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CHAPTER 9
FAILURE

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Principles of Fracture Mechanics

Problem 9.1
What is the magnitude of the maximum stress that exists at the tip of an internal crack having a radius of
curvature of 1.9 × 10–4 mm (7.5 × 10–6 in.) and a crack length of 3.8 × 10 –2 mm (1.5 × 10–3 in.) when a tensile stress
of 140 MPa (20,000 psi) is applied?

Solution 9.1
Equation 9.1 is employed to solve this problem—i.e.,

1/2
 a 
 m = 2 0  
 t 

Values for 0 (140 MPa), 2a (3.8 × 10–2 mm), and t (1.9 × 10–4 mm) are provided in the problem statement.

Therefore, we solve for m as follows:

1/2
 3.8  10−2 mm 
 
 m = (2)(140 MPa)  2  = 2800 MPa (400,000 psi)
 1.9  10−4 mm 
 
 
Problem 9.2
Estimate the theoretical fracture strength of a brittle material if it is known that fracture occurs by the
propagation of an elliptically shaped surface crack of length 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) and a tip radius of curvature of 5 ×
10–3 mm (2 × 10–4 in.), when a stress of 1035 MPa (150,000 psi) is applied.

Solution 9.2
In order to estimate the theoretical fracture strength of this material it is necessary to calculate m using

Equation 9.1 given that 0 = 1035 MPa, a = 0.5 mm, and t = 5  10−3 mm. Thus,

1/2
 a 
 m = 2 0  
 t 

1/2
 0.5 mm 
= (2)(1035 MPa) 
 5  10−3 mm 
 

= 2.07  104 MPa = 20.7 GPa (3  106 psi)

Problem 9.3
If the specific surface energy for aluminum oxide is 0.90 J/m 2, then using data in Table 7.1, compute the
critical stress required for the propagation of an internal crack of length 0.40 mm.

Solution 9.3
We may determine the critical stress required for the propagation of an internal crack in aluminum oxide
using Equation 9.3. Taking the value of 393 GPa (Table 7.1) as the modulus of elasticity, and realizing that values
for s (0.90 J/m2) and 2a (0.40 mm) are given in the problem statement, leads to

1/2
 2E  s 
c =  
 a 

1/2
 
 
 (2) (393  10 N/m ) (0.90 N/m) 
9 2
= 
 0.4  10−3 m 
 ()   
  2  
   

= 33.6  106 N/m 2 = 33.6 MPa

Problem 9.4
An MgO component must not fail when a tensile stress of 13.5 MPa (1960 psi) is applied. Determine the
maximum allowable surface crack length if the surface energy of MgO is 1.0 J/m 2. Data found in Table 7.1 may
prove helpful.

Solution 9.4
The maximum allowable surface crack length for MgO may be determined using a rearranged form of
Equation 9.3. Taking 225 GPa as the modulus of elasticity (Table 7.1), and realizing that values of c (13.5 MPa)

and s (1.0 J/m2) are given in the problem statement, we solve for a, as follows:

2Es
a=
  c2

(2) (225 ´ 109 N/m 2 ) (1.0 N/m)

=
2
(p) (13.5 ´ 106 N/m 2 )

= 7.9 ´ 10-4 m = 0.79 mm (0.031 in.)

Problem 9.5

A specimen of a 4340 steel alloy with a plane strain fracture toughness of 54.8 MPa m (50 ksi in. ) is
exposed to a stress of 1030 MPa (150,000 psi). Will this specimen experience fracture if the largest surface crack is
0.5 mm (0.02 in.) long? Why or why not? Assume that the parameter Y has a value of 1.0.

Solution 9.5
This problem asks us to determine whether or not the 4340 steel alloy specimen will fracture when exposed
to a stress of 1030 MPa. This requires that we solve for c from Equation 9.6, given the values of KIc

(54.8 MPa m ) , the largest value of a (0.5 mm), and Y (1.0). Thus, the critical stress for fracture is equal to

K Ic
c =
Y a

54.8 MPa m
=
(1.0 ) ( )(0.5  10−3 m)

= 1380 MPa (200,000 psi)

Therefore, fracture will not occur because this specimen will tolerate a stress of 1380 MPa (200,000 psi) before
fracture, which is greater than the applied stress of 1030 MPa (150,000 psi).
Problem 9.6
An aircraft component is fabricated from an aluminum alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of

40 MPa m (36.4 ksi in. ). It has been determined that fracture results at a stress of 300 MPa (43,500 psi) when
the maximum (or critical) internal crack length is 4.0 mm (0.16 in.). For this same component and alloy, will
fracture occur at a stress level of 260 MPa (38,000 psi) when the maximum internal crack length is 6.0 mm (0.24
in.)? Why or why not?

Solution 9.6
We are asked to determine if an aircraft component will fracture for a given fracture toughness (40

MPa m ), stress level (260 MPa), and maximum internal crack length (6.0 mm), given that fracture occurs for the
same component using the same alloy for another stress level and internal crack length. (Note: Because the cracks
are internal, their lengths are equal to 2a.) It first becomes necessary to solve for the parameter Y, using Equation
9.5, for the conditions under which fracture occurred (i.e.,  = 300 MPa and 2a = 4.0 mm). Therefore,

K Ic 40 MPa m
Y = = = 1.68
 a  4  10−3 m 
(300 MPa) ()  
 2
 

Now we will solve for the product Y s p a for the other set of conditions, so as to ascertain whether or not this

value is greater than the KIc for the alloy. Thus,

 6  10−3 m 
Y   a = (1.68)(260 MPa) ( )  
 2
 

= 42.4 MPa m (39 ksi in.)

Therefore, fracture will occur since this value (42.4 MPa m ) is greater than the KIc of the material, 40 MPa m .
Problem 9.7
Suppose that a wing component on an aircraft is fabricated from an aluminum alloy that has a plane-strain

fracture toughness of 26.0 MPa m (23.7 ksi in. ). It has been determined that fracture results at a stress of 112
MPa (16,240 psi) when the maximum internal crack length is 8.6 mm (0.34 in.). For this same component and alloy,
compute the stress level at which fracture will occur for a critical internal crack length of 6.0 mm (0.24 in.).

Solution 9.7
This problem asks us to determine the stress level at which an a wing component on an aircraft will fracture
for a given fracture toughness (26 MPa m ) and maximum internal crack length (6.0 mm), given that fracture

occurs for the same component using the same alloy at one stress level (112 MPa) and another internal crack length
(8.6 mm). (Note: Because the cracks are internal, their lengths are equal to 2a.) It first becomes necessary to solve
for the parameter Y for the conditions under which fracture occurred using Equation 9.5. Therefore,

K Ic 26 MPa m
Y = = = 2.0
 a  8.6  10−3 m 
(112 MPa) ( )  
 2
 

Now we will solve for c (for a crack length of 6 mm) using Equation 9.6 as

K Ic 26 MPa m
c = = = 134 MPa (19,300 psi)
Y a  6  10−3 m 
(2.0) ( )  
 2
 
Problem 9.8
A structural component is fabricated from an alloy that has a plane-strain fracture toughness of

62 MPa m. It has been determined that this component fails at a stress of 250 MPa when the maximum length of a
surface crack is 1.6 mm. What is the maximum allowable surface crack length (in mm) without fracture for this
same component exposed to a stress of 250 MPa and made from another alloy that has a plane strain fracture

toughness of 51 MPa m?

Solution 9.8
This problem asks us to determine the maximum allowable surface crack length without fracture for a

structural component for a specified fracture toughness (51 MPa m ) , given that fracture occurs for the same

component using the same stress level (250 MPa) and another fracture toughness (62 MPa m ) . (Note: Because

the cracks surface cracks, their lengths are equal to a.) The maximum crack length without fracture ac may be

calculated using Equation 9.7—i.e.,

1
ac =
2
 K Ic 
 
 Y 

where KIc is the plane strain fracture toughness, σ is the applied stress, and Y is a design parameter. Using data for

the first alloy [ K Ic = 62 MPa m , ac = 1.6 mm (1.6  10−3 m),  = 250 MPa], it is possible to calculate the value of

Y using a rearranged form of the above equation as follows:

K Ic
Y=
  ac

62 MPa m
=
(250 MPa) ( )(1.6  10−3 m)

= 3.50

Using this value of Y, the maximum crack length for the second alloy is determined, again using Equation 9.7 as
 1
ac =
2
 K Ic 
 
 Y 

2
1  51 MPa m 
=  
  (250 MPa)(3.50) 

= 0.00108 m = 1.08 mm
Problem 9.9

A large plate is fabricated from a steel alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 82.4 MPa m

( 75.0 ksi in. ). If the plate is exposed to a tensile stress of 345 MPa (50,000 psi) during service use, determine the
minimum length of a surface crack that will lead to fracture. Assume a value of 1.0 for Y.

Solution 9.9
For this problem, we are given values of KIc (82.4 MPa m ) ,  (345 MPa), and Y (1.0) for a large plate

and are asked to determine the minimum length of a surface crack that will lead to fracture. All we need do is to
solve for ac using Equation 9.7; therefore

2
1K 
ac =  Ic 
 Y 

2
1  82.4 MPa m 
=  
  (1.0 )(345 MPa) 

= 0.0182 m = 18.2 mm (0.72 in.)

Problem 9.10
Calculate the maximum internal crack length allowable for a Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy (Table 9.1)
component that is loaded to a stress one-half its yield strength. Assume that the value of Y is 1.50.

Solution 9.10
This problem asks us to calculate the maximum internal crack length allowable for the Ti-6Al-4V titanium
alloy in Table 9.1 given that it is loaded to a stress level equal to one-half of its yield strength. For this alloy,
K Ic = 55 MPa m ; also,  = y/2 = (910 MPa)/2 = 455 MPa. Now solving for 2ac (since this crack is an internal

one) using Equation 9.7 yields

2
2  K Ic 
   Y 
2ac =

2
2  55 MPa m 
=  
  (1.5 )(455 MPa) 

= 0.0041 m = 4.1 mm (0.16 in.)

Problem 9.11
A structural component in the form of a wide plate is to be fabricated from a steel alloy that has a plane-

strain fracture toughness of 98.9 MPa m ( 90 ksi in. ) and a yield strength of 860 MPa (125,000 psi). The flaw
size resolution limit of the flaw detection apparatus is 3.0 mm (0.12 in.). If the design stress is one-half the yield
strength and the value of Y is 1.0, determine whether a critical flaw for this plate is subject to detection.

Solution 9.11
This problem asks that we determine whether or not a critical flaw in a wide plate is subject to detection

given the limit of the flaw detection apparatus (3.0 mm), the value of KIc (98.9 MPa m ) , the design stress (y/2

in which y = 860 MPa), and Y = 1.0. We first need to compute the value of ac using Equation 9.7; thus

2
1  K Ic 
   Y 
ac =

2
 
1  98.9 MPa m 
=  
  860 MPa  
 (1.0 )  
  2 

= 0.0168 m = 16.8 mm (0.66 in.)

Therefore, the critical flaw is subject to detection since this value of ac (16.8 mm) is greater than the 3.0 mm
resolution limit.
Problem 9.12
After consultation of other references, write a brief report on one or two nondestructive test techniques that
are used to detect and measure internal and/or surface flaws in metal alloys.

Solution 9.12
The student should answer this question on his/her own.
Fracture of Polymers

Problem 9.13
Briefly answer the following:
(a) Why may there be significant scatter in the fracture strength for some given ceramic material?
(b) Why does the fracture strength increase with decreasing specimen size?

Answer 9.13
(a) There may be significant scatter in the fracture strength for some given ceramic material because the
fracture strength depends on the probability of the existence of a flaw that is capable of initiating a crack; this
probability varies from specimen to specimen of the same material.
(b) The fracture strength increases with decreasing specimen size because as specimen size decreases, the
probably of the existence of a flaw of that is capable of initiating a crack diminishes.
Problem 9.14
The tensile strength of brittle materials may be determined using a variation of Equation 9.1. Compute the
critical crack tip radius for a glass specimen that experiences tensile fracture at an applied stress of 70 MPa
(10,000 psi). Assume a critical surface crack length of 10 –2 mm and a theoretical fracture strength of E/10, where E
is the modulus of elasticity.

Solution 9.14
We are asked for the critical crack tip radius for a glass specimen. From Equation 9.1

1/2
 a 
 m = 2 0  
 t 

Fracture will occur when m reaches the fracture strength of the material, which is given as E/10; thus

1/2
E  a 
= 2 0  
10  t 

Or, solving for t

400 a  02
t =
E2

From Table 7.1, for glass (soda-lime), E = 69 GPa (or 69  103 MPa)—thus, we compute the value of t as follows:

(400 ) (1  10−2 mm) (70 MPa) 2

t =
2
(69  103 MPa )

= 4.1  10−6 mm = 4.1 nm

Problem 9.15
The fracture strength of glass may be increased by etching away a thin surface layer. It is believed that the
etching may alter surface crack geometry (i.e., reduce the crack length and increase the tip radius). Compute the
ratio of the etched and original crack-tip radii for a fourfold increase in fracture strength if half of the crack length
is removed.

Solution 9.15
This problem asks that we compute the crack tip radius ratio before and after etching. Let

rt = original crack tip radius, and

rt¢ = etched crack tip radius

Also, as given in the problem statement

 f =  f

a
a' =
2

 0 = 4 0

When we incorporate the above relationships into two expressions of Equation 9.1 as follows:

1/2 1/2
 a   a' 
 f = 2 0   =  f = 2 0  
 t   t 

r t¢
We now solve for the ratio, which yields the following:
rt

2 2
t   0   a'   4 0   a /2 
=  = 
t   0   a    0   a 
=8

which is the solution requested in the problem statement.

Problem 9.16
For thermoplastic polymers, cite five factors that favor brittle fracture.

Answer 9.16
For thermoplastic polymers, five factors that favor brittle fracture are as follows: (1) a reduction in
temperature, (2) an increase in strain rate, (3) the presence of a sharp notch, (4) increased specimen thickness, and (5)
modifications of the polymer structure.
Fracture Toughness Testing

Problem 9.17
The following tabulated data were gathered from a series of Charpy impact tests on a tempered 4340 steel
alloy.

Temperature (°C) Impact Energy (J)

0 105
–25 104
–50 103
–75 97
–100 63
–113 40
–125 34
–150 28
–175 25
–200 24

(a) Plot the data as impact energy versus temperature.

(b) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as the temperature corresponding to the average
of the maximum and minimum impact energies.
(c) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as the temperature at which the impact energy is
50 J.

Solution 9.17
(a) The plot of impact energy versus temperature is shown below.
 (b) The average of the maximum and minimum impact energies from the data is

105 J + 24 J
Average = = 64.5 J
2

As indicated on the plot by the one set of dashed lines, the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature according to this
criterion is about –100C.
(c) Also, as noted on the plot by the other set of dashed lines, the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature
for an impact energy of 50 J is about –110C.
Problem 9.18
The following tabulated data were gathered from a series of Charpy impact tests on a commercial low-
carbon steel alloy.

Temperature (°C) Impact Energy (J)

50 76
40 76
30 71
20 58
10 38
0 23
–10 14
–20 9
–30 5
–40 1.5

(a) Plot the data as impact energy versus temperature.

(b) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as the temperature corresponding to the average
of the maximum and minimum impact energies.
(c) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as the temperature at which the impact energy is
20 J.

Solution 9.18
(a) The plot of impact energy versus temperature is shown below.
 (b) The average of the maximum and minimum impact energies from the data is

76 J + 1.5 J
Average = = 38.8 J
2

As indicated on the plot by the one set of dashed lines, the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature according to this
criterion is about 10C.
(c) Also, as noted on the plot by the other set of dashed lines, the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature
for an impact energy of 20 J is about –2C.
Problem 9.19
What is the maximum carbon content possible for a plain carbon steel that must have an impact energy of
at least 200 J at −50C?

Solution 9.19
From the curves in Figure 9.23, for only the 0.11 wt%C and 0.01 wt% C steels are impact energies (and
therefore, ductile-to-brittle temperatures) greater than 200 J. Therefore, 0.11 wt% is the maximum carbon
concentration.
The S–N Curve

Problem 9.20
A fatigue test was conducted in which the mean stress was 70 MPa (10,000 psi), and the stress amplitude
was 210 MPa (30,000 psi).
(a) Compute the maximum and minimum stress levels.
(b) Compute the stress ratio.
(c) Compute the magnitude of the stress range.

Solution 9.20
(a) Given the values of m (70 MPa) and a (210 MPa) we are asked to compute max and min. From

Equation 9.12

 max +  min
m = = 70 MPa
2
Or,

 max +  min = 140 MPa (9.12a)

Furthermore, utilization of Equation 9.14 yields

 max −  min
a = = 210 MPa
2

Or,

 max −  min = 420 MPa (9.14a)

Simultaneously solving Equations 9.12a and 9.14a leads to

 max = 280 MPa (40,000 psi)

 min = − 140 MPa ( − 20,000 psi)

(b) Using Equation 9.15 the stress ratio R is determined as follows:

  min −140 MPa
R= = = − 0.50
 max 280 MPa

(c) The magnitude of the stress range r is determined using Equation 9.13 as

 r =  max −  min = 280 MPa − ( − 140 MPa)

= 420 MPa (60,000 psi)

Problem 9.21
A cylindrical bar of ductile cast iron is subjected to reversed and rotating-bending tests; test results (i.e., S-
N behavior) are shown in Figure 9.27. If the bar diameter is 9.5 mm determine the maximum cyclic load that may
be applied to ensure that fatigue failure will not occur. Assume a factor of safety of 2.25 and that the distance
between load-bearing points is 55.5 mm.

Solution 9.21
From Figure 9.27, the ductile cast iron has a fatigue limit (maximum stress) of magnitude 220 MPa. For
rotating-bending tests and a cylindrical bar of diameter d0 (Figure 9.25b), maximum stress may be determined using
Equation 9.16—i.e.,
16FL
=
 d03

Here L is equal to the distance between the two load-bearing points (Figure 9.25b),  is the maximum stress (in our
case the fatigue limit), and F is the maximum applied load. When  is divided by the factor of safety (N) Equation
9.16 takes the form of Equation 9.17—that is

 16FL
=
N  d03

and solving this expression for F leads to

 d 03
F=
16 NL

Incorporating into this expression values for d0 (9.5 mm = 9.5  10-3 m) L (55.5 mm = 55.5  10-3 m), and N (2.25)

provided in the problem statement as well as the fatigue limit taken from Figure 9.27 (220 MPa or 220  106 N/m2)
yields the following

(220  106 N/m 2 )( )(9.5  10 −3 m)3

F=
(16)(2.25)(55.5  10−3 m)

= 297 N

Therefore, for cyclic reversed and rotating-bending, a maximum load of 297 N may be applied without causing the
ductile cast iron bar to fail by fatigue.
Problem 9.22
A cylindrical 4340 steel bar is subjected to reversed rotating-bending stress cycling, which yielded the test
results presented in Figure 9.27. If the maximum applied load is 5,000 N, compute the minimum allowable bar
diameter to ensure that fatigue failure will not occur. Assume a factor of safety of 2.25 and that the distance
between load-bearing points is 55.0 mm.

Solution 9,22
From Figure 9.27, the fatigue limit for this steel is 480 MPa. For rotating-bending tests on a cylindrical
specimen of diameter d0, stress is defined in Equation 9.16 as

16FL
s=
p d03

When we divide stress by the factor of safety (N), the above equation becomes Equation 9.17—that is

s 16FL
=
N p d03

And solving for d0 realizing that  is the fatigue limit (480 MPa or 480  106 N/m2) and incorporating values for F

(5,000 N), L (55.0 mm = 55  10-3 m), and N (2.25) provided in the problem statement, leads to

1/3
 16FLN 
d0 =  
  

1/3
 (16)(5, 000 N)(55.0  10−3 m)(2.25) 
 
 (480  106 N/m 2 )( ) 

0.0187 m = 18.7 mm
Problem 9.23
A cylindrical 2014-T6 aluminum alloy bar is subjected to compression-tension stress cycling along its axis;
results of these tests are shown in Figure 9.27. If the bar diameter is 12.0 mm, calculate the maximum allowable
load amplitude (in N) to ensure that fatigue failure will not occur at 107 cycles. Assume a factor of safety of 3.0,
data in Figure 9.27 were taken for reversed axial tension-compression tests, and that S is stress amplitude.

Solution 9.23
From Figure 9.27, the fatigue strength at  cycles for this aluminum alloy is 170 MPa. For a cylindrical
specimen having an original diameter of d0, the stress may be computed using Equation 7.1, which is equal to

F F
= =
2
A0  d0 
 
 2 

4F
=
 d02

When we divide  by the factor of safety, the above equation takes the form

 4F
=
N  d02

Solving the above equation for F leads to

 d 02
F=
4N

Now taking  to be the fatigue strength (i.e., 170 MPa = 170  106 N/m2) and incorporating values for d0 and N

provided in the problem statement [i.e., 12.0 mm (12.0  10-3 m) and 3.0, respectively], we calculate the maximum
load as follows:

(170  106 N/m 2 )( )(12.0  10 −3 m) 2

F=
(4)(3.0)
6,400 N
Problem 9.24
A cylindrical rod of diameter 6.7 mm fabricated from a 70Cu-30Zn brass alloy is subjected to rotating-
bending load cycling; test results (as S-N behavior) are shown in Figure 9.27. If the maximum and minimum loads
are +120 N and –120 N, respectively, determine its fatigue life. Assume that the separation between loadbearing
points is 67.5 mm.

Solution 9.24
In order to solve this problem we compute the maximum stress using Equation 9.16, and then determine the
fatigue life from the curve in Figure 9.27 for the brass material. In Equation 9.16, F is the maximum applied load,
which for this problem is +120 N. Values for L and d0 are provided in the problem statement—viz. 67.5 mm (67.5 

10-3 m) and 6.7 mm (6.7  10-3 m), respectively. Therefore the maximum stress  is equal to

16FL
s=
p d03

(16)(120 N)(67.5  10−3 m)

=
( )(6.7  10−3 m)3

= 137 ´ 106 N/m2 = 137 MPa

From Figure 9.27 and the curve for brass, the logarithm of the fatigue life (log Nf) at 137 MPa is about 6.5, which
means that the fatigue life is equal to

N f = 106.5 cycles = 3 ´ 106 cycles

Problem 9.25
A cylindrical rod of diameter 14.7 mm fabricated from a Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium alloy (Figure 9.27) is
subjected to a repeated tension-compression load cycling along its axis. Compute the maximum and minimum loads
that will be applied to yield a fatigue life of 1.0 × 106 cycles. Assume that data in Figure 9.27 were taken for
repeated axial tension-compression tests, that stress plotted on the vertical axis is stress amplitude, and data were
taken for a mean stress of 50 MPa.

Solution 9.25
This problem asks that we compute the maximum and minimum loads to which a 14.7 mm diameter Ti-
5Al-2.5Sn titanium alloy specimen may be subjected in order to yield a fatigue life of 1.0  106 cycles; Figure 9.27
is to be used assuming that data were taken for repeated axial tension-compression tests and a mean stress of 50
MPa. Upon consultation of Figure 9.27, for this titanium alloy, a fatigue life of 1.0  106 cycles corresponds to a
stress amplitude of 510 MPa. Or, from Equation 9.14

 max −  min = 2 a = (2)(510 MPa) = 1020 MPa

Since m = 50 MPa, then from Equation 9.12

 max +  min = 2 m = (2)(50 MPa) = 100 MPa

Simultaneous solution of these two expressions for max and min yields

max = +560 MPa

min = –460 MPa

Now, inasmuch as from Equation 7.1 and for a cylindrical rod

F F 4F
 = = =
A0  d0 
2
 d02
 
 2 

then the load, F, is equal to

 d 02
F =
4
It is now possible to compute maximum and minimum loads from the max and min values determined above:

2
 max  d 02 (560  106 N/m 2 ) ( ) (14.7  10−3 m)
Fmax = = = 95, 000 N
4 4

(−460
2
 min  d 02  106 N/m 2 ) ( ) (14.7  10 −3 m)
Fmin = = = − 78, 000 N
4 4
Problem 9.26
The fatigue data for a brass alloy are given as follows:

Stress Amplitude (MPa) Cycles to Failure

170 3.7 × 104
148 1.0 × 105
130 3.0 × 105
114 1.0 × 106
92 1.0 × 107
80 1.0 × 108
74 1.0 × 109

(a) Make an S–N plot (stress amplitude versus logarithm of cycles to failure) using these data.
(b) Determine the fatigue strength at 4 × 10 6 cycles.
(c) Determine the fatigue life for 120 MPa.

Solution 9.26
(a) The fatigue data for this alloy are plotted below.

(b) As indicated by one set of dashed lines on the plot, the fatigue strength at 4  106 cycles [log (4  106)
= 6.6] is about 100 MPa.

(c) As noted by the other set of dashed lines, the fatigue life for 120 MPa is about 6  105 cycles (i.e., the
log of the lifetime is about 5.8).
Problem 9.27
Suppose that the fatigue data for the brass alloy in Problem 9.26 were taken from bending-rotating tests
and that a rod of this alloy is to be used for an automobile axle that rotates at an average rotational velocity of 1800
revolutions per minute. Give the maximum bending stress amplitude possible for each of the following lifetimes of
the rod: (a) 1 year, (b) 1 month, (c) 1 day, and (d) 1 hour.

Solution 9.27
We are asked to compute the maximum torsional stress amplitude possible at each of several fatigue
lifetimes for the brass alloy the fatigue behavior of which is given in Problem 9.26. For each lifetime, first compute
the number of cycles, and then read the corresponding fatigue strength from the above plot.
(a) Fatigue lifetime = (1 yr)(365 days/yr)(24 h/day)(60 min/h)(1800 cycles/min) = 9.5  108 cycles. The
stress amplitude corresponding to this lifetime is about 74 MPa.
(b) Fatigue lifetime = (30 days)(24 h/day)(60 min/h)(1800 cycles/min) = 7.8  107 cycles. The stress
amplitude corresponding to this lifetime is about 80 MPa.
(c) Fatigue lifetime = (24 h)(60 min/h)(1800 cycles/min) = 2.6  106 cycles. The stress amplitude
corresponding to this lifetime is about 115 MPa.
(d) Fatigue lifetime = (60 min/h)(1800 cycles/min) = 108,000 cycles. The stress amplitude corresponding
to this lifetime is about 145 MPa.
Problem 9.28
The fatigue data for a steel alloy are given as follows:

Stress Amplitude [MPa (ksi)] Cycles to Failure

470 (68.0) 104
440 (63.4) 3 × 104
390 (56.2) 105
350 (51.0) 3 × 105
310 (45.3) 106
290 (42.2) 3 × 106
290 (42.2) 107
290 (42.2) 108

(a) Make an S–N plot (stress amplitude versus logarithm of cycles to failure) using these data.
(b) What is the fatigue limit for this alloy?
(c) Determine fatigue lifetimes at stress amplitudes of 415 MPa (60,000 psi) and 275 MPa (40,000 psi).
(d) Estimate fatigue strengths at 2 × 104 and 6 × 105 cycles.

Solution 9.28
(a) The fatigue data for this alloy are plotted below.
 (b) The fatigue limit is the stress level at which the curve becomes horizontal, which is 290 MPa (42,200
psi).
(c) From the plot, the fatigue lifetimes at a stress amplitude of 415 MPa (60,000 psi) is about 50,000 cycles
(log N = 4.7). At 275 MPa (40,000 psi) the fatigue lifetime is essentially an infinite number of cycles since this
stress amplitude is below the fatigue limit.
(d) Also from the plot, the fatigue strengths at 2  104 cycles (log N = 4.30) and 6  105 cycles (log N =
5.78) are 440 MPa (64,000 psi) and 325 MPa (47,500 psi), respectively.
Problem 9.29
Suppose that the fatigue data for the steel alloy in Problem 9.28 were taken for bending-rotating tests and
that a rod of this alloy is to be used for an automobile axle that rotates at an average rotational velocity of 600
revolutions per minute. Give the maximum lifetimes of continuous driving that are allowable for the following stress
levels: (a) 450 MPa (65,000 psi), (b) 380 MPa (55,000 psi), (c) 310 MPa (45,000 psi), and (d) 275 MPa (40,000
psi).

Solution 9.29
This problem asks that we determine the maximum lifetimes of continuous driving that are possible at an
average rotational velocity of 600 rpm for the alloy the fatigue data of which is provided in Problem 9.28 and at a
variety of stress levels.
(a) For a stress level of 450 MPa (65,000 psi), the fatigue lifetime is approximately 18,000 cycles (i.e., log
Nf = 4.25). This translates into (1.8  104 cycles)(1 min/600 cycles) = 30 min.

(b) For a stress level of 380 MPa (55,000 psi), the fatigue lifetime is approximately 1.5  105 cycles (i.e.,
log Nf = 5.15). This translates into (1.5  105 cycles)(1 min/600 cycles) = 250 min = 4.2 h.

(c) For a stress level of 310 MPa (45,000 psi), the fatigue lifetime is approximately 1  106 cycles (i.e., log
Nf = 6.0). This translates into (1  106 cycles)(1 min/600 cycles) = 1667 min = 27.8 h.

(d) For a stress level of 275 MPa (40,000 psi), the fatigue lifetime is essentially infinite since we are below
the fatigue limit (290 MPa).
Problem 9.30
Three identical fatigue specimens (denoted A, B, and C) are fabricated from a nonferrous alloy. Each is
subjected to one of the maximum-minimum stress cycles listed in the following table; the frequency is the same for
all three tests.

Specimen max (MPa) min (MPa)

A +450 –150
B +300 –300
C +500 –200

(a) Rank the fatigue lifetimes of these three specimens from the longest to the shortest.
(b) Now justify this ranking using a schematic S–N plot.

Solution 9.30
For this problem we are given, for three identical fatigue specimens of the same material, max and min

data, and are asked to rank the lifetimes from the longest to the shortest. In order to do this it is necessary to
compute both the mean stress and stress amplitude for each specimen. From Equation 9.12, mean stresses are
calculated as follows:

 max +  min
m =
2

450 MPa + (−150 MPa)

 m (A) = = 150 MPa
2

300 MPa + (−300 MPa)

 m ( B) = = 0 MPa
2

500 MPa + (−200 MPa)

 m (C ) = = 150 MPa
2

Furthermore, using Equation 9.14, stress amplitudes are determined:

 max −  min
a =
2
 450 MPa − (−150 MPa)
 a (A) = = 300 MPa
2

300 MPa − (−300 MPa)

 a ( B) = = 300 MPa
2

500 MPa − (−200 MPa)

 a (C) = = 350 MPa
2

On the basis of these results, the fatigue lifetime for specimen B will be greater than specimen A, which in turn will
be greater than specimen C. This conclusion is based upon the following S-N plot on which curves are plotted for
two m values.
Problem 9.31
(a) Compare the fatigue limits for PMMA (Figure 9.29) and the 1045 steel alloy for which fatigue data are
given in Figure 9.27.
(b) Compare the fatigue strengths at 106 cycles for nylon 6 (Figure 9.29) and 2014-T6 aluminum alloy
(Figure 9.27).

Solution 9.31
(a) The fatigue limits for PMMA and the steel alloy are 10 MPa (1450 psi) and 310 MPa (45,000 psi),
respectively.
(b) At 106 cycles, the fatigue strengths for nylon 6 and 2014-T6 aluminum are 11 MPa (1600 psi) and 210
MPa (30,500 psi ), respectively.
Problem 9.32
Cite five factors that may lead to scatter in fatigue life data.

Answer 9.32
Five factors that lead to scatter in fatigue life data are (1) specimen fabrication and surface preparation, (2)
metallurgical variables, (3) specimen alignment in the test apparatus, (4) variation in mean stress, and (5) variation
in test cycle frequency.
Factors That Affect Fatigue Life

Problem 9.33
Briefly explain the difference between fatigue striations and beachmarks in terms of (a) size and (b) origin.

Solution 9.33
(a) With regard to size, beachmarks are normally of macroscopic dimensions and may be observed with
the naked eye; fatigue striations are of microscopic size and it is necessary to observe them using electron
microscopy.
(b) With regard to origin, beachmarks result from interruptions in the stress cycles; each fatigue striation is
corresponds to the advance of a fatigue crack during a single load cycle.
Problem 9.34
List four measures that may be taken to increase the resistance to fatigue of a metal alloy.

Answer 9.34
Four measures that may be taken to increase the fatigue resistance of a metal alloy are as follows:
(1) Polish the surface to remove stress amplification sites.
(2) Reduce the number of internal defects (pores, etc.) by means of altering processing and fabrication
techniques.
(3) Modify the design to eliminate notches and sudden contour changes.
(4) Harden the outer surface of the structure by case hardening (carburizing, nitriding) or shot peening.
Generalized Creep Behavior

Problem 9.35
Give the approximate temperature at which creep deformation becomes an important consideration for
each of the following metals: tin, molybdenum, iron, gold, zinc, and chromium.

Solution 9.35
Creep becomes important at about 0.4Tm, Tm being the absolute melting temperature of the metal. (The
melting temperatures in degrees Celsius are found inside the front cover of the book.)

For Sn, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(232 + 273) = 202 K or −71C (−96F)

For Mo, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(2617 + 273) = 1049 K or 776C (1429F)

For Fe, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(1538 + 273) = 724 K or 451C (845F)

For Au, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(1064 + 273) = 535 K or 262C (504F)

For Zn, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(420 + 273) = 277 K or 4C (39F)

For Cr, 0.4Tm = (0.4)(1875 + 273) = 859 K or 586C (1087F)

Problem 9.36
The following creep data were taken on an aluminum alloy at 480°C (900°F) and a constant stress of 2.75
MPa (400 psi). Plot the data as strain versus time, then determine the steady-state or minimum creep rate. Note:
The initial and instantaneous strain is not included.

Time (min) Strain Time (min) Strain

0 0.00 18 0.82
2 0.22 20 0.88
4 0.34 22 0.95
6 0.41 24 1.03
8 0.48 26 1.12
10 0.55 28 1.22
12 0.62 30 1.36
14 0.68 32 1.53
16 0.75 34 1.77

Solution 9.36
These creep data are plotted below

The steady-state creep rate (/t) is the slope of the linear region (i.e., the straight line that has been superimposed
on the curve). Taking strain values at 0 min and 30 min, leads to the following:
 1.20 − 0.25
= = 3.2  10−2 min −1
t 30 min − 0 min
Stress and Temperature Effects

Problem 9.37
A specimen 975 mm (38.4 in.) long of an S-590 alloy (Figure 9.40) is to be exposed to a tensile stress of
300 MPa (43,500 psi) at 730°C (1350°F). Determine its elongation after 4.0 h. Assume that the total of both
instantaneous and primary creep elongations is 2.5 mm (0.10 in.).

Solution 9.37
From the 730C line in Figure 9.40, the steady state creep rate is about 1.0  10−2 h−1 at 300 MPa. The

steady state creep strain, s, therefore, is just the product of and time as

 s =  s  (time)

= (1.0  10−2 h −1 )(4.0 h) = 0.040

Strain and elongation are related as in Equation 7.2—viz.

l
=
l0

Now, using the steady-state elongation, l0, provided in the problem statement (975 mm) and the value of s,

determined above (0.040), the steady-state elongation, ls, is determined as follows:

ls = l0 s

= (975 mm)(0.040) = 39.0 mm (1.54 in.)

Finally, the total elongation is just the sum of this ls and the total of both instantaneous and primary creep

elongations [i.e., 2.5 mm (0.10 in.)]. Therefore, the total elongation is 39.0 mm + 2.5 mm = 41.5 mm (1.64 in.).
Problem 9.38
For a cylindrical S-590 alloy specimen (Figure 9.40) originally 14.5 mm (0.57 in.) in diameter and 400 mm
(15.7 in.) long, what tensile load is necessary to produce a total elongation of 52.7 mm (2.07 in.) after 1150 h at
650°C (1200°F)? Assume that the sum of instantaneous and primary creep elongations is 4.3 mm (0.17 in.).

Solution 9.38
It is first necessary to calculate the steady state creep rate so that we may utilize Figure 9.40 in order to
determine the tensile stress. The steady state elongation, ls, is just the difference between the total elongation and

the sum of the instantaneous and primary creep elongations; that is,

ls = 52.7 mm − 4.3 mm = 48.4 mm (1.90 in.)

Now the steady state creep rate,  s , is just


s =
t

ls 48.4 mm
l0
= = 400 mm
t 1150 h

= 1.05  10−4 h −1

Employing the 650C line in Figure 9.40, a steady state creep rate of 1.05  10−4 h−1 corresponds to a stress  of
about 300 MPa (or 43,500 psi). From this we may compute the tensile load (for this cylindrical specimen) using
Equation 7.1 as follows:
2
d 
F =  A0 =   0 
 2 

Here d0 is the original cross-sectional diameter (14.5 mm = 14.5  10−3 m). Solving this equation for tensile load,

incorporating the value of stress determined from Figure 9.40 above (300 MPa = 300  106 N/m2) leads to

2
d 
F =   0 
 2 
 2
 14.5  10−3 m 
= (300  106 N/m 2 )( )  
 2
 

= 49,500 N (11,100 lbf )

Problem 9.39
A cylindrical component 50 mm long constructed from an S-590 alloy (Figure 9.40) is to be exposed to a
tensile load of 70,000 N. What minimum diameter is required for it to experience an elongation of no more than 8.2
mm after an exposure for 1,500 h at 650C? Assume that the sum of instantaneous and primary creep elongations is
0.6 mm.

Solution 9.39
It is first necessary to calculate the steady state creep rate so that we may utilize Figure 9.40 in order to
determine the tensile stress. The steady state elongation, ls, is just the difference between the total elongation and

the sum of the instantaneous and primary creep elongations; that is,

ls = 8.2 mm − 0.6 mm = 7.6 mm

Now the steady state creep rate, is just


=
t

ls 7.6 mm
l
= 0 = 50 mm
t 1500 h

= 1.01  10−4 h −1

From the 650C line in Figure 9.40, a steady state creep rate of 1.01  10-4 h-1 corresponds to a stress  of about 300
MPa. Now from Equation 7.1 and for a cylindrical specimen having a diameter of d0

F F
= =
2
A0  d0 
 
 2 

Solving for d0 and realizing that  = 300 MPa (300  106 N/m2) and F = 70,000 N leads to

4F
d0 =

 (4)(70, 000 N)
=
( )(300  106 N/m 2 )

= 0.0172 m = 17.2 mm
Problem 9.40
A cylindrical specimen 13.2 mm in diameter of an S-590 alloy is to be exposed to a tensile load of 27,000 N.

At approximately what temperature will the steady-state creep be 10-3 h-1?

Solution 9.40
Let us first determine the stress imposed on this specimen using values of cross-section diameter and
applied load; this is possible using Equation 7.1 as

F F
= =
2
A0  d0 
 
 2 

Inasmuch as d0 = 13.2 mm (13.2  10−3 m) and F = 27,000 N, the stress is equal to

27, 000 N
= 2
 13.2  10−3 m 
  
 2 

= 197  106 N/m2 = 197 MPa

or approximately 200 MPa. From Figure 9.40 the point corresponding 10−3 h−1 and 200 MPa lies approximately
midway between 730C and 815C lines; therefore, the temperature would be approximately 775C.
Problem 9.41
If a component fabricated from an S-590 alloy (Figure 9.39) is to be exposed to a tensile stress of 100 MPa
(14,500 psi) at 815°C (1500°F), estimate its rupture lifetime.

Solution 9.41
This problem asks us to calculate the rupture lifetime of a component fabricated from an S-590 alloy
exposed to a tensile stress of 100 MPa at 815C. All that we need do is read from the 815C line in Figure 9.39 the
rupture lifetime at 100 MPa; this value is about 2000 h.
Problem 9.42
A cylindrical component constructed from an S-590 alloy (Figure 9.39) has a diameter of 14.5 mm (0.57
in.). Determine the maximum load that may be applied for it to survive 10 h at 925°C (1700°F).

Solution 9.42
We are asked in this problem to determine the maximum load that may be applied to a cylindrical S-590
alloy component that must survive 10 h at 925C. From Figure 9.39, the stress corresponding to 10 h is about 100
MPa (14,500 psi). In order to determine the applied load, we use the expression used to compute stress, as given in
Equation 7.1, which for a cylindrical specimen takes the form:

F F
= =
2
A0  d0 
 
 2 

From which the force F (or load) is equal to

2
d 
F =   0 
 2 

For a stress of 100 MPa (100  106 N/m2) and a cross-sectional diameter of 14.5 mm (14.5  10−3 m) the load is
equal to

2
 14.5  10 −3 m 
F = (100  10 N/m )( ) 
6 2

 2
 

= 16,500 N (3700 lbf )

Problem 9.43
A cylindrical component constructed from an S-590 alloy (Figure 9.39) is to be exposed to a tensile load of
20,000 N. What minimum diameter is required for it to have a rupture lifetime of at least 100 h at 925C?

Solution 9.43
From Figure 9.39 on the 925C, the stress corresponding to a rupture lifetime of 100 h is approximately 70
MPa.). In order to determine the minimum diameter, we use the expression used to compute stress, as given in
Equation 7.1, which for a cylindrical specimen takes the form:

F F
= =
2
A0  d0 
 
 2 

Solving for d0 and realizing that  = 70 MPa (70  106 N/m2) and F = 20,000 N leads to

4F
d0 =


(4)(20, 000 N)
=
( )(70  106 N/m 2 )

= 0.0191 m = 19.1 mm
Problem 9.44
From Equation 9.22, if the logarithm of e s is plotted versus the logarithm of σ, then a straight line should

result, the slope of which is the stress exponent n. Using Figure 9.40, determine the value of n for the S-590 alloy at
925C, and for the initial (lower-temperature) straight line segments at each of 650C, 730C, and 815C.

Solution 9.44
The slope of the line from a log versus log  plot yields the value of n in Equation 9.22; that is

 log  s
n=
 log 

We are asked to determine the values of n for the creep data at the four temperatures in Figure 9.40. This is
accomplished by taking ratios of the differences between two log and log  values. (Note: Figure 9.40 plots log

 versus log ; therefore, values of n are equal to the reciprocals of the slopes of the straight-line segments.)

Thus for the line segment for 925C

 log  s log (1) − log (10−4 )

n925 = =
 log  log (200 MPa) − log (60 MPa)

0 - (-4)
= = 7.65
2.301 - 1.778

While for 815C

 log  s log (1) − log (10−6 )

n815 = = = 8.2
 log  log (350 MPa) − log (65 MPa)

And at 730C

 log  s log (1) − log (10−6 )

n730 = = = 11.1
 log  log (450 MPa) − log (130 MPa)

And at 650C
n650 =
(
 log  s log 2  10
=
−1
)− log (7  10−6 )
= 10.2
 log  log (600 MPa) − log (220 MPa)
Problem 9.45
(a) Estimate the activation energy for creep (i.e., Qc in Equation 9.23) for the S-590 alloy having the

steady-state creep behavior shown in Figure 9.40. Use data taken at a stress level of 300 MPa (43,500 psi) and
temperatures of 650C and 730C. Assume that the stress exponent n is independent of temperature.
(b) Estimate  s at 600C (873 K) and 300 MPa.

Solution 9.45
(a) We are asked to estimate the activation energy for creep for the S-590 alloy having the steady-state
creep behavior shown in Figure 9.40, using data taken at  = 300 MPa (43,500 psi) and temperatures of 650C and
730C. Since  is a constant, Equation 9.23 takes the form

 Qc   Qc 
 s = K 2 n exp  −  = K 2 exp  − RT  (9.23a)
 RT   

where K 2 is now a constant (since  and n are now constants) . (Note: the exponent n has about the same value at

these two temperatures per Problem 9.44.) Taking natural logarithms of the above expression

Qc
ln  s = ln K 2 −
RT

For the case in which we have creep data at two temperatures (denoted as T1 and T2) and their corresponding steady-

state creep rates (  s and  s ), it is possible to set up two simultaneous equations of the form as above, with two
1 2

unknowns, namely K 2¢ and Qc. Solving for the above equation for Qc yields

Qc = −
(
R ln  s − ln  s
1 2
)
1 1
 − 
 T1 T2 

Let us choose T1 as 650C (923 K) and T2 as 730C (1003 K); then from Figure 9.40, at  = 300 MPa,  s = 10−4
1

h−1 and  s = 10−2 h−1. Substitution of these values into the above equation leads to
2
 (8.31 J/mol-K)  ln (10−4 ) − ln (10−2 ) 
Qc = −  
 1 1 
 923 K − 1003 K 

= 442,800 J/mol

(b) We are now asked to estimate  s at 600C (873 K). It is first necessary to determine the value of K 2 ,

which is accomplished Equation 9.23a, the value of Qc, and one of the two  s values and its temperature T (say  s
1

and T1). Thus,

Q 
K 2 =  s exp  c 
1
 RT1 

 
( )
= 10−4 h −1 exp 
442,800 J/mol 21 −1
 = 1.18  10 h
 (8.31 J/mol-K)(923 K) 

Now it is possible to calculate  s at 600C (873 K) as follows:

 Qc 
 s = K 2 exp  −
RT 
'

 
( )
= 1.18  1021 h −1 exp  −
442,800 J/mol

 (8.31 J/mol-K)(873 K) 

= 3.7  10−6 h −1
Problem 9.46
Steady-state creep rate data are given in the following table for a nickel alloy at 538C (811 K):

 s (h-1 )  (MPa)

10-7 22.0
10-6 36.1

Compute the stress at which the steady-state creep is 10-5 h−1 (also at 538C).

Solution 9.46
This problem gives  s values at two different stress levels and 538C, and asks that we determine the

stress at which the steady-state creep rate is 10−5 h−1 (also at 538C). It is possible to solve this problem using
Equation 9.22. First of all, it is necessary to determine values of K1 and n. Taking the logarithms of both sides of
Equation 9.22 leads to the following expression:

log  s = log K1 + n log  (9.22a)

We can now generate two simultaneous equations from the data given in the problem statement in which the two
unknowns are K1 and n. These two equations are as follows:

log(10−7 ) = log K1 + n log(22.0 MPa)

log(10−6 ) = log K1 + n log(36.1 MPa)

Simultaneous solution to these expressions leads to the following:

K1 = 6.12  10−14

n = 4.63

Using these values we may determine the stress at which  s = 10−5 h −1. Let us rearrange Equation 9.22a above

such that log  is the dependent variable:

log  s − log K1
log  =
n
Incorporation of values of  s , K1, and n yields the following:

log(10−5 ) − log(6.12  10−14 )

log  =
4.63

= 1.774

From which we determine  as follows:

 = 101.774 = 59.4 MPa

Problem 9.47
Steady-state creep rate data are given in the following table for some alloy taken at 200°C (473 K):

e s (h–1)  [MPa (psi)]

2.5 × 10–3 55 (8000)

–2
2.4 × 10 69 (10,000)

If it is known that the activation energy for creep is 140,000 J/mol, compute the steady-state creep rate at a
temperature of 250°C (523 K) and a stress level of 48 MPa (7000 psi).

Solution 9.47
This problem gives  s values at two different stress levels and 200C, and the activation energy for creep,

and asks that we determine the steady-state creep rate at 250C and 48 MPa (7000 psi).
Taking natural logarithms of both sides of Equation 9.23 yields

Qc
ln  s = ln K 2 + n ln  −
RT

With the given data there are two unknowns in this equation--namely K2 and n. Using the data provided in the
problem statement we can set up two independent equations as follows:

140, 000 J/mol

ln (2.5  10−3 h −1 ) = ln K 2 + n ln (55 MPa) −
(8.31 J/mol-K)(473 K)

140, 000 J/mol

ln (2.4  10−2 h −1 ) = ln K 2 + n ln (69 MPa) −
(8.31 J/mol-K)(473 K)

Now, solving simultaneously for n and K2 leads to n = 9.97 and K2 = 3.27  10−5 h−1. Thus it is now possible to

solve for  s at 48 MPa and 523 K using Equation 9.23 as

 Q 
 s = K 2 n exp  − c 
 RT 

 140, 000 J/mol 

= (3.27  10−5 h −1 )(48 MPa)9.97 exp  − 
 (8.31 J/mol-K)(523 K) 
= 1.94  10−2 h −1
Problem 9.48
Steady-state creep data taken for an iron at a stress level of 140 MPa (20,000 psi) are given here:

(h–1) T (K)

6.6 × 10–4 1090

–2
8.8 × 10 1200

If it is known that the value of the stress exponent n for this alloy is 8.5, compute the steady-state creep rate at 1300
K and a stress level of 83 MPa (12,000 psi).

Solution 9.48
This problem gives  s values at two different temperatures and 140 MPa (20,000 psi), and the value of the

stress exponent n = 8.5, and asks that we determine the steady-state creep rate at a stress of 83 MPa (12,000 psi) and
1300 K.
Taking natural logarithms of both sides of Equation 9.23 yields

Qc
ln  s = ln K 2 + n ln  −
RT

With the given data there are two unknowns in this equation--namely K2 and Qc. Using the data provided in the

problem statement we can set up two independent equations as follows:

Qc
ln (6.6  10−4 h −1 ) = ln K 2 + (8.5) ln (140 MPa) −
(8.31 J/mol-K)(1090 K)

Qc
ln (8.8  10−2 h −1 ) = ln K 2 + (8.5) ln (140 MPa) −
(8.31 J/mol-K)(1200 K)

Now, solving simultaneously for K2 and Qc leads to K2 = 57.5 h-1 and Qc = 483,500 J/mol. Thus, it is now possible

to solve for  s at 83 MPa and 1300 K using Equation 9.23 as

 Qc 
 s = K 2 n exp  − 
 RT 
  483,500 J/mol 
= (57.5 h −1 ) (83 MPa)8.5 exp  − 
 (8.31 J/mol-K)(1300 K) 

= 4.31  10−2 h −1
Problem 9.49
(a) Using Figure 9.39 compute the rupture lifetime for an S-590 alloy that is exposed to a tensile stress of
400 MPa at 815C.
(b) Compare this value to the one determined from the Larson-Miller plot of Figure 9.41, which is for this
same S-590 alloy.

Solution 9.49
(a) From Figure 9.39 using the 815C the rupture lifetime at 400 MPa is about 10−2 h.

(b) Using Figure 9.41, at a stress of 400 MPa, the value of the Larson-Miller parameter is about m = 19.7,

which is equal to 103 T(20 + log tr) for T in K and tr in h. We take the temperature to be 815C + 273 = 1088 K.

Therefore, we may write the following:

 1 
19.7 =   (1088 K)(20 + log tr ) = 1.088(20 + log tr )
 103 
Or
19.7
= 18.11 = 20 + log tr
1.088
Which leads to
log tr = 18.11 − 20 = −1.89

And, solving for tr we obtain

tr = 10−1.89 h = 1.3  10−2 h

Which value is reasonably close to the 10−2 h that was obtained using Figure 9.39.
Alloys for High-Temperature Use

Problem 9.50
Cite three metallurgical/processing techniques that are employed to enhance the creep resistance of metal
alloys.

Answer 9.50
Three metallurgical/processing techniques that are employed to enhance the creep resistance of metal alloys
are (1) solid solution alloying, (2) dispersion strengthening by using an insoluble second phase, and (3) increasing
the grain size or producing a grain structure with a preferred orientation.
 DESIGN PROBLEMS

Problem 9.D1
Each student (or group of students) is to obtain an object/structure/component that has failed. It may come
from the home, an automobile repair shop, a machine shop, and so on. Conduct an investigation to determine the
cause and type of failure (i.e., simple fracture, fatigue, creep). In addition, propose measures that can be taken to
prevent future incidents of this type of failure. Finally, submit a report that addresses these issues.

Solution 9.D1
Each student or group of students is to submit their own report on a failure analysis investigation that was
conducted.
Principles of Fracture Mechanics

Problem 9.D2
A tin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel similar to that in Design Example 9.1 is to have radius of 100 mm
(0.100 m), a wall thickness of 15 mm, and is to contain a fluid at a pressure of 0.40 MPa. Assuming a factor of
safety of 4.0, determine which of the polymers listed in Table B.5 of Appendix B satisfy the leak-before-break
criterion. Use minimum fracture toughness values when ranges are specified.

Solution 9.D2
For a cylindrical pressure vessel, the circumferential (or hoop) stress h on the wall is a function of the

pressure p in the vessel and the radius r and wall thickness t according to Equation 9.8, and using values of p, r, and
t provided above, we compute the hoop stress for this vessel as follows:
pr
sh =
t

(0.40 MPa)(0.100 m)
=
15  10−3 m

= 2.67 MPa

The critical crack length, cc may be determined using Equation 9.10—viz.

2
1  K Ic 
cc =  
 N2  h 

The value of N (4.0) is provided in the problem statement, whereas h (2.67 MPa) was determined above. Thus, we

determine the cc for each polymer by incorporating its KIc value found in Table B.5 of Appendix B.

Consider epoxy for which K Ic = 0.60 MPa m

2
1  0.6 MPa m  −3
cc (epoxy) =   = 1.0  10 m = 1.0 mm
 (4)  2.67 MPa 
2

Epoxy does not satisfy the criterion because cc (1.0 mm) < t (15 mm).
 For nylon 6,6 ( K Ic = 2.5 MPa m )
2
1 2.5 MPa m  −3
cc (nylon) =   = 17.4 10 m = 17.4 mm
 (4)  2.67 MPa 
2

Nylon satisfies criterion since 17.4 mm > 15 mm.

Polycarbonate in which K Ic = 2.2 MPa m

2
1  2.2 MPa m  −3
cc (PC) =   = 13.5 10 m = 13.5 mm
 (4)  2.67 MPa 
2

does not satisfy criterion because cc (13.5 mm) < t (15 mm).

The polyester (thermoset) has the same KIc value as epoxy (0.6 MPa m ) , and thus, the same cc (1.0 mm);

therefore, this polymer does not meet the criterion.

Now consider PET, which has a KIc value of 5.0 MPa m , its cc is computed as follows:
2
1  5.0 MPa m  −3
cc (PET) =   = 69.8 10 m = 69.8 mm
 (4)2  2.67 MPa 
Hence, PET satisfied the criterion.

For PMMA for which K Ic = 0.7 MPa m

2
 0.7 MPa m 
1 −3
cc (PMMA) =   = 1.4 10 m = 1.4 mm
 (4)  2.67 MPa 
2

The criterion is not satisfied

Consider PP in which K Ic = 3.0 MPa m

2
1  3.0 MPa m  −3
cc (PP) =   = 22.4 10 m = 22.4 mm
 (4)  2.67 MPa 
2

Which satisfies the criterion.

Polystyrene—same as PMMA—the criterion is not satisfied

And, finally for PVC for which K Ic = 2.0 MPa m

 2
1  2.0 MPa m  −3
cc (PVC) =   = 11.2 10 m = 11.2 mm
 (4)  2.67 MPa 
2

The criterion is not satisfied.

Therefore of these nine polymers, only nylon, PET, and PP are suitable materials for this cylindrical
pressure vessel.
Problem 9.D3
Compute the minimum value of plane-strain fracture toughness required of a material to satisfy the leak-
before-break criterion for a cylindrical pressure vessel similar to that shown in Figure 9.11. The vessel radius and
wall thickness values are 250 mm and 10.5 mm, respectively, and the fluid pressure is 3.0 MPa. Assume a value of
3.5 for the factor of safety.

Solution 9.D3
To solve this problem we first substitute the expression for the hoop stress ( h), Equation 9.8, into Equation

9.10, which leads to the following expression

2
2  
1  K Ic  1  K Ic 
cc =   =  
 N2  h   N 2  pr 

 t 
2
1 æ tK Ic ö
= ç ÷
p N 2 è pr ø
In the above expression we now substitute t for cc (inasmuch as t = cc) as follows:

2
1 æ tK Ic ö
t= ç ÷
p N 2 è pr ø

It is now possible to solve this expression for KIc; this results in the following equation:


K Ic = Npr
t

Incorporation of values for N (3.5), p (3.0 MPa), r (250 mm = 0.25 m), and t (10. 5 mm = 10.5  10−3 m) into the
above equation yields the following:


K Ic = (3.5)(3.0 MPa)(0.25 m)
(10.5  10−3 m)

= 45.4 MPa m
The Fatigue S-N Curve

Problem 9.D4
A cylindrical metal bar is to be subjected to reversed and rotating-bending stress cycling. Fatigue failure
is not to occur for at least 107 cycles when the maximum load is 250 N. Possible materials for this application are
the seven alloys having S-N behaviors displayed in Figure 9.27. Rank these alloys from least to most costly for this
application. Assume a factor of safety of 2.0 and that the distance between load-bearing points is 80.0 mm (0.0800
m). Use cost data found in Appendix C for these alloys as follows:

Alloy designation Alloy designation

(Figure 9.27) (Cost data to use—Appendix C)
EQ21A-T6 Mg AZ31B (extruded) Mg
70Cu-30Zn brass Alloy C26000
2014-T6 Al Alloy 2024-T3
Ductile cast iron Ductile irons (all grades)
1045 steel Steel alloy 1040 Plate,
cold rolled
4340 steel Steel alloy 4340 Bar,
normalized
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium Alloy Ti-5Al-2.5Sn

You may also find useful data that appears in Appendix B.

Solution 9.D4
The following steps will be used to solve this problem:
1. Determine the fatigue strength or endurance limit at 107cycles for each alloy.
2. Using these data, compute the original cross-sectional diameter for each alloy.
3. Calculate the volume of material required using these d0 values.
4. Using density values from Table B.1, determine the mass of material required for each alloy.
5. Compute the cost using mass data and cost per unit mass data found in Appendix C

Step 1
Below are tabulated the fatigue limits or fatigue strengths at 107cycles as taken from Figure 9.27:
 Alloy  (Fatigue limit or fatigue strength)
(MPa)
EQ21A-T6 Mg 100
70Cu-30Zn brass 115
2014-T6 Al 170
Ductile cast iron 220
1045 steel 310
4340 steel 485
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium 490

Step 2
In order to compute the cross-sectional diameter d0 for each alloy it is necessary to use Equation 9.17—viz.,

 16FL
=
N  d03

which incorporates the following values for the parameters in this expression:
 = the fatigue strength at 107 cycles or endurance limit (Figure 9.27)
N = the factor of safety (2.0)
F = maximum applied load (250 N)
L = distance between load-bearing points (80.0 mm)
Solving for d0 from Equation 9.17 leads to
1/3
 16FLN 
d0 =  
  

The following table lists values of d0 that were calculated using the above equation:

Alloy d0 (mm)

EQ21A-T6 Mg 12.7
70Cu-30Zn brass 12.1
2014-T6 Al 10.6
Ductile cast iron 9.75
 1045 steel 8.69
4340 steel 7.50
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium 7.46

Step 3
Using these d0 values we may compute the cylinder volume V for each alloy using the following equation:

2
d 
V = l  0 
 2 

Here, l is the cylinder length. For the sake of convenience, let us arbitrarily assume that this length is L, the distance
between load-bearing points from above—i.e., 80.0 mm. (Note: inasmuch as densities are expressed in units of
grams per centimeters cubed, we now choose to express lengths and diameters in centimeters—i.e., l = 8.0 cm and
d0 values in the above table divided by a factor of 10.) The table below presents cylindrical specimen volumes for
these seven alloys.

Alloy d0 (cm) V (cm3)

EQ21A-T6 Mg 1.27 10.1
70Cu-30Zn brass 1.21 9.20
2014-T6 Al 1.06 7.06
Ductile cast iron 0.975 5.97
1045 steel 0.869 4.74
4340 steel 0.750 3.53
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium 0.746 3.50

Step 4
The next step is to determine the mass of each alloy in its cylinder. This is possible by multiplying the
cylinder volume (V) by the alloy density (). Density values are tabulated in Table B.1 of Appendix B. The
following table lists volumes, densities, and cylinder masses for the seven alloys. (Note: Table B.1 does not present
densities for all of the seven alloys. Therefore, in some cases it has been necessary to use approximate density
values.)
 Alloy V (cm3)  (g/cm3) Alloy mass (g)
EQ21A-T6 Mg 10.1 1.80 18.2
70Cu-30Zn brass 9.20 8.50 78.2
2014-T6 Al 7.06 2.70 19.1
Ductile cast iron 5.97 7.10 42.4
1045 steel 4.74 7.85 37.2
4340 steel 3.53 7.85 27.7
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium 3.50 4.50 15.8

Step 5
Now, to calculate the cost of each alloy it is necessary to multiply alloy mass (from above converted into kilograms)
by cost data found in Appendix C. (Notes: the problem statement lists alloy cost data that is to be used in these
computations. Also, in Appendix C when cost ranges are cited, average values are used.) These mass and cost data
are tabulated below.

Alloy Alloy mass (kg) Cost per unit mass Cost

($US/kg) ($US)
EQ21A-T6 Mg 0.0182 18.50 0.34
[AZ31B (extruded) Mg]
70Cu-30Zn brass 0.0782 6.35 0.50
(Alloy C26000)
2014-T6 Al 0.0191 3.33 0.06
(Alloy 2024-T3)
Ductile cast iron 0.0424 3.63 0.15
[Ductile irons (all grades)]
1045 steel 0.0372 1.25 0.05
(Steel alloy 1040 Plate,
cold rolled)
4340 steel 0.0277 1.60 0.04
(Steel alloy 4340 Bar,
normalized)
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium 0.0158 39.50 0.62
(Alloy Ti-5Al-2.5Sn)

And, finally, the following lists the ranking of these alloys from least to most costly.
 4340 steel
1045 steel
2014-T6 Al
Ductile cast iron
EQ21A-T6 Mg
70Cu-30Zn brass
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium
Data Extrapolation Methods

Problem 9.D5
An S-590 iron component (Figure 9.41) must have a creep rupture lifetime of at least 20 days at 650°C
(923 K). Compute the maximum allowable stress level.

Solution 9.D5
This problem asks that we compute the maximum allowable stress level to give a rupture lifetime of 20
days for an S-590 iron component at 923 K. It is first necessary to compute the value of the Larson-Miller
parameter as follows:

m = T (20 + log tr ) = (923 K) 20 + log (20 days)(24 h/day)

= 20.9  103

From the curve in Figure 9.41, this value of the Larson-Miller parameter corresponds to a stress level of about 280
MPa (40,000 psi).
Problem 9.D6
Consider an S-590 iron component (Figure 9.41) that is subjected to a stress of 55 MPa (8000 psi). At what
temperature will the rupture lifetime be 200 h?

Solution 9.D6
We are asked in this problem to calculate the temperature at which the rupture lifetime is 200 h when an S-
590 iron component is subjected to a stress of 55 MPa (8000 psi). From the curve shown in Figure 9.41, at 55 MPa,
the value of the Larson-Miller parameter is 27  103 (K-h). Thus,

27  103 (K-h) = T (20 + log tr )

= T  20 + log (200 h) 

And, solving for T yields T = 1210 K (937C).

Problem 9.D7
For an 18-8 Mo stainless steel (Figure 9.43), predict the time to rupture for a component that is subjected
to a stress of 100 MPa (14,500 psi) at 600°C (873 K).

Solution 9.D7
This problem asks that we determine, for an 18-8 Mo stainless steel, the time to rupture for a component
that is subjected to a stress of 100 MPa (14,500 psi) at 600C (873 K). From Figure 9.43, the value of the Larson-

Miller parameter at 100 MPa is about 22.6  103, for T in K and tr in h. Therefore,

22.6 ´ 103 = T (20 + log tr )

= 873(20 + log tr )
Which leads to the following:

25.89 = 20 + log tr

And upon rearrangement

log tr = 5.89

Solving for tr leads to

tr = 105.89 = 7.8 ´ 105 h = 89 yr

Problem 9.D8
Consider an 18-8 Mo stainless steel component (Figure 9.43) that is exposed to a temperature of 650°C
(923 K). What is the maximum allowable stress level for a rupture lifetime of 1 year? 15 years?

Solution 9.D8
We are asked in this problem to calculate the stress levels at which the rupture lifetime will be 1 year and
15 years when an 18-8 Mo stainless steel component is subjected to a temperature of 650C (923 K). It first
becomes necessary to calculate the value of the Larson-Miller parameter for each time. The values of tr

corresponding to 1 and 15 years are 8.76  103 h and 1.31  105 h, respectively. Hence, for a lifetime of 1 year

T (20 + log tr ) = 923 é 20 + log (8.76 ´ 103 ) ù = 22.10 ´ 103

ë û

And for tr = 15 years

T (20 + log tr ) = 923 é 20 + log (1.31 ´ 105 )ù = 23.18 ´ 103

ë û

Using the curve shown in Figure 9.43, the stress values corresponding to the one- and fifteen-year lifetimes
are approximately 150 MPa (21,750 psi) and 90 MPa (13,000 psi), respectively.
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems

Problem 9.1FE
The following metal specimen was tensile tested until failure.

Which type of metal would experience this type of failure?

(A) Very ductile
(B) Indeterminate
(C) Brittle
(D) Moderately ductile

Solution 9.1FE
The correct answer is C. A brittle metal fails with little or no plastic deformation, and with flat fracture
surfaces (due to rapid crack propagation).
Problem 9.2FE
Which type of fracture is associated with intergranular crack propagation?
(A) Ductile
(B) Brittle
(C) Either ductile or brittle
(D) Neither ductile nor brittle

Solution 9.2FE
The correct answer is B. Intergranular fractures are brittle in nature, and crack propagation is along grain
boundaries.
Problem 9.3FE
Estimate the theoretical fracture strength (in MPa) of a brittle material if it is known that fracture occurs
by the propagation of an elliptically shaped surface crack of length 0.25 mm that has a tip radius of curvature of
0.004 mm when a stress of 1060 MPa is applied.
(A) 16,760 MPa
(B) 8,380 MPa
(C) 132,500 MPa
(D) 364 MPa

Solution 9.3FE
For an elliptically shaped crack, the maximum stress at the crack tip (or in this case the theoretical strength)
σm when a tensile stress of σ0 is applied, may be determined using Equation 9.1:

1/2
 a 
 m = 2 0  
 t 

Here, a is the length of a surface crack or half of the length of an internal crack, and ρt is the radius of curvature of
the crack tip. Using values provided in the problem statement, σm is determined as follows:

1/2
 0.25 mm 
 m = (2)(1060 MPa)  
 0.004 mm 

= 16,760 MPa

which is answer A.
Problem 9.4FE
A cylindrical 1045 steel bar (Figure 9.27) is subjected to repeated compression–tension stress cycling
along its axis. If the load amplitude is 23,000 N, calculate the minimum allowable bar diameter (in mm) to ensure
that fatigue failure will not occur. Assume a factor of safety of 2.0.
(A) 19.4 mm
(B) 9.72 mm
(C) 17.4 mm
(D) 13.7 mm

Solution 9.4FE
From Figure 9.27, the fatigue limit stress amplitude for this steel alloy (i.e., the maximum stress for fatigue
failure) is about 310 MPa. For a cylindrical specimen having an original diameter of d0 the cross sectional area, A0,
is equal to
2
d 
A0 =   0 
 2 

Therefore, using Equation 7.1 the stress is calculated as

F F 4F
= = =
A0  d0 
2
 d02
 
 2 

And when we incorporate the factor of safety, N, the above equation takes the form:

 4F
=
N  d02

Now, taking stress as the fatigue limit (310 MPa = 310  106 N/m2), a value of 2.0 for the factor of safety, and for
the load amplitude, F, a value of 23,000 N, we solve for d0 as follows:

FN
d0 = 2


(23, 000 N)(2.0)

=2 = 0.0137 m = 13.7 mm
( )(310  106 N/m 2 )
which is answer D.