeter sets in order to and by center-loading the product.
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12. Measurement Uncertainty combined standard uncertainty and an estimate of overall (expanded)
uncertainty.
12.1 To be meaningful, a measurement shall be accompa-
nied by an estimate of uncertainty. Components of uncertainty 12.2 The components of uncertainty involved in a measure-
shall be identified as belonging to one of two groups: A) those ment shall be estimated or determined. The overall uncertainty
which are evaluated by statistical methods; or, B) those which in the measurement may be estimated from a combination of
are evaluated by other means. Additional information is given these components, and the procedure for combining these
in ISO/ASTM Guide 51707 and Refs (11) and (12) where these components shall be specifically stated or referenced in all
components are referred to as Type A and Type B, respectively. results.
In reporting uncertainty, other classifications such as precision 12.3 If care is taken in carrying-out the procedures in this
and bias may be useful. practice and in the relevant practices for the reference, transfer-
standard and routine dosimetry systems given in Table 1, Table
NOTE 7—The identification of Type A and Type B uncertainties is based
2 and Table 3 (respectively), the overall uncertainties at a 95%
on the methodology adopted in 1993 by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) for estimating uncertainty (12). This is different to confidence level in the measurement of absorbed dose which
the way uncertainty has been traditionally expressed in terms of “preci- may be obtained are:
sion” and “bias,” where precision is a measure of the extent to which 12.3.1 For the Alanine and Fricke dosimetry systems, an
replicate measurements made under specific conditions are in agreement, estimated uncertainty of 63 %.
and bias is a systematic error (see ASTM Terminologies E 170 and E 456, 12.3.2 For all the other systems, an estimated uncertainty of
and ASTM Practice E 177). The purpose of using the method of 65 %. If a dosimeter is used in a mailed-out dosimetry service,
expressing uncertainties as Type A and Type B is to promote an
understanding of how uncertainty statements are arrived at, and to provide
and it is not categorized as a transfer-standard dosimeter, the
a basis for the international comparison of measurement results. overall uncertainty may be much higher.
NOTE 8—ISO/ASTM Guide 51707 defines possible sources of error in
dosimetry performed in radiation processing facilities and offers proce- 13. Keywords
dures for estimating the resulting magnitude of the uncertainties in the 13.1 absorbed dose; absorbed-dose mapping; blood prod-
measurement results. Basic concepts of measurement, estimate of the ucts; blood irradiation; dosimeter; dosimetry system; irradia-
measured value of a quantity, “true” value, error and uncertainty are
defined and discussed. Components of uncertainty are discussed and
tor; ionizing radiation; measurement quality assurance plan;
methods are given for evaluating and estimating their values. Their measurement uncertainty; radiation-sensitive indicators;
contributions to the standard uncertainty in the reported values of reference-standard dosimeter; routine dosimeter; transfer-
absorbed dose are considered and methods are given for calculating the standard dosimeter; ICS 17.240

ANNEXES

(informative)

A1. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME ROUTINE DOSIMETERS

A1.1 Thermoluminescence Dosimeter (TLD) Ambient Light: Not generally sensitive for doses in the
Applicable Dose Range: 10 to 10 Gy –4 3 blood-irradiation dose range and above.
Applicable Dose Rate: 10–2 to 1010 Gy/s Time: TLDs generally fade after irradiation; readout time
after irradiation must be controlled.
Use: Electron/Gamma Ray/X-ray
For more information, see ASTM Practice E 668
Physical Characteristics: When irradiated crystalline mate-
rial is subjected to a carefully controlled heating cycle, the A1.2 MOSFET Dosimeter
freed electrons and hole traps recombine with the emission of Applicable Dose Range: 1 to 200 Gy
characteristic light. This heating cycle erases the dose infor- Applicable Dose Rate: < 10–2 to 108 Gy/s
mation in the TLD. Most commonly used materials for TLD Use: Electron/Gamma ray/X-ray
are LiF, CaF2, CaSO4 and Li2Bi4O 7. The dosimeter is small Physical Characteristics: These dosimeters consist of semi-
and the material is used in the form of powder, pellets, single conductor chips whose electrical characteristics change perma-
crystals or in sealed glass tubes or bulbs or suspended in nently upon irradiation. The electrical effect is measured
plastics. electronically and is linear with absorbed dose over the
Instrument Characteristics: Heat cycling TL reader compris- specified dose range. The dosimeter is small and comes in the
ing photomultiplier tube measurement system to measure light form of a sealed transistor package with pins to make electrical
output and convert to absorbed dose. Reader requires skilled contact for reading. The dosimeter stores the dose information.
operator. Instrumentation Characteristics: The instrument is an elec-
Environmental Factors: tronic meter which measures a change in voltage on the
Temperature: Not generally sensitive. dosimeter and converts this directly to absorbed dose. A printer
Humidity: Not generally sensitive. is usually used which prints absorbed dose as well as time and
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date information. Operation of reader requires no special skill. Applicable Dose Rate: < 108 Gy/s
Environmental Factors: Use: Electron/Gamma ray/X-ray
Temperature: Not sensitive Physical Characteristics: This dosimeter is used in the form
Humidity: Not sensitive of tablets, small rods, rope of 3-mm to 5-mm diameter and
Ambient Light: Not sensitive various lengths, consisting primarily of a-alanine and a small
Time: Dosimeter read-out may change with time after amount of paraffin or other binder.
irradiation. Instrumentation Characteristics: EPR spectrometer
For more information see Ref (7). Environmental Factors:
Temperature: Temperature dependence varies with the
A1.3 Radiochromic Film Dosimeter
absorbed-dose level and alanine formulation.
Applicable Dose Range: 10 to 105 Gy Humidity: Somewhat sensitive to humidity (may require
Applicable Dose Rate: < 1013 Gy/s preconditioning)
Use: Electron/Gamma ray/X-ray Ambient Light: Not generally sensitive to ambient light.
Physical Characteristics: These dosimeters consist of leuco Time: Dosimeter reading may change with time after irra-
(colourless) dyes that become intensely coloured upon irradia- diation.
tion. Film thicknesses vary from a few µm to about 1 mm. For more information see ISO/ASTM Practice 51607.
Instrumentation Characteristics: VIS/UV spectrophotometer
(various wavelengths) and visible transmission and reflectance A1.5 Ethanol-Chlorobenzene Dosimetry System
densitometers (various filters).
Environmental Factors: Applicable Dose Range: 10 to 106 Gy
Temperature: This dosimeter has a positive temperature Applicable Dose Rate: Varies with formulation.
dependence, depending on the film type, and should be Use: Electron/Gamma ray/X-ray
protected from temperature extremes. Physical Characteristics: This dosimeter combines chlo-
Humidity: Sensitive to humidity (may be hermetically sealed robenzene and water in aerated ethanol solution. The dosimeter
in water-tight plastic envelopes) ampoules are typically 2 to 5 cm3 in volume. The useful dose
Ambient Light: These dosimeters are sensitive to ambient range depends on the concentration of chlorobenzene.
light conditions, especially ambient light with wavelengths < Instrumentation Characteristics: Spectrophotometer, color
370 nm. titration, or high-frequency conductivity.
Time: Dosimeter reading may change with time after irra- Environmental Factors:
diation. Temperature: Irradiation temperature effect is negligible.
For more information see ISO/ASTM Practice 51275. Humidity: Not applicable.
Ambient Light: These dosimeters are not sensitive to normal
A1.4 Alanine EPR Dosimetry System ambient light conditions.
Applicable Dose Range: 1 to 105 Gy For more information see ISO/ASTM Practice 51538.

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A2. Table A2.1

TABLE A2.1 Recommended Quality Assurance Steps for Blood Irradiation

Procedure Frequency Relevant
Section

Criteria for Pre-Installation Qualification (Release-for-Shipment) Performed before shipment of the Section 9
irradiator from Manufacturer to the
Customer
Performed by Manufacturer before shipment according to a documented Quality
Assurance Program (including mechanical and software testing, absorbed-dose mapping,
reference-standard dosimeter measurement)

Post-installation Qualification Performed after irradiator installation Section 9

by the manufacturer
1. Mechanical Testing
2. Check Timer Calibration
3. Check Position of Canister, if applicable.
4. Check Rotation of Canister, if applicable.
5. Absorbed-dose mapping of canister filled with simulated product Optional
6. Process Qualification

Process Qualification Before routine processing begins. Section 10

Reviewed at regular intervals.
1. Define a loading configuration for each product (for example, orientation of product,
maximum number of units to be irradiated at one time)
2. Standard Operating Procedures governing loading configuration, use of radiation-
sensitive indicators, routine dosimetry systems.
3. Define target dose requirements, minimum and maximum dose requirements.

Routine Product Processing Section 11

1. Check setting of timer setting and other processing parameters as applicable Before each irradiation.
2. Use of radiation-sensitive indicators At specified intervals, such as with
each batch.
3. Use of routine dosimetry system. Optional.
4. Check canister position, rotation if applicable. Before and after each irradiation.
5. Check timer accuracy. Quarterly (minimum)
6. Absorbed-dose mapping 1. After repair to turntable system or
relocation of irradiator.
2. Annually or as required by the
pertinent regulatory body.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Irradiation of Blood Components, Baldwin M.L., Jeffries L.C., ed., Dosimeters , presented at the Health Physics Society Annual Meeting,
AABB publication ISBN No. 1-56395-012-X, 8101 Glenbrook Road, July, 1995. Available from Thomson and Nielsen Electronics, 25E
Bethesda, Maryland, USA, 1992 Northside Road, Nepean, Ontario, Canada K2H 8S1.
(2) Masterson, M.E., Febo, R., Transfusion Blood Irradiation: Clinical (8) Hartshorn, A., Mackay, G., Spender, M., Thomson, I., Improved
Rationale and Dosimetric Considerations, Med. Phys., 19 (3), May/ Quality Practices for Blood Irradiation Dosimetry Procedures, pre-
June 1992. sented at the AABB Annual Meeting, Nov. 1995. Available from
(3) Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 71st ed., Lide, D. R., ed., CRC Thomson and Nielsen Electronics, 25E Northside Road, Nepean,
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1990. Ontario, Canada K2H 8S1.
(4) McLaughlin, W.L., Boyd, A.W., Chawick, K.H., McDonald, J.C., and (9) O’Hara, K., Absorbed-dose measurements and Process control in
Miller, A., Dosimetry for Radiation Processing, Taylor and Francis, Blood Irradiation presented at the AABB Workshop, Miami, 1993.
London, 1989. Available from MDS Nordion, 447 March Road, Kanata, Ontario,
(5) ANSI N 433.1 “Safe Design and Use of Self-Contained, Dry Storage Canada K2K 1X8.
Gamma Irradiators,” American National Standards Institute, 1430 (10) Miller, A, and Chadwick, K.H., “Dosimetry for the Approval of Food
Broadway, New York, NY, USA 10018, 1978. Irradiation Processes,” Radiation Physics and Chemistry, Vol.34,
(6) Hjortenberg, P.E. and McLaughlin, W.L., Use of Radiochromic Dye 1989, pp. 999-1004.
Systems for Dosimetry, Proceedings of Regional Conference on (11) Taylor, B.N. and Kuyatt, C.E., “Guidelines for Evaluating and
Radiation Protection, Jerusalem, March 1973. Published by Israel Expressing the Uncertainty of NIST Measurement Results,” NIST
Atomic Energy Commission, Soreq Nuclear Research Centre, Yavne, Technical Note 1297, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
1973, pp. 122-140. Gaithersburg, MD, 1994.
(7) Hartshorn, A., Mackay, G., Spender, M., Thomson, I., Absorbed Dose (12) “Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement,” Interna-
Mapping in Self-Shielded Irradiators Using Direct Reading MOSFET tional Organization for Standardization, 1993, ISBN 92-67-10188-9.
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(13) Attix, F.H., Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Sheets, Vol. 72 (No. 3), July 1994, pp. 366.
Dosimetry, John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA, 1986. (16) IAEA TECDOC-619 “X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Standards for Detec-
(14) Unterweger, M. P., Hoppes, D. D., and Schima, F. J., “New and tor Calibration,” September 1991.
Revised Half-Life Measurement Results,” Nuclear Instrumentation (17) Radionuclide Transformations, Energy and Intensity of Emissions,
and Methods, Volume A312, 1992, pp. 349-352. ICRP Publication 38, Pergamon Press, 1983.
(15) Tuli, J. K., “Nuclear Data Sheets Update for A = 137”, Nucl Data

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