CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 PREAMBLE

This chapter will take a scholarly look at relevant existing literature related to the

perceived challenges and prospects of running radio stations in Nigeria. While

concepts such as broadcasting and campus radio will be reviewed, related themes

such as challenges of radio broadcasting and prospects of radio broadcasting will also

be reviewed. In addition, a review of past empirical works related to this study will

also be attempted. Finally, the review will be anchored on the Community Radio

Model and the Development Media Theory of Mass Communication.

2.2 CONCEPT OF BROADCASTING

Ciboh (2007) tries to capture the idea of broadcasting and its relationship to man

when he said “The adventurous and inventive man has throughout the ages, never

been satisfied with his existing conditions. Ever since man could make a sound he has

attempted to transmit messages over distances. A shout may have been the first long

sound could be spanned by beating with a club on a hollow tree. Through persevering

improvements on methods from primitive times, man has now achieved instant

communication by satellite”. What Ciboh has captured though is from a historical

perspective, it has brought into limelight some terms that help in the understanding of

the concept of broadcasting. It shows that broadcasting has to do with transmitting

messages to a long distance and also to a large heterogeneous audience.

Broadcasting as stated earlier in the researcher’s efforts to define the term, is simply

the transmitting or sending of messages through the use of electromagnetic waves or

radio waves to a long distance and reaching a large and scattered audience,

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simultaneously. From the above definition, there are specific elements that

differentiate the broadcast media from the print media of communication. Firstly, the

broadcast media makes use of sound waves while the print media is basically

concerned with typing on the newsprint. Secondly, it is also of note that broadcast

messages reach the audience simultaneously at the same time, while the issue of

transportation is still being sorted out by the print media producers. Nyman-Metcalf et

al (2003) posit that “broadcasting is by far the most important source of information,

as well as of entertainment, for most people in countries around the world. High levels

of illiteracy along with the difficulty of distributing newspapers mean that

broadcasting is the only media which is accessible for many people. For the poor,

newspapers may be prohibitively expensive, and some people simply find it easier and

more enjoyable to watch or listen to the news than to read it. Furthermore,

broadcasting plays a very important role as a cheap, accessible form of entertainment”.

Aderibigbe (2013) posits that broadcasting is an entirely electronic means of

communication. Unlike other forms of mass communication such as newspapers,

magazines and books, broadcasting uses electronic technology to encode, distribute

and decode messages; newspaper is not a form of electronic communication because it

does not use electronic technology in all the stages of encoding, distributing and

decoding messages. Akashoro, Okidu & Ajaga (2013) further explained that “To

broadcast is to disseminate information through mechanical means, simultaneously to

a wide, diverse and heterogeneous audience made up of individuals within and outside

a society. Broadcasting is indispensable in any society, permeating and fulfilling all

individual, social, political and hedonic needs of people pivoted by the transfer of

meaning – communication”.

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 Whichever way several scholars have looked at the concept of broadcasting, their

definitions always attest to the fact that broadcasting is electronic and is a process that

involves the dissemination of mediated messages at a long distance and to a very

scattered audience simultaneously.

2.2.1 CAMPUS RADIO

The definition of a campus according to the Merriam Webster learner’s dictionary is

“the grounds and buildings of a university, college, or school”. Campus as a “ word

derives from a Latin word for "field" and was first used to describe the large field

adjacent Nassau Hall of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in

1774. The field separated Princeton from the small nearby town”. Thus they defined a

campus as “traditionally the land on which a college or university and related

institutional buildings are situated. Usually a college campus includes libraries, lecture

halls, residence halls, student centres or dining halls, and park-like settings.

Radio on the other hand is “a broadcast medium that limits itself to the transmission

of messages which are aurally received by members of the public” (Chiakaan &

Ahmad, 2011). From the above definitions, it can be deduced that a campus radio is a

radio station transmitting messages aurally to a defined university community

audience, through the use of electromagnetic devices. Campus radio can be considered

as a community radio due to the fact that they share in common the characteristic of

transmitting to a defined geographical setting. Most times a campus radio is

considered a radio for the housing community of the university, because the radio

waves are able to reach audience outside the campus and the programming is

sometimes packaged in such a way that it will appeal to members of the community

who are neither students nor staff. The above position considers a campus radio as a

substitute for a community radio where the former is lacking. ‘Community’ is an

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especially relevant term for exploring the ‘alternativeness’ of campus radio, simply

because it defines the overall broadcasting system under which Canadian campus

stations are grouped. Moreover, ‘community’ is used in a number of ways to frame

and justify content that reflects a given locality (Fauteux, 2015). The major aim of

establishing a campus community radio stations is to provide a laboratory for mass

communication students, to train them as good broadcasters after school. The NBC

code of 2010, the 5th edition agrees to this assertion, as it stipulates in the Chapter 9 of

the code, under section 9.7 that “a campus broadcaster is licensed principally to train

students in broadcasting and other related fields like engineering, information

technology, creative arts, use of English, drama etc., and to provide opportunities for

practical experience as well as promoting social well-being of the campus community.

This has clearly defined what campus radio stations are and the roles they play in a

university and the community that houses the university.

Sauls (1995) looks at the concept in a clearer and more elaborate manner as he posit

that “As with commercial stations, the underlying premise of the college radio station

is to serve the community, whether it be the campus community or the community at

large, but in unique ways often geared to underserved niches of the population. Much

of college radio's charm lies in its unpredictable nature and constant mutations. The

stations give students opportunities to work in a professional environment, make

mistakes, and learn from their experiences. Because most campus radio stations are

under the auspices of an academic department within the college or university, the

presence of the station can complement actual coursework. Sauls points out that a

campus radio is part of the learning process of a broadcaster in training, and his or her

flaws are allowed and they have the opportunity to learn from their mistakes and

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become experienced before they are sent into the labour market, where they would be

looked upon as professional broadcasters.

2.2.2 AFFILIATION TO THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION

One the chief aims of the establishment of campus community based radio station is to

enhance the teaching of radio journalism to the majors in the institutions offering journalism

or mass communication and theatre arts. Where majors in radio journalism are taught and

trained practically the act/skills of radio broadcast like news gathering, writing, editing and

production in the format of news report, news commentary and news documentary, majors

from the theatre arts do so in the aspect of radio drama. It is the need to produce at least semi-

skilled broadcast major that campus community radio stations are an affiliate of these

departments where they are mostly grounded but not the sole custodian of the stations.

An excerpt from the communiqué from a two-day workshop on Building Sustainable Radio

in Nigeria Academic Communities stated on 1(b) that, in the management and other

operational structures of their stations, there is full participation of all stakeholders, including

students, who constitute the majority in these communities supporting the need for student

training and participations. (IMS and PIWA, 2007).

2.2.3 CHALLENGES OF RADIO BROADCASTING

Broadcasting as a human endeavour has its own peculiar challenges that have been

there since the inception of broadcasting in the year 1895, when Guglielmo Marconi

set up a temporary station consisting of Morse code (or wireless telegraphy).

Mohammed (2013) in his efforts to look at the challenges of open broadcasting in

Ethiopia outlined three basic problems related to that strategy of radio distribution

“which directly affect its effectiveness while using radio as a tool for the education of

the rural people in community development efforts. The first problem is that, “there is

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no interaction between producers and consumers before programs are planned,

produced and broadcast”. The type of radio programs and their contents are decided,

planned, and broadcasted by the experts and journalists (radio managers, program

producers and reporters) who are confined themselves within the studio’s compound.

In this case, the broadcast system follows “a giver- taker pattern, where radio

broadcasters (educated elite) are virtually taken as not only the sources of information,

knowledge and wisdom but also the givers while audiences are considered as takers”

(Jemal 2012). “Second, these programs are conceived in the studio, with very little or

no consultation with specialist agencies and virtually no coordination between them

and the communication specialists” (Moemeka, ibid.). As this strategy does not allow

audience participation and involvement, it also has no room for the consultation of

various stakeholders, i.e. education and development agencies, who are engaged

directly in the development endeavours. The third problem is related to the

unavailability of guidance at the reception end. The open broadcast strategy follows “a

shot in-the-dark approach” to radio programming. These problems are not only

peculiar to Ethiopia but also in other 3rd world countries which Nigeria is also

considered as such.

Chioma (2014) identified the challenges of broadcasting in Nigeria in two major

categories which are sub-divided into several other categories; these are the pre-

deregulation and post-deregulation challenges.

1. Pre-deregulation challenges: under pre-deregulation challenges, Chioma identified

the following problems associated with broadcasting in Nigeria:

The use of the media as a tool for political propaganda: In the overwhelming

majority of African countries, broadcasting has been the most controlled media for

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both technical and political reasons. The history of broadcasting in Nigeria revolves

around the suitability of the medium for political propaganda. Both radio and

television broadcasting in Nigeria was a calculated effort at fostering political

propaganda and interest. Little wonder Nigerians in the early years never came to

terms with radio broadcasting, as they perceived it as a propaganda tool for the British

colonial government.

Funding: The challenge of funding began when government embarked on the

Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986. SAP was an economic policy aimed

at encouraging self-reliance and reduction of over dependence on government for

financial subventions in business. Hence, government withdrew subsidies which were

provided to federal and state owned media organizations. The federal government

sought to create some independence in the operation of the broadcast media thereby

encouraging the media to take some financial responsibility through SAP;

unfortunately, this led to the introduction of commercialization in the state

broadcasters – the FRCN and NTA. Faced with the inability to pay salaries of workers,

produce or service available equipment and myriad of other problems occasioned by

the decline in government subvention, the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) and

Federal

Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) devised several other means to make money.

Government monopoly of media ownership: For decades, the broadcast industry was

completely monopolized by the state and federal government. This was a deliberate

effort to control information flow and ensure that the media strictly represented the

voice of the government. The implication therefore was that broadcast content was

designed to project positive political image and promote the interest of government to

the detriment of national interest and development.

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Political instability: The several military coups of 1966, 1975, 1976, 1983, 1985, and

1993 in Nigeria placed constraints on the nation’s entire mass media of

communication (print and broadcast). One notable constraint which resulted from the

frequent change in power was Decree No.4 of 1984 which was promulgated to restrain

the press. Furthermore, the media endured hostile attitude from most political leaders

who inhibited the freedom of the press. For example, two-year jail term without the

option of fine awaited any erring media practitioner found guilty under the provision

of Decree No. 4.

Chioma (2014) outlined the following problems under post-deregulation era.

Broadcasting in commercial interest as opposed to national interest: Privatizations

of the broadcasting in Nigerian have been largely criticized for a shift from

broadcasting in national interest to broadcasting in commercial interest. Unfortunately,

this fear has largely become a reality as private/commercial broadcast stations

commercialize virtually every aspect of its broadcast including the news. Private

owned media like any other business seek to sustain its operations through any means

possible. As such, there is a high level of commercial content in its programming

thereby limiting discuss of issues in public/national interest.

News commercialization: One of the major ‘pains’ of broadcast liberalization in

Nigeria is news commercialization. This practice is seen in virtually all private owned

broadcast media (both radio and television). For a prescribed fee, individuals, private

and public entitles can disseminate commercial and propaganda messages to target

audiences during newscast.

These messages are presented as part of the news bulletin in the forms of straight news

reports, news analysis, or commentary after the news.

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Cultural imperialism: The increase in foreign content broadcast by private stations

has fostered cultural imperialism whereby the more media audiences are exposed to

foreign content, the more the foreign culture and values are inculcated into their lives.

Also, quite a number of local contents have been seen to reflect western values

designed.

Regulation: For several years after the promulgation of NBC Act 38, state and federal

broadcasters refused to submit to the regulatory powers of the NBC, arguing that they

predated the NBC and that there was no express provision in the law putting them

under the Commission’s purview. Other concerns of regulation are: content

monitoring and sanctioning process. The NBC seems not to have an adequate nor

comprehensive monitoring strategy in place. Hence we find broadcast stations boldly

flout the stipulations of the Code through broadcast of content that reveal overt sexual

behaviour, nudity, violence, bloodletting, smoking, alcohol, drug abuse, denigration of

womanhood, and offensive vulgar language, expressions. As far as the sanctioning

process is concerned, the NBC operates three categories of sanctions for licensed

stations that violate the Code. They are: license revocation, written warning to

remedy a breach within a given time, and finally fines and stiffer sanctions for not

complying with earlier sanctions.

Poor Management: While government oversees the activities of state and federal

broadcast stations, the private owned stations are run as business and as such it faces

diverse management challenges of funding which has resulted in the unsettled salaries

of workers in some notable broadcast stations whereby salaries are not paid for

months. This attitude of management has largely encourage the brown envelope

syndrome whereby media professionals either demand or receive financial incentives,

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and gifts from prominent individuals, government, corporate organizations in order to

sustain themselves and their families.

Poor program quality: The production quality of programmes is still below standard.

There is a vast disparity in the quality output of broadcast generated locally and that

generated abroad. This challenge is particularly famous with government owned

stations. Even on radio, the signal from private owned stations such as RayPower,

Rhythm, Cool FM are far clearer and less subject to interruptions than its government

owned counterparts: Metro FM, Radio Nigeria etc. Also, the high cost of obtaining

modern equipment which will enable clarity in sound and the skill to man such

equipment are some reasons for the sub-standard quality in programming because the

funds are not available.

The switchover from analogue to digital broadcasting: According to Chioma (2014), the

main challenge of digital broadcasting lies with the actual migration from analogue to digital.

Already 2012 deadline was not realizable. Giving the politico-economic circumstances of

Nigeria and the slow approach to issues and projects such as reinvigorating the power sector,

infrastructural development, the road to the digitalization of the broadcast industry is only a

mirage. The major stumbling blocks in the transition to digital broadcasting in Nigeria are:

lack of technical and financial resources, power supply, knowledge gap, and manpower.

Another challenge worthy of note that confronts the radio broadcasting business is the

competition from the new media of internet and social media made possible by the

advancement in technology. This trend is caused by the always evolving nature of the

world which has made the world a more global village than what was estimated a long

time ago by Marshall McLuhan, when he saw the potentiality of Television bringing

the world together as one village. Cookson (2013) posits that “the industry, which

generated revenues of $44bn last year, up more than 2 percent on the previous period,

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continues to attract advertisers. But broadcasters face some of their fiercest

competition for years as the world’s biggest technology companies including Apple

and Google take aim at their business. Only two months have passed since Apple’s

iTunes Radio launched in the US but already 20m people have listened to the service,

which plays songs selected by a computer algorithm rather than a DJ”.

2.2.4 PROSPECTS OF RADIO BROADCASTING

People get passionate about radio in a way that they don't readily about other media.

After all, more people still start off their day by listening to the radio than the

combined number who watch breakfast TV or read a newspaper or magazine Cook

(1998). The above statement by Cook sums up the prospects of radio broadcasting in

these present times and in the future. Radio over the years has proven to be very

pivotal to the development of the society world over. It has contributed immensely

towards the dream of changing the world into one big global village, which is already

evident in every urban society and with all things been equal will definitely reach its

full potentials in the not too distant future.

Mainali (2008:15) suggests that “Community radio is the modern means of

communication for social communication. It falls under general means of mass

communication. Community broadcasting is such a process whereby individuals

indulge in interaction with each other to achieve collective objectives. There is action-

oriented relationship between individuals involved in interaction while there is mutual

friendship and attachment. Similar geographical, cultural and natural settings tend to

bring them closer emotionally while chasing common objectives. The main common

link for coexistence is sentiments, needs and localness. They are never competing with

each other; they coexist. All are habituated to work in groups.” This shows the

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tendency of radio to influence and have a very positive effect geared towards

development on the society which it finds itself.

In a similar vein, Madamombe (2005), points out that “Their transmitters may reach

only a few miles, but community radio stations are enabling isolated communities

across Africa to voice their own concerns. On air, ordinary citizens discuss issues that

are central to them, such as gender relations and combating HIV/AIDS. They share

farming tips and income generation ideas and explore ways to improve education”.

This especially highlights the benefits of community radio, which we can substitute

for campus radio stations, which governments world over should look to invest in, if

the idea of bringing the rural dwellers or masses closer to the government is ever to be

achieved.

Apart from educational prospects, radio also looks promising in economic

development and improving standards of living of citizens. Radio as a medium of

communication is cheaper compared to other media of communication and even the so

called new media of internet. In a rural setting, the statistics for the number of persons

that can afford an application telephone that enables browsing will surprise you,

compared to the number of persons that have their battery radio sets running for the

full length of their community station’s time of transmission daily. “The idea of

accelerating development by using both older media such as radio and newer

information and communication technologies has gained momentum in Africa over

the past decade. The continent’s development blueprint, the New Partnership for

Africa’s Development (NEPAD), places information technologies high among its

priorities. Governments agree that good Internet, telecommunications and

broadcasting services can foster regional trade and improve integration into the global

economy. The ability of ordinary people to communicate with each other also helps

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promote democracy and good governance. The cost of setting up communications

infrastructure is steep, however, especially in rural areas, where distances are vast and

population densities are low. Most areas outside the major towns do not have the

electricity necessary for operating land telephones or computers. Radios, by contrast,

are inexpensive and can run on batteries or solar power. As a result, radio is by far the

dominant mass medium in Africa. There is one radio receiver for every five people

(compared with one telephone for every 100 people)”. (Madamombe, 2005).

Myers (2008) agrees with Madamombe as she suggests that “Radio is still the

dominant mass-medium in Africa with the widest geographical reach and the highest

audiences compared with television (TV), newspapers and other information and

communication technologies (ICTs). Overall, radio is enjoying a renaissance and

numbers of small local stations have exploded over the last twenty years, due to

democratisation and market liberalisation and also to more affordable technologies.

Radio seems to have proven itself as a developmental tool, particularly with the rise of

community and local radios, which have facilitated a far more participatory and

horizontal type of communication than was possible with the older, centralised

broadcasting model of the 1960s and 70s. There seems also to have been a re-

discovery of radio in the context of new ICTs, a realisation that technology has made

radio into a more two-way medium and that it can help bridge the digital divide by

providing a powerful tool for information dissemination and access, especially for

hard-to-reach rural audiences”.

Scholars have explored the many prospects of radio in the society on several

occasions, but the problem still remains in the hands of people in authority in Africa

and world over, to evaluate these prospects and set modalities in place to enhance the

growth of the industry as it promises a bright future for the whole world. Kamar,

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Lawal, Babangida & Jahun (2014) in their paper “rural development in Nigeria:

problems and prospects for sustainable development” suggests that the Rural Radio

Broadcasting Cooperation (RRBC) should also be considered as a complementing

strategy. This system will broadcast largely for the benefit of rural dwellers. The rural

information officer’s corps could be recruited to facilitate the basic information needs

of the rural people.

2.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

According to world encyclopedia (2014), theory could be seen as a set of sentences which

consist entirely of true statement about the subject matter under consideration. Theories

maybe expressed mathematically, symbolically, or in common language, but are generally

accepted to follow principles of rational thought or logic.

This research work will be situated / grounded on the development media theory with

justifications for the choice (relevance to the study) provided along the way. Also, a critique

of the theory will be made, with attention on its origin, propounder (s), strength and

weaknesses.

2.3.1 COMMUNITY RADIO MODEL

The Community Radio Model is a conceptual framework that explores the role and potential

of community radio stations in promoting local participation, development, and

empowerment. This model has gained significant attention in the field of media studies,

particularly in the context of developing countries where community radio stations play a

vital role in amplifying local voices and addressing community-specific issues. Several

scholars and practitioners in the field of communication and development studies including

Juan Somavia, Alfonso Gumucio-Dragon, Jo Tacchi, Don Holloway, Norman Idrus, Steve

Buckley, Nick Jankowski and many more have contributed to it. The Community Radio

Model is rooted in the principles of participation, access, and empowerment. It posits that

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community radio stations should be owned and controlled by the communities they serve, and

their programming should reflect the interests, concerns, and cultural diversity of those

communities. These stations are typically non-profit organizations, operating independently

from commercial or government influences. The model emphasizes the following key

aspects:

1. Community Ownership and Control: Community radio stations are owned and managed by

members of the local community, ensuring that the station's operations, programming, and

decision-making processes are driven by community interests and needs. This sense of

ownership fosters a strong connection between the station and its listeners, as well as a

commitment to serving the community's best interests.

2. Participatory Communication: The Community Radio Model encourages active

participation and engagement from community members in the production and dissemination

of content. This participatory approach includes involving community members in program

development, content creation, and management of the station. It promotes a two-way

communication flow, where the audience is not merely a passive recipient but an active

contributor to the station's programming.

3. Local Content and Representation: Community radio stations prioritize the production and

broadcasting of locally relevant content that reflects the culture, language, and issues of the

communities they serve. This includes programs on local news, community events, traditional

music and arts, and discussions on topics of local significance. By providing a platform for

local voices and perspectives, community radio stations contribute to the preservation and

promotion of cultural identities and traditional knowledge.

4. Development and Social Change: The model positions community radio stations as agents

of development and social change within their communities. By addressing local issues,

facilitating public discussions, and promoting civic engagement, community radio stations

15
can play a crucial role in raising awareness, fostering dialogue, and mobilizing communities

to address challenges related to health, education, human rights, and sustainable

development.

5. Alternative Media: Community radio stations are often viewed as alternative media outlets,

offering an alternative to mainstream commercial or state-controlled media. They provide a

space for marginalized or underrepresented groups to have their voices heard and to challenge

dominant narratives or power structures.

6. Community Empowerment: The Community Radio Model emphasizes the empowerment

of communities through access to information, knowledge sharing, and capacity building. By

providing a platform for community members to express their views, share their stories, and

engage in collective problem-solving, community radio stations can contribute to the

empowerment of individuals and communities, enabling them to take control of their own

development and decision-making processes.

The Community Radio Model has been embraced and implemented in various countries

around the world, particularly in rural and marginalized communities. Organizations like

UNESCO, the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC), and various

non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have actively promoted and supported the

establishment of community radio stations as a means of fostering community participation,

local development, and empowerment.

While the Community Radio Model presents significant potential for community engagement

and development, it also faces challenges such as limited financial resources, regulatory

barriers, and sustainability issues. Nevertheless, the model continues to gain recognition as a

powerful tool for amplifying local voices, preserving cultural diversity, and promoting

grassroots development initiatives.

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2.3.2 DEVELOPMENT MEDIA THEORY

The development theory is one out of the six normative theory of the press which seeks to

address the imbalance in development and information flow of third world countries and

provide solutions to the technological problems facing them. The theory came into being as

the outcome of the recognition that the press or media in developing countries have greater

and wider responsibilities to their society beyond the traditional, universally recognized role

of the media (Salau, 2006 in Jibrin, 2012).The theory was propounded by Dennis McQuail in

1987. According to him, there is need for a more positive version of media theory which

focuses on national developmental goals as well as the need for autonomy and solidarity with

other nations in a similar situation. In the same vein, Dominick (2002) posits that

developmental journalism entails finding ways to wake abstract stories about commodity

pricing, agriculture, educational goods and other issues understandable to readers.

The major assumptions of this theory include;

Media should accept and carry out positive development tasks in line with nationally

established policy, Freedom of the media should be open to economic priorities and

development needs of the society, The media should give priority in their content to national

culture and languages, The media should give priority in news and information to links with

other developing countries, which are close geographically, culturally or politically,

Journalists and other media workers have responsibilities as well as freedoms in their

information gathering and dissemination tasks, In the interest of development ends, the state

has a right to intervene in, or restrict media operation, and devices and direct control can be

justified.

This theory arose out of the concern to describe and prescribe the norms of journalism

practice in the development world, as the earlier four normative theories of the press by

Seiber, Peterson and Schram’s (1956) authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility and

17
soviet communist have limited application and potential benefits for these developing

countries. The normative element of this emerging development theory ‘are’ especially,

opposed to dependency and foreign domination and to arbitrary authoritarianism. They are

positive uses of the media in national development, for the autonomy and cultural identity of

the particular national society.

The developing media theory was postulated by Dennis McQuail to favor grassroots

involvement and participative communication,” (McQuail, 1987, p.120).

McQuail lists the main principles of the theory thus:

‘Media should accept and carry out positive development

tasks in line with nationally established policy; freedom
of the media should be opened to restriction according to
Economic priorities and development needs of Society;
media should give priority in the news and information to
links with other developing policies and priority of the
state Which are close geographically, culturally,
politically and otherwise. Journalists and other media
workers have responsibilities as well as freedom in their
information-gathering and dissemination tasks; and in
conclusion, he stressed the interest of development ends,
he also stated that the state has the right to intervene in,
or restrict, media operations, and devices of censorship,
subsidy and direct control can be justified” (McQuail,
1987)

Essentially, indigenous language press will bring about the democratic and grassroots

participation in development process as it offers the greatest access to the vast majority of our

people, unprivileged and marginalized. The press will help in our cultural identity.

Communication can help to design projects that take properly into account the perception and

capacities the intended beneficiaries, thereby gaining their participation; it shift emphasis

from ‘top-down’ approaches to Bottom-up approaches, it bring about participation of (rural)

people in situation analysis, development planning and management, decision-making.

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Secondly, development communication can help to mobilize people for development action

and promote better co-ordination and linkages.; it can spread knowledge of mutually decided

proposals, it can spread knowledge of successful development experience, it can ensure that

people are informational linked to each other, and to sources of learning and education, and to

sources of planning and decision-making and it can organize and manage system to promote

exchange of information horizontally and vertically.

Thirdly, communication can be vitally useful in improving the reach and impact of training

and extension in rural areas, whether in training of extensions and other development agents

in the field, or in the passing of information to rural people. Harold, (1984) said that

development communication is consistent with values central to development including

personal or social transformation, purposefulness, participation, responsibility, education

(content wise and presentation wise), practicality e.t.c.

The development media is said to be social transformation and development. The fulfillment

of basic needs such as the individual becomes an active partner and not a mere object of

communication, the variety of messages exchanged increased and the extent and quality of

sole representation or participation in communication is augmented (De Beer, 2002, p.46).

This approach which is in line with New World Information and Communication Order-

NWICO thus postulates that bottom up approach incorporate the element of participatory

developmental communication which is at the heart of developmental journalism: “

participatory communication takes into consideration the views and input of the receiver of

information. It initiates an inquiry process leading to sharpened consciousness of social,

human and political development…participation is the key element to awakening people’s

desire to assess their problems critically, to ask why these problems occur and how to

overcome them using their own wisdom, experience and knowledge” (Mkonza, 2004, p.116).

2.3.2.1 Relevance of the theory to the study

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According to the basic assumption of the theory that media should adopt and carry out

development task, part of the ways this can be achieved is through involvement in the process

of development and through community radio broadcasting, developmental issues can be

brought closer to the people to propel societal and subsequently national development.

The justification for the use of this theory lies in the fact that Nigeria is a developing country

that needs her media more for participation toward development and social change as already

achieved in western countries. As a result, this theory will guide this work to explain why this

is so. Furthermore, public attitude towards development of virtually all the sector of

community-socially, economically, and politically is the bedrock for the adoption of the

theory for this research. So, the Development Media theory would help this work to analyze

the factor that influence the effectiveness of radio broadcast.

2.4 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

The general belief is that any campus based community radio station is a mere juke box

(Kunle, 2019) but recent research studies have shown that some of these campus stations are

contributing to societal development. Campus radio stations offer concrete means for public

participation and provide a platform for cultural diversity. Jordan, (2006 )in Suleiman, (2014)

noted that participation is the engine of democracy and campus radio is a tool to ensure

public participation Ajayi (2014) argued that, campus radio stations has also played a role in

bridging communication gap between the Government and the local people.

Notwithstanding, campus radio stations also have their own challenges encountered on a

daily bases as they try to live up to this task of bringing development to their host

communities. Several studies have been conducted relating to the perceived challenges of

campus, radio stations in Nigeria, Africa and World over. Suleiman (2014) carried out a study

on the challenges and prospects of a campus radio station: what it should be and what it is. A

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case study of 98.9 buk fm. The study sought to find out world view concerning various

challenges encountered by campus-community radio stations. Using the survey research

method, the researcher found out that there were peculiar challenges related to running a

campus-community radio and also analyzed the future prospects of community radio stations.

To this end, the researcher recommended that communities and institutions should be aware

of what it takes to effectively run a radio station before even applying for a license so as to

avoid the current loopholes being experienced. The relevance of Suleiman’s (2014) study to

this work lies in the fact that they both focus on the perceived challenges of running a campus

radio station.

In another study conducted by Lotter (2007) titled: An investigation into the sustainability of

community radio using campus radio as case-study. The study looked to answer the

impending question as whether radio broadcasting in South Africa could survive the South

Africa’s three-tier system of broadcasting other than just looking at the prospects of radio in

economic development, education and community representation. The study adopted the

‘semi-structured interview’ method and found out that the solutions to the challenges faced by

their community radio station could be eradicated through the re-organization of South

Africa’s three-tier system of broadcasting, pointing out the role government policies play in

causing challenges to community-campus radio stations. The researcher therefore

recommended that the South African government create conducive atmosphere for both

commercial and community based radio stations to survive and co-exist, without too much

government policies limiting them. The study also suggests that the government invest in the

Campus community radio as the future looks bright for that sector of the economy. Lotter’s

(2007) work is relevant to this study because it looks at the challenges posed by government

policies in running a campus radio station. Although the study was conducted in South Africa,

it suggests solutions that could be of utmost importance in working towards enhancing the

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campus radio in the Nigeria. Another research was also carried out by Al-hassan, Andani &

Abdul-Malik(2011) on “The Role of Community Radio in Livelihood Improvement: The

Case of Simli Radio”. The aim of the study was to ascertain the contribution of Simli radio

towards the development and livelihood improvement of the people of Tolon-Kumbungu

District of the Northern Region of Ghana. The study used the following specific techniques to

collect data: meetings, focus group discussions, stakeholder interviews, debriefing sessions

and observations. The research found out that Simli Radio has worked to improve awareness

and knowledge of solutions to community development problems ranging from culture, rural

development, education, hygiene and sanitation, agriculture to local governance. The study

therefore recommended that regular feedback from the listening public is essential in

identifying listeners’ preferences and the taste of various listeners segments and to avoid

politics and religion. The relevance of Al-Hassan et al’s (2011) work to this study lies in the

fact that one of the major challenges of a programs producer for radio is ‘content’. If the

content is not appreciated by the public, the producer has wasted his/her time and energy.

More so, the study points out that for the people to be completely represented by the

community or campus station, politics and religious affiliations must be reduced to the barest

minimum. The study also employed the field method of data collection.

Ihechu & Okereke (2016) described finance as one of the challenges facing campus radio

stations. Ihechu & Okereke (2016) stated that issues from license fees and renewal fees on the

existing private stations, their inability to make substantial profit after paying license fees

ranging from 10 million to 25 Million naira; has made it difficult for campus radio station to

be commercially viable. In support of Ihechu & Okereke (2016) assertion, Kumar & Asokan

(2017) suggests that the annual license fee may be cut down for campus radios to ease the

financial strain. Kumar & Asokan (2017 further suggested that the frequencies allotted to low

power campus radios should not be allotted to high power commercial transmitters even if

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they are more than a hundred kilometers away. Proper utilization of revenue earned through

commercial advertisements if allowed, should be ensured. Sule (2018) notes other challenges

faced by campus radio stations to be the fact that that National Broadcasting Commission

(NBC), in her Nigerian Broadcasting Code of 2010 the 5th edition restricted the funding of a

campus radio station to subvention; spot announcements from within the campus community

and not exceeding 9 minutes in every 1 hour broadcast; donations or grants; Events coverage

within the campus community; sale of station’s memorabilia. Although the funding of a

campus radio station is usually limited; many stations also solicit programme underwriting

support, listener contributions, and outright donations, which are important because

advertiser/commercial content is severely restricted by law on non-commercial stations (Sule,

2018).

Furthermore, David (2015) observed that the challenges specific to a campus radio station fall

into four categories which includes seasonal issues, solving the learning/performance

dilemma, volunteer workforce tensions and the innovative versus the normative. According to

Felix (2017) the primary role of campus radio station is to broadcast alternative programmes

that are not typically heard on commercial radio, but also in depth spoken word

programming, campus specific programming and special interest music. In addition to

students, members of the campus/community at large are also involved in the production and

programming of campus stations. Thus, a campus radio station is not only expected to serve

the needs of the university community, but also the community that houses the institution

which the campus station exist on. Whatever reasons might have informed the establishment

of a campus radio station, one thing is clear, it must deliver content which satisfies the tastes

and meets the needs of the community ( Onekutu &Adegbol, 2013).

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