INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that you can touch and see. It
may include external devices(peripherals) attached to the main computer. These components work together
to make the computer function. Some common hardware components include; mouse, keyboard, monitor,
system unit, motherboard, Central Processing Unit etc.

Classification of Computer Hardware

1. Input Devices
2. Processing Devices
3. Storage Devices
4. Output Devices
5. Communication Devices
6. System unit

INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are any hardware components that allow users to enter data and instruction into the computer
system for processing. Input devices convert data such as text, image, drawings into form computer can
understand and use.
An input device is like a magical tool that helps you talk to your computer and tell it what you want it to do.
Examples of input devices include;
keyboard
A device that allows users to type or input text, numbers, and commands into the computer system by
pressing keys. It converts letters, numbers and other characters into electronic signals that are machine-
readable by the computer’s processor
Mouse
A mouse is a handheld pointing device for computers, involving a small object fitted with one or two buttons
and shaped to sit naturally under the hand. It is used to open and close files, navigate websites and click on
commands
Microphone(mic)
A microphone is a device that Allows users to input audio data, such as speech or sound signals into the
computer. It converts sound into electrical energy. Microphones are used in many applications such as
telephones, hearing aids, public address systems etc
Joystick
It is a device used to move the cursor from place to place, and click on various items in programs. A joystick
is used mostly for computer games
Digital camera
It is used to take pictures. It can be connected to a computer to transfer the pictures from the camera to the
computer. Some digital cameras hold a memory card that can be taken out of the camera and put directly
into the computer’s memory card reader

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Scanners
It is a device that converts physical documents, images, or objects into digital format by scanning and
capturing their content

Processing Devices
When a computer receives raw data from an input device, the data must be processed before it can be sent to
an output device.

A processing device is any device that converts raw data into a processed data or information

The main processing device found in the computer is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). Other processing
devices include; motherboard, Graphic Processing Unit(GPU), network card, sound card etc. Processing
involves sorting of data, updating records, searching certain records, adding sequence of numbers and others

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

This is the ‘‘administrative’’ section of the computer. CPU is a complex set of electronic circuitry within a
computer that is responsible for all data processing. It coordinates and supervises the operations of other
sections. The CPU tells the input unit when data or information should be read into the memory unit, tells
the ALU when information from the memory unit should be used in calculations and tells the output unit
when to send information from the memory unit to certain output devices.

The CPU is regarded as the brain of the computer. It is sometimes called the processor or microprocessor

Functions of the CPU

1. It controls the transmission of data from input device to memory

2. It processes the data and instruction held in memory
3. It controls the transmission of information from main memory to output devices
4. It controls sequence of instructions
5. It gives command to all parts of the computer
6. It fetches the next instruction to be executed
7. It decodes instructions
8. It executes decoded instruction

Components of a CPU

 Arithmetic Logic Unit

 Control Unit
 Registers
 Memory Unit

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 Arithmetic Logic Unit

This is the ‘manufacturing’ section of the computer. It performs arithmetic and logic operations. The
arithmetic function has to do with mathematical operations such as addition, subtractions, multiplication and
division.

The logic function has to do with decision making mechanisms that allow the computer for example,
to compare two numbers or items from the memory unit to determine whether they are equal. These logical
operations include; Equal-to(=) conditions, Less-than(<) conditions, Greater-than(>) conditions etc.

Control Unit
The control unit is the “policeman” or “traffic manager” of the CPU. It monitors the execution of all
instructions and the transfer of all information. The control unit extracts instruction from memory, decodes
these instructions, making sure data is in the right place at the right time. The control unit tells the ALU
which operation to perform at a specific time.

Registers
Registers are small high-speed memory locations or storage areas inside the CPU used to temporarily hold
small units of program instructions and data immediately before, during and after execution by the CPU.

Types of Registers and their Functions

Every computer or machine has a specific number of registers depending on the architecture of the machine.
 Memory Address Register. It holds the memory address of the data being referenced
 Memory Data Register. It holds either the data just read from memory or the data ready to be
written to memory
 Program counter. It holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched
 Instruction Register. It holds the current instruction being executed
 General Purpose Register. It a register that can be used for various purposes such as storing data,
addresses etc. it can be used by programmers.

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 Memory Unit

This is the warehouse section of the computer. It stores computer programs while they are being executed. It
retains information that has been entered through the input unit so it will be available for processing when
needed. The memory unit also retains processed information until it can be placed on output devices by the
output unit.

Information in the memory unit is typically lost when the computer’s power is turned off. The memory unit
is often called primary memory

Machine Cycle [How the CPU Works]

Machine cycle is a series of steps the CPU follows to process a data or execute an instruction. The machine
cycle is a four-process steps or phases which includes;

1. Fetch. In this phase, the CPU retrieves or collects an instruction or data from the memory. Before the
CPU can execute an instruction, the control unit must fetch data or command from the computer’s
memory and make it available for processing.
2. Decode. During this phase, the control unit translates the retrieved instruction into a series of
computer commands. Before a command can be executed, the control unit must decode it into the
form the computer understands before the ALU can work on it.
3. Execute. In this phase, the Arithmetic Logic Unit then processes or executes the decoded instruction.
The data from the fetch stage of the cycle is manipulated according to the instructions received.
4. Store. After executing the instruction, the CPU sends and write the results back in main memory. The
newly processed data is the n passed into memory, fresh from its processing via the data bus.

Note: machine cycle can also be called fetch-decode-execute cycle

Terms associated with the workings of the CPU

 Main memory and addresses

 Address bus and address space
 Data bus and word length
 Instruction set
 System clock/clock Rate
 Processor speed

Main Memory: Memory is the physical storage space in the computer where data and instructions required
for processing are stored. Main memory’s job is to hold data that the CPU needs to access frequently such as
instructions and data being processed.
Memory Address: A memory address is a unique identifier used by a device or cpu for data tracking. A
memory address is a reference to a specific memory location.

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Computer Bus: A computer bus is the pathway through which the processor communicates with the internal
and external devices attached to the computer. Bus transfers the data between the computer subsystems. It
connects all internal computer components to the main memory and the central processing unit.
Address Bus: An address Bus is a set of communication pathways or wires that carry the addresses of
memory locations from the central processing unit to other parts of the computer system. It allows the cpu to
access and transfer data between different memory locations and devices.
Address Space: it is the total capacity of memory that can be addressed by a computer’s central processing
unit or by a program running on that cpu. It is typically measured in bytes.
Data Bus: A data bus simply carries data. The same data bus is used for read/write operations. The data bus
is bidirectional, which simply means the data can be transferred from CPU to main memory and from main
memory to CPU.
Instruction Set: It is a set of commands that the cpu uses to run a program or process a data. The instruction
set provides commands to the processor, to tell it what it needs to do. Examples of instruction set include:
ADD, COMPARE, IN, JUMP etc.
Processor Speed: This refers to the rate or speed at which the CPU or the microprocessor executes
instructions. The unit for measuring the speed of the processor is hertz(hz). The speed is usually measured
in GHz(gigahertz). The faster the speed of the processor, the faster the execution of instructions.
System clock/clock Rate: It is an internal clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are executed
and synchronizes all the various components within the computer