Wireless All Unit Notes

6ETC04: Open Elective II
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Unit I:
Introduction to Wireless Communication:
Q 1: Explain in brief Basic Cell Fundamentals in wireless communication. (IMP)

1. The early mobile radio systems achieved a large coverage area by using a
single, high-powered transmitter with an antenna mounted on a tall tower.
2. This approach achieved very good coverage, but it was impossible to reuse the
frequencies.
3. The cellular concept offered very high capacity in a limited spectrum by
reusing frequencies.
4. In cellular system the coverage area is divided into (conceptually hexagonal)
cells. A low power transmitter provides coverage to a cell. The actual radio
coverage of a cell is known as the footprint and is amorphous in nature.
5. Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of channels
available to the entire system. Nearby base stations are assigned different
groups of channels to reduce interference. All the available channels are
assigned to a small number (called cluster size) of neighboring base stations.
6. The channel groups may be reused as many times as necessary, as long as the
interference between co-channel stations is kept below acceptable levels.
7. As the demand for service increases (i.e., as more channels are needed within
a particular market), the number of base stations may be increased (along with
a corresponding decrease in transmitter power to avoid added interference),
thereby providing additional radio capacity without additional radio spectrum.
Any regular polygon, such as an equilateral triangle, a square or a hexagon can be used
for cell design.
Criteria for shape of a cell: -
 Area without overlap
 Geometric shape and
 Area of cell
The hexagon is used for two reasons:
• First a hexagonal layout requires fewer cells and therefore, fewer transmitter sites
and
• Second a hexagonal cell layout is less expensive compared to square and
triangular cells.
Q 2: Explain the following terms used in wireless communication
• Mobile Station (MS): A mobile station or simply mobile is a radio terminal
that may be attached to a high speed mobile platform (e.g. a cell phone in a
fast moving vehicle). It is also called User Equipment (UE).
• Subscriber: A mobile or a portable user.
• Cell: The area of coverage is divided into cells. Each cell has a base
station usually located at its center or at the edge.
• Control Channel: Radio channels used for transmission of call setup, call
request and call initiation. Control channels intended to carry signaling and
synchronization data between base station and mobile user.
• Forward Channel (downlink): Radio channel used for transmission of
information from the base station to the mobile.
• Reverse Channel (uplink): Radio channel used for transmission of
information from the mobile to the base station.
• Base Station
A base station is a common term used in telecommunications for a radio
receiver with one or more antennae. While the base station has many other
applications, it’s often used for mobile telephony, wireless communications, and
even wireless computer networking.
A base station works as the main communication point for one or more wireless
mobile devices. It is a fixed transceiver capable of sending and receiving wireless
signals via the radio frequency (RF) base station antennas to transmit RF signals
to other devices.
• Page: Page is a brief message that is broadcast over the entire service area by
many base stations at the same time primarily to locate where the mobile station
is.
• Transceiver: A device capable of transmitting and receiving radio signals.
• Forward Voice Channel (FVC): Used for voice transmission from BS to MS.
• Reverse Voice Channel (RVC): Used for voice transmission from MS to BS.
• Mobile Switching Center(MSC): The MSC is used to provide route to all the
calls in large cervice area.
It is the base of cellular communication system as it manage or control all the services
within the system
Functions:
1. Switching of calls between subscriber
2. Switching sms between subscriber
3. Tracking of BSC location of subscriber
4. Subscriber authentication and info.
5. Billing management of each subscriber
Q 3: Describe the operation of basic cellular system with neat sketch. (IMP)
1. In a cellular system, the entire region is divided into regular hexagonal patterns
called as cells. The area covered by the cell is called Cell Size and there is no
standard fixed value defined for this. It varies from service provider to service
provider. The cell size ranges from 10 Km to 50 Km based on the population in that
area. Figure 1 shows the basic structure and elements of a cellular system.
Figure 1: Basic Architecture of a cellular system
2. Elements Of a Cellular system

i. A cellular system consists of three important elements. They are: Mobile
Stations (MS), Base Stations (BS) and Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).
ii. Mobile Station commonly called as cell phone is a transmitting/receiving
portable station in the cellular Radio service used for communication. Mobile
stations may be hand held (portable units) or installed in vehicles (mobiles).
iii. A base Station/Cell site refers to a fixed station used for radio communication
with mobile stations. Base stations are located at the center or edge of the
cell. It consists of transmitter and receiver antennas mounted on a tower and
some circuitry to process the mobile signals.
iv. Initially the cell sites were designed to cover a radius of 10 miles (16 Kms) or
more. The transmitted signal power and height of the antenna determines the
final cell size.
v. Mobile Switching Centre/ Mobile Telephone Switching Office
(MSC/MTSO): In a cellular radio system, MSC is very important element
which connects the cellular Base Stations and the mobiles to the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). MSC coordinates the routing of calls
in a large service area and does very important functions such as finding
frequency channels, provides billing information etc.
3. Control and Voice Channels
i. The BS, MSC and PSTN communicate with each other using wired
connectivity. The wireless connection is only between the Base Station and
Mobile Station. A full Duplex communication exists between these two
entities.
Both are connected to each other by a pair of voice channels or control
channels.
ii. Control Channels refer to the radio channels used for transmission or
reception of call set up, call requests, call initiation and other beacon or
control purposes.
iii. Voice Channels are radio channels used for transmission or reception of actual
information from subscriber (user).
iv. Bandwidths of these channels vary from technology to technology. For
example, 1G technology AMPS uses 30 KHz as each channel’s bandwidth.
2G technology GSM uses 200 KHz as each channel’s bandwidth.
v. The channels used for transmission from Base station to the mobile are
called Forward Channels or Downlink Channels. The channels used for
transmission from Mobile station to the Base Station are called Reverse
Channels or Uplink Channels.
4. The forward channel frequency is always higher than the Reverse channel
frequency by 45 MHz.
This is due to the reason that higher frequencies require higher processing power. The
mobile station side which is portable has to work on limited power levels. Hence the
lower spectrum out of the two bands is assigned for the mobile station transmission.
Also, Duplexers available in those days could separate out the transmitted and
received frequencies with minimum interference only if both were at a minimum
frequency separation of 45 MHz Channel connectivity between MS and BS is
illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Channel connectivity between M.S and B.S

5. There are four channels using which a mobile can communicate with the Base
station. They are namely, FCC, RCC, FVC, RVC. The Reverse Control
Channel carries signaling information like call requests or call termination from
Mobile Station to Base station.
6. The Forward Control channel carries signaling information like Power control,
information of channels etc. from Base station to Mobile station.
7. The Forward and Reverse Voice Channels carry the desired voice signals
between MS and BS.
Advantages of cellular system:
1. Higher capacity-Smaller the size of the cell more the number of concurrent
users i.e. huge cells do not allow for more concurrent users.
2. Less transmission power-Huge cells require a greater transmission power than
small cells.
3. Local interference only-For huge cells there are a number of interfering
signals, while for small cells there is limited interference only.
4. Robustness-As cellular systems are decentralized, they are more robust against
the failure of single components.
Q 4: Explain in brief Evolution of Mobile Communication. (IMP)

Mobile communications standards had to evolve to support more users.
1. First Generation (1G)
 In 1979, the Japanese telecommunications provider Nippon Telephone and

Telegraph Company (NTT) deployed the first generation of wireless
communication, known today as 1G.
 In this technology voice call get modulated to higher frequency of about
150 MHz .
 Because 1G network used analog signals, the technology was severely limited. Rather
than encoding voice calls into digital signals, the audio was modulated to a higher
frequency that degraded the quality of the signal over time and space.
 In 1G technology voice channel is transmitted with FM modulation
 Access method of 1G technology is FDMA(Frequency division multiple access)
 It allows users to make voice calls only
 This technology commercially introduced in US in1980s as AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone
Service).
Key Features of 1G
 Bandwidth: 10MHz
 Speed: 2.4Kbps
 Frequency: 800MHz, 900MHz
 Channel capacity: 30KHz
Disadvantages of 1G
 Unable to interoperate between countries

 Unreliable handoff
 Signal interference issues
 Little protection against hackers
 Poor voice quality, poor battery life
 Large phone size
 No security
2. Second Generation (2G)
 The second generation in the evolution of wireless communication introduced a

new digital technology known as Global System for Mobile communication
(GSM), which became the standard in future generations of wireless
communication.
 This technology is fully digital.
 GSM technology enabled digital voice and data to be sent across the network,
rather than relying on analog radio signals, in the early 1990s.
 2G technology uses TDMA and few uses CDMA
Key Features of 2G
 Bandwidth: 30–200KHz
 Speed: Up to 64Kbps
 SMS and MMS messaging
 Roaming
 Billing based on services used, e.g., long-distance calls
Disadvantages of 2G
 Low data rate

 Few features on mobile phones and devices
 Limited number of users
2.5G and 2.75G
 Between the year 2000 and 2003, an upgrade in technologies introduced the
packet network which provided high speed data transfer and internet and
became known as 2.5G and 2.75G.
 The standards included GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) and

EDGE (enhanced Data Rates in GSM).
 GPRS supports flexible data transmission rates and provides continuous

connection with the network. It also allows for the service provider to charge
for the amount of data that is sent rather than their connection time.
3. Third Generation (3G)
 2G network were built mainly for voice calls, sms, data and slow
transmission. But due to rapid changes in user expectation they do not meet
today's wireless need.
 3G network provides the ability to transfer voice data and non voice data over
the same network simultaneously.
 The introduction of UMTS (Universal Mobil Telecommunication Systems)
launched the third generation of wireless communications, which could transmit
more significant amounts of data at higher speeds.
 3G mobile communication enabled the global popularity of smartphones.
Specific applications were developed to utilize newer capabilities, such as
multimedia chat, email, video calling, social media and mobile games.
 The access method Uses W-CDMA.
Key Features of 3G
 Bandwidth: 15–20 MHz

 Speed: Up to 14Mbps
 Higher data rate
 Video calling
 Mobile app support
 Multimedia message support
 Location tracking
 Improved web browsing
 TV streaming
Disadvantages of 3G
 Costly infrastructure, equipment and implementation

 Expensive mobile devices
 Higher bandwidth requirements to enable faster data transmission
4. Fourth Generation (4G)
 The 4G network is an enhanced version of 3G networks, developed by the

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) to provide even higher
data rates while handling more advanced multimedia features.
 In addition, 4G networks also use a cutting-edge technology known as Long-Term
Evolution (LTE) while remaining compatible with previous generations of mobile
communication for easier deployment.
 4G is a very different technology as compared to 3G and was made possible practically
only because of the advancements in the technology in the last 10 years.
 Its purpose is to provide high speed , high quality and high capacity to users while
improving security
Key Features of 4G
 Bandwidth: 15–20 MHz

 Speed: Up to 1Gbps
 Interactive multimedia, voice and video calling
 High definition video streaming and gaming
 Enhanced security and mobility
 Reduced latency
Disadvantages of 4G
 Costly infrastructure, hardware

 Expensive mobile devices compatible with 4G required
 Time-consuming deployment and upgrade
5. Fifth Generation (5G)
 As the latest stage in the evolution of mobile communication, 5G addresses one of

the biggest challenges of wireless technology: latency, or the time it takes for an
amount of data to be transmitted from one point to another.
 5G technologies allows for high-speed data transmission to support the Internet
of Things (IoT), which describes physical objects that use sensors, processing
ability, software and other technologies to connect with other devices and
exchange data.
 It enables a new kind of network design to connect virtually everyone and everything
together including machines, object and devices.

Key Features of 5G
 Speed: 1–10Gbps (in lab conditions)
 Interactive multimedia, voice and video calling
 High-definition video streaming and gaming
 Enhanced security and mobility
 Reduced latency in milliseconds
Disadvantages of 5G
 Costly infrastructure, hardware

 Expensive mobile devices compatible with 4G required
 Time-consuming deployment and upgrade
Uses of 5G
 Industrial automation,
 Doctors using robots to perform surgery remotely,
 Smart TVs that need a very high amount of data,
 Internet of Things,
 Autonomous vehicles
Q 5: Compare 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G of cellular mobile system (IMP)

Q 6: Explain
i) Fixed channel assignment strategy.
ii) Dynamic channel assignment strategy
An optimum Frequency Reuse scheme helps in increasing Capacity and reducing
interference. The Radio Spectrum has to be efficiently utilized. To meet these
objectives, a number of channel assignment strategies have been suggested. They are:
Fixed Channel and Dynamic Channel assignment strategies.
1. Fixed Channel Assignment Strategies:
● In the fixed channel assignment method, each cell is assigned a predetermined
set of voice channels.
● Any call attempt can only be served by the unused channels within the same cell.
● If all the channels in the cell are occupied, the call is blocked and the
subscriber does not receive any service.
● However, in a particular version of fixed channel assignment strategy, called as
the borrowing strategy, a cell is allowed to borrow channels from its
neighboring cells in case of scarcity of the channels.
● The MSC supervises such borrowing procedures and ensures that this
procedure does not interfere with any of the calls in progress.
2. Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategies:
● In this strategy, permanent allocations of voice channels to individual cells are
not done.
The entire pool of channels is in the MSC’s control.
● Whenever there is a call request, the base station requests a channel from the
MSC.
● A channel is allotted after monitoring the following:
- Likelihood of future blocking within the cell.
- The reuse distance of the channel
- Rate at which the channel is being allotted and other cost functions.
● The MSC only allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not presently in
use in the cell or any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted
distance of frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference.
● Thus, this channel assignment strategy reduces the likelihood of blocking.
● Dynamic channel assignment strategies require the MSC to collect real-time data
on channel occupancy, traffic distribution, and Radio Signal Strength Indications
(RSSI) of all channels on a continuous basis. As number of subscriber’s
increases, the storage and computational load on the system also increases.
However, it provides the advantage of increased channe utilization and
decreased probability of a blocked call. Most of the 1G cellular operators, opt
for a static channel assignment scheme with channel borrowing provisions.
Comparison between FCA and DCA channel assignment strategies
Q 7: Difference between Simplex, Half duplex and Full Duplex Transmission Modes
S.
Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
No.
Simplex mode is Half Duplex Full Duplex

a uni-directional mode is a two- mode is a two-
communication. way directional way directional
The direction of communication communication
1. communication but one at a simultaneously.
time.
Sender and In simplex In Half Duplex In Full Duplex

2. Receiver mode, Sender mode, Sender mode, Sender
can send the can send the can send the
data but that data and also data and also
sender can’t can receive the can receive
receive the data but one at the data
data. a time. simultaneous.
Usage of one Usage of one Usage of two
channel for channel for the channels for
3. Channel usage the transmission of the
transmission data. transmission
of data. of data.
The simplex Full Duplex

mode provides
provides less The Half better
performance Duplex mode performance
than half provides less than simplex
4. Performance
duplex and performance and half
full duplex. than full duplex mode.
duplex.
Simplex The Half The Full-

utilizes the Duplex Duplex
maximum of a involves lesser doubles the
single utilization of utilization of
bandwidth. single transmission
Bandwidth
5. bandwidth at bandwidth.
Utilization
the time of
transmission.
It is suitable It is suitable It is suitable

for those for those for those
transmissions transmissions transmissions
when there is when there is when there is
requirement requirement of requirement of
of full sending data in sending and
bandwidth for both directions, receiving data
6. delivering but not at the simultaneousl
Suitable for
data. same time. y in both
directions.
Example of Example of Example of

simplex mode half duplex full duplex
7. Examples is: Keyboard mode is: mode is:
and monitor. Walkie- Telephone.
Talkies.
6ETC04: Open Elective II
Unit II:
Basic Cellular Concept:
Q.1: Explain in brief frequency reuse concept in wireless communication.
1. Frequency Reuse is the scheme in which allocation and reuse of channels throughout a
coverage region is done.
2. Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels or Frequency sub-bands
to be used within a small geographic area known as a cell.
3. The process of selecting and allocating the frequency sub-bands for all of the cellular
base station within a system is called Frequency reuse or Frequency Planning. The
same set of frequency is reused after a specific distance to ensure increase in capacity
and coverage .
Figure 1: Frequency Reuse and cluster formation
4. In Figure 1, all cells marked as ‘A’ will be allotted the same group of channels. i.e. cells
which have been given the same letter in the diagram have the same group of
channels.
5. Cells which have been allotted the same group of frequency channels are called Co-
channel cells. Cell A-Cell G have unique channels and there are no repetitions. Group
of cells in which every channel is unique is called as a Cluster.
6. To find the total number of channel allocated to a cell:
S = Total number of duplex channels available to use, k = Channels allocated to each cell
(k<S), N = Total number of cells or Cluster Size. Then Total number of channels (S) will
be,
S = kN
7. The number of cells after which a frequency channel can be reused is called as
the Frequency reuse factor (R.F.), and it is given as Frequency Reuse Factor = 1/N.
In the above diagram cluster size is 7 (A,B,C,D,E,F,G) thus frequency reuse factor is 1/7.
8. If a Cluster is replicated or repeated M times within the cellular system, then Capacity,
C will be,
C = MkN = MS
9. Since co-channel cells use the same set of channels, there is always possibility of
interference in these cells. Interference between the co-channel cells is called as Co-
channel interference.
10. There should be a minimum Distance after which the same channel can be reused with
minimum interference. This distance is called as Minimum safe distance and is given by,
If D is the minimum safe distance and R is the radius of each cell, then the ratio of D/R is termed
as Reuse factor Q and is given by
The Reuse Factor Q has a very important significance in deciding the capacity improvement
techniques.
Q.2: Define handoff. Explain basic process of handoff with neat diagram.
1. When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC
automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station. This
process of transferring Mobile Station’s call from one frequency channel or Base Station
to another is called as Handoff/Handover.
2. Handoff parameters
The following basic parameters are needed to determine whether a handoff is required or not.
1. Signal strength of the BS with which communication is being made.
2. Signal strengths of the surrounding BSs.
3. Availability of channels.
The handoff parameters are measured in the following way:
1. Signal strengths of BSs are measured by the mobile devices.
2. Channel availability status is known at the cellular network.
3. Cellular network makes the decision about when the hand over is to take place in
which channel of which cell.
Figure 2: Scenarios of proper and improper handoff
3. When a mobile user moves in a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the
received signal strength from Base Station becomes weak. BS is not able to detect the
signal transmitted by the MS and vice versa. Thus, the call may be dropped
(discontinued). Therefore, to maintain the continuity of a call, it is necessary to allocate
new frequency channel from the cell where the MS is currently located. In cellular
system it is performed by the process of Hand off/ Handover.
4. Handoff should be performed successfully and as infrequently as possible to minimize
load on the system and must be unknown to the user. Hence, system designers have to
decide on optimum power levels at which Hand-off should be initiated. Also, Hand-off
must be complete at the right time in order to minimize call drops. To achieve all this, a
complete information of the minimum detectable signal level, handoff threshold is
required.
5. Figure 2(a) shows a handoff is not made and the signal drops below the minimum
acceptable level required to keep the channel active. This dropped call event can happen
when there is a large delay by the MSC in assigning a handoff or when the threshold is
set too small for the handoff time in the system. Excessive delays may occur during high
traffic conditions due to computational loading at the MSC or due to the fact that no
channels are available on any of the nearby Base Stations (thus forcing the MSC to wait
until a channel in a nearby cell becomes free).
6. Figure 2(b) shows a proper hand off scenario in which the handoff threshold was
correctly defined and the signal did not fall beyond the threshold. This handoff threshold
level should not be very high to avoid unnecessary handoff scenarios. It should also not
be very low as there will be insufficient time given to complete the process handoff
which may cause call drops.
7. Hence the delta value i.e. difference between the minimum detectable signal level and
Handoff threshold is usually kept in the range of 0-6 dBs in modern cellular
communication systems. Practical value taken by most of the service providers is 2 dBs.
8. The minimum usable signal level for acceptable voice quality is usually seen to be -90
dBm to -100 dBm. If the received signal falls below this level, it cannot be detected by
the receiver. A slightly stronger signal level is used as threshold at which the Hand-off is
initiated.
Q.3. Explain the type (scenarios) of Handoff/Handover. OR

Explain in brief classification of Handoff process.
1. When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC
procedure is called handoff.
2. Depending on different purpose the handoff is classified are as below
A. Depending on nature of handoffs the classification is as
a. Hard Handoff
b. Soft Handoff
a. Hard Handoff:
 It is also known as “Break before make” connection.
 In this type of handoff the link to the old base station is terminated before the mobile
station establishes a link with the new base station.
 It is used in FDMA and TDMA based mobile system.
 Figure shows the mechanism of hard handoff.
b. Soft Handoff:
 It is also called as Mobile Directed handoff or make before Break Connection.
 In these types of handoff the link to the old base station is not terminated before the
mobile station established a link with the new base station.
 Once the link is established the connection to old BS is terminated.
 It is used in UMTS to improve the signal quality
 It is more seamless handover.
 Figure shows the mechanisms of soft handoff.

B. Depending on purpose of Handoff classification are as
a. Intra cell handoff
b. Inter cell handoff
c. Inter System Handoff
a. Intra-cell handover
 Such a kind of handover is performed to optimize the traffic load in the cell or to improve
quality of a connection by changing carrier frequency.
b. Inter-cell handover
 It is also known as Intra-BSC handover.
 Here the mobile moves from one cell to another but remains within the same BSC
(Base station controller).
 Here the BSC handles the handover process

i) Inter-BSC handover
 It is also called as Intra-MSC handover.
 As BSC can control only a limited number of cells, we might usually need to
transfer a mobile from one BSC to another BSC.
 Here the MSC handles the handover process.
ii) Inter-MSC handover
 It occurs when a mobile moves from one MSC region to another MSC.
 MSC cover a large area. It can be imagined as a handover from Maharashtra MSC
to Gujarat MSC while travelling.
C. Handoff schemes based on algorithms of handoff (handoff protocols)

The mobile unit and the BS are connected via radio links which carry data as well as
signalling information. There are three different handoff strategies based on algorithms
ofhandoff, which have been proposed for transferring the connection to a new BS.
 MCHO (mobile-controlled handoff)
 NCHO (network-controlled handoff)
 MAHO (mobile-assisted handoff)
Since the number of handoffs increases with decreasing cell size, it will be an almost impossible
task to make a handoff decision for every mobile by one central switch (centralized). Moreover,
in microcells the connection between MS and BS can deteriorate very quickly. Fast handoff
decisions required in such situations can be achieved more readily by decentralizing the handoff
decision process.
Network-controlled handoff (NCHO)
1. NCHO is a centralized handoff protocol. In this type of handoff the network (surrounding
BS, the MSC or both) makes a handoff decision based on measurements of the RSS
(received signal strength) of mobile and the interferences from different BS.
2. The signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) is measured by means of a supervisory audio tone
(SAT).
3. If the mobile is measured to have a weaker signal in its old cell, while a stronger signal in
a neighboring cell, then a handoff decision could be made by the network to switch BS
from the old cell to the new cell. Such a type of handoff in general takes 100–200 ms and
produces a noticeable “interruption” in the conversation.
4. However, overall delay of such a type of handoff is in general in the range of 5–10 s.
Thus, this type of handoff is not suitable to a rapidly changing environment and to a high
density of users due to the associated delay.
5. The NCHO is widely used in the first-generation cellular systems, such as AMPS, Total
Accesses Communications System (TACS) and Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT). In
NCHO, the MSC is solely in charge of the handoff process and the MSs are completely
passive.
Mobile-assisted handoff (MAHO)
1. MAHO is a variant of NCHO strategy. To improve the handoff reaction time and to
reduce the handoff administration load of the MSC, the handoff decisions should be
distributed towards the mobile phones.
2. One way to achieve this could be to let the mobile phones make the measurements and
the MSC make the decisions.
3. In the MAHO strategy, the network (BS and/or MSC) directs the mobile to measure the
signal strengths from the surrounding BSs and to report those measurements back to the
network.
4. The network then uses these measurements to determine where a handoff is required with
which channel.
5. The delay in this protocol starting from the handoff initiation till the handoff execution is
around 1 s. This time may still be too long to avoid dropping a call due to street corner
effect.
6. Some examples of present cellular networks which implement MAHO are the GSM
system and the IS-95 system.
Mobile-controlled handoff (MCHO)
1. In this case, the mobile phone is the only entity which measures the handoff criteria and
makes a decision based on them.
2. The MSC is not involved in the handoff process resulting in reduced burden on the MSC.
The mobile has to choose the optimum BS based on the measurements.
3. Since the handoff process is implemented in the mobile itself, the delay is usually smaller
with a typical value of 0.1 s and is suitable for microcellular systems.
4. In this strategy, the mobile continuously monitors the radio signal strengths and quality of
surrounding BSs.
5. A handoff can be initiated if the signal strength of the serving BS is lower than that of
another BS by a certain threshold. Then the mobile requests the target BS for a channel
with the lowest interference and handoff mechanism will take place.
6. In such a case, the MS does not have any information about the signal quality of other
users, but handoff must not cause interference to other users.
7. MCHO is the highest degree of handoff decentralization. Some of the advantages of
handoff decentralization are as follows:
1. Handoff decisions can be made fast.
2. MSC does not have to make handoff decisions for every mobile, which is a very
difficult task for the MSC of high-capacity microcellular systems (radius < 1 km).
An example of a MCHO-based handoff control network is the standard for cordless

phones in Europe - digital European cordless telephone (DECT).
Q.4 Differentiate between soft hand off and hard hand off.
Q.5 Explain the important techniques to enhance the cellular coverage capacity. OR
Write a Short note on Cell Splitting, cell sectoring, repeaters for extending range and Microcell
zone concept.
There is a performance criterion of cellular mobile systems like:
a) Voice quality.
b) Service Quality like coverage and quality of service.
c) Number of Dropped calls.
d) Special features like call forwarding, call diverting, call barring.
As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to cell becomes
insufficient to support required number of users.
At this point, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels per unit coverage
area.
Following techniques used to improve cell capacity in cellular system,
 Cell Splitting.
 Sectoring.
 Coverage Zone Approach.
 Repeaters
A) CELL SPLITTING:
 It is process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own base
station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
 Cell splitting increases capacity of cellular system since it increases number of times that
channels are reused, it preserves frequency reuse plan.
 It defines new cells which have smaller radius than original cells and by installing these
smaller cells called microcells between existing cells, that is radius will be half of the
original cell.
 Thus capacity increases due to additional number of channels per unit area, but does not
disturb the channel allocation scheme required to maintain the minimum co-channel
reuse ratio Q between co-channel cells.
B) SECTORING:
 This is another method to increase cellular capacity and coverage by keeping cell radius
unchanged and decreasing D/R ratio.
 In this approach, capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the number of cells in a
cluster and thus increasing the frequency reuse.
 The co-channel interference in a cellular system may be decreased by replacing a single
Omni-directional antenna at the base station by several directional antennas, each
radiating within a specified sector.
 The factor by which the co-channel interference is reduced depends on the amount of
sectoring used.
a) 1200 sectoring b) 600 sectoring
1) 3 Sectors 1200each
2) 6 Sectors 600 each

Advantages:
 Improvement in Signal capacity.

 Improvement in signal to interference ratio.
 Increases frequency reuse.
Disadvantages:
 Increase in number of handoffs.

 Increase in number of antenna at each base station.
C) COVERAGE ZONE/ MICROCELL ZONE CONCEPT

This approach was presented by Lee to solve the problem of an increased load on the switching
and control link elements of the mobile system due to sectoring.
 It is based on a microcell concept for 7 cell reuse.

 In this scheme, each of the three zone sites are connected to a single base station and
share the same radio equipment.
 Multiple zones and a single base station make up a cell. As a mobile travels within the
cell, it is served by the zone with the strongest signal.
 This approach is superior to sectoring since antennas are placed at the outer edges of the
cell, and any base station channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station.
D) Repeaters
1. The users of wireless networks require dedicated coverage for coverage in areas like
mountains, valleys, buildings, etc. To provide such range capabilities radio re-
transmitters called as "repeaters" are used.
2. Repeaters are bidirectional. They simultaneously transmit and receive signals from the
serving base station. They operate using over-the-air signals so that they can be installed
anywhere.
3. Repeaters are capable of repeating an entire cellular band.
4. When the signals from base station are received, the repeater amplifies and reradiates the
base station signals to that particular coverage region.
5. The noise that is received and interference are reradiated by the repeater on the forward
and the reverse link. So, repeaters must be carefully installed to adjust the forward and
reverse link amplifier levels and antenna patterns.
6. Directional antennas are connected to the inputs or outputs of repeaters for localized spot
coverage in tunnels or buildings.
7. If the coverage of a cell that is in use is modified then the user can allocate some base
stations traffic to areas covered by the repeater.
8. The repeater does not add capacity to the system. They are used to provide coverage into
and around buildings where the coverage is weak. Repeaters with DAS (Distributed
Antenna Systems) network are installed within the buildings to provide coverage into
targeted areas.
9. Knowledge of correct location for repeaters and distributed antenna systems within the
building needs planning, because into the building the interference levels are reradiated
into the building from the base station and from the interior of the building to the base
station.
Q.6 what is frequency planning in cellular system? Draw frequency reuse pattern for N = 4 and
N = 7.
i. The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all cellular base stations
within a system is called as frequency reuse or frequency planning.
ii. Cellular radio systems rely on an intelligent allocation and reuse of channels throughout a
coverage region. Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used with
small geographic area called a cell. Base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel group
which contains completely different channels than neighboring cells.
iii. By limiting the coverage area to boundaries of a cell, same group of channels may be used to
cover different cells that are separated from each other by distances large enough to keep
interference levels within tolerance limits.
iv. If each cell is allotted K sets of channels and if S channels are divided among N cells in
unique and disjoint groups which have same number of channels, then total number of available
channels can be S=KN.
Thus, a small value of Q means larger capacity as cluster size N is small whereas large value of
Q improves transmission quality. To improve capacity N is usually 4, 7 or 12.
vii. To improve capacity and efficiency of frequency reuse plan, cell sectoring is employed with
Omni directional antenna.
frequency reuse pattern for N = 4 and N = 7
 Each cellular base station is allocated group of radio channels to be used within a small
geographic area called “cell”. Base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel group
which contains completely different channels than neighboring cell.
 By limiting coverage area to within the boundaries of cell, the same group of channels
may be used to cover different cells that are separated from one another by distance large
enough to keep interference level within tolerable limits.
 The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all the cellular base
station within a system is called frequency reuse or frequency planning. Frequency reuse
is important as the spectrum allocated for cellular transmission is limited and demand is
increasing rapidly.
For cluster size N = 7For cluster size N = 4

Q.8 Show that the co-channel reuse ratio is given by Q = √3𝑁, where N is the size of cluster and
cells have hexagonal geometry.
Problems:
WC - Unit III: Basic Radio Propagation and Multiple Access Techniques
Q 1: Explain in brief Reflection, Diffraction and Scattering in wireless communication
1. When a signal reaches the receiver from the transmitter in a single path, without suffering
any reflections, diffractions, or scattering, this is known as propagation along the line-of-
sight (LOS) path. An LOS component has the shortest time delay among all the received
signals and is usuallythe strongest signal received.
2. In non-line-of-sight (NLOS) propagation, a signal transmitted into a wireless medium

reaches thereceiver via one or more indirect paths, each having different attenuations and
delays. When a transmitted signal travels through communication paths other than the
LOS path to reach the receiver, it is said to have undergone NLOS propagation. NLOS
propagation is responsible for coverage behind buildings and other obstructions. The
main NLOS propagation mechanisms are reflection, scattering, and diffraction.
The mechanisms of propagation in the context of an indoor wireless local area

network.
In a wireless communication system, a transmitted signal can reach the receiver via a number of
propagation mechanisms are as follows
1. Reflections
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering
1. REFLECTION
It occurs when the EM wave strikes an object that has large dimensions as compared to the
wavelength of the propagating wave and bounce back in the same medium.
Example: walls of building, clear ground.
Visit : learnerbits.com
Figure : Reflection mechanism in wireless

communication
If there is a large amount of reflection, it is possible for signal strength to become weak or to suffer
from interference.
The multipath reflection using wide beam antennas is essential in mobile broadband
communication. It is difficult to achieve single path reflection due to unavailability of object which
can provide necessary angle of incidence to obtain desired propagation.
Reflection occurs when a wave hits the interface between two dissimilar media, so that all of or at
least part of the wave front returns into the medium from which it originated.
Reflection creates multipath, which can degrade the strength and quality of the received signal as
well as cause data corruption or cancel signals.
2. Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when the signal encounters an edge or a corner, whose size is larger than the
wavelength of the signal, e.g., an edge of a wall.
It is also referred as bending. The loss to the EM signal due to this depends on frequency of EM
wave and sharpness of the bend.
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp irregularities (edges). The waves that encounter the object, waves bend
around the object, taking a longer and different path.
The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing surface are present throughout the space and
even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of waves around the obstacle, even when a line-
of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and receiver. At high frequencies, diffraction, like
reflection depends on the geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase, and polarisation
of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.
Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into an
obstructed (shadowed) region, the diffraction field still exists and often has sufficient signal
strength to produce a useful signal. Diffraction is one of the main ways that it is possible to provide
cellular coverage in cities with lower frequencies (less than 3GHz).
3. Scattering
If there were microscopic irregularities in the surface we would get diffuse instead of specular
reflection. Radio wave scattering occurs when signals hit a rough irregular surface. The signals,
instead of being reflected, gets scattered in many directions. Scattering can also be caused by dust,
humidity, rain, vegetation etc. Scattering reduces the quality of received signals.
Scattering
Scattering is when an RF wave encounters an object and scatters into multiple waves. If a signal
has been scattered then the integrity and strength of the signal will suffer tremendously. Scattering
is more unpredictable than others.
Q 2: Differentiate between Reflection, Diffraction and Scattering.
phenomenon Reflection Diffraction Scattering
Occurrence Reflection Diffraction is the spreading of light Scattering occurs

occurs when when it passes through a narrow when signals hit a
light bounces off opening or around an object. rough irregular
a surface surface
Cause by Plane surface Sharp irregularities microscopic

(Object that has irregularities in
large the surface
dimensions as
compared to the
wavelength of
the
propagating
wave)
Example walls of an edge of a wall dust, humidity,
building, clear rain, vegetation
ground etc
Path Depend upon Depend upon edge of an object Depend upon

angle of incident irregularities of
an object
Multipath Less Moderate Large

propagation
Signal Strength More Less Lowest
Object size Large enough Large Small

compared to
incident
signal
wavelength
Medium take place in the take place in the same medium. take place in the
same medium. same medium.
Signal losses Less Moderate More
Predication of Possible Less possibilities Unpredictable

return signal after
strike of an object
Diagram
Q 3: Explain in brief fading in wireless communication.
1. Fading in wireless communication is defined as the fluctuation in the strength of the

signal received at the receiver. These are basically unwanted variations introduced at
the time when thesignal propagates from an one end to another end by taking multiple
paths.
2. In Wireless Communication, fading refers to the attenuation of the transmitted signal

power due to various variables during wireless propagation. These variables can be
atmospheric conditions such as rainfall and lightning, geographical position, time,
radio frequency etc.
3. The channel between transmitter and receiver can also be time varying or fixed
depending upon whether the transmitter/receiver are fixed or moving with respect to
each other which can cause fading to occur.
4. This multipath propagation is nothing other than the outcome of several atmospheric
reflections. So, when waves of a signal from an antenna transmitted at the same time
then multipath propagation causes the reception of waves in different time spans at the
receiver. The waves when propagate through different paths suffers variation in height
and ionization density in the ionospheric region of the atmosphere.
5. We are also aware of the fact that the actually received signal is the vector sum of the
waves received at that instant at the receiver. These received signalsfrom different paths
at the receiver either get added constructively or destructively. This causes the variation
in the overall strength of the received signal is known as fading.
6. It is noteworthy that due to fading the strength of the signal shows variation from a few
dBs to around 10 or 20 dB. This depends on the condition that whether fading is normal
or severe. Fading is a gradual phenomenon and signal can be recovered. However, the
fade-out is a phenomenon which is a condition of sudden ionospheric disturbance or
ionospheric storms in sunspot cycles, etc. that leads to complete fading of the signal.
In wireless communication many factors generating Fading effect. Followings are the list of
components (factors) of fading.
• Path Loss
• Fluctuation of the received signal power
• Fluctuations in signal phase
• Variations of Angle of arrival of received signal
• Reflection and diffractions from various object
• Received power variation created by multi path
• Frequency Shift (Doppler shift)
Fig. Fading due to different factors
7. In above diagram, In Path loss is just gradually decreases in signal strength with
increase in distance but not much of fluctuation. In the shadowing, some fluctuation of
the signal strength but the fluctuation frequency over the distance is not that high. In
Multipath, the fluctuations of signalstrength and the fluctuation frequency is also pretty
high. A real received signal is the result of summation of all the factors and it shows
the effect of fading.
Fading has different types are as follows.
Q 4: Explain the concept of Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
1. FDMA is the process of dividing one channel or bandwidth into multiple individual
bands each for use by a single user. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
assigns individual channels to individual users. It can be seen from Figure 1 that each
user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel.
Fig. Frequency division multiple access scheme
2. These channels are assigned on demand to users who request service. During the period
of the call, no other user can share the same channel. In FDD systems, the users are
assigned a channel as a pair of frequencies; one frequency is used for the forward
channel, while the other frequencyis used for the reverse channel.
The features of FDMA are as follows:
• The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.

• If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be used by other users
toincrease or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.
• After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station and the mobile transmit
simultaneously and continuously.
• The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (30 kHz in AMPS) as each
channel supports only one circuit per carrier. That is, FDMA is usually implemented
innarrowband systems.
• The symbol time of a narrowband signal is large as compared to the average delay
spread.This implies that the amount of inter-symbol interference is low and, thus, little
or no equalization is required in FDMA narrowband systems.
• The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower when compared to TDMA systems,
though this is changing as digital signal processing methods improve for TDMA.
• Since FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme, fewer bits are needed for overhead
purposes (such as synchronization and framing bits) as compared to TDMA.
• FDMA systems have higher cell site system costs as compared to TDMA systems,
because of the single channel per carrier design, and the need to use costly bandpass
filters to eliminate spurious radiation at the base station.
• The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the transmitter and receiver operate
at the same time. This results in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber units and
base stations.
• FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference
Advantages of FDMA: AS FDMA systems use low bit rates(large symbol time)compared
toaverage delay spread, it offers the following advantages-
• Reduces the bit rate information and the use of efficient numerical codes increases
thecapacity
• It reduces the cost and lowers the inter symbol interference (ISI)
• Equalization is not necessary
• An FDMA system can be easily implemented. A system can be configured so that the
improvements in terms of speech encoder and bit rate reduction may be easily
incorporated.
• Since the transmission is continuous , less number of bits are required for
synchronizationand framing.
Disadvantages of FDMA: Although FDMA offers several advantages, it has a few drawbacks
aswell, which are listed below-
• It does not offer significantly from analog systems; improving the capacity depends on
thesignal-to-interference reduction, or a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
• The maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.
• Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.
• Hardware implies narrow-band filters, which cannot be realized in VLSI and therefore
increases the cost.
• Near-far problem: Signals closer to the receiver are received with less attenuation than
signals farther away. Given the lack of complete orthogonality, the transmissions
from the more remote mobile units may be more difficult to recover. Thus, power
control techniques are very imp ortant in a CDMA system
Q 5: Explain the concept of Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
1. Time division multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio spectrum into time
slots, and in each slot only one user is allowed to either transmit or receive.
2. As shown in Figure, A particular user gets time slots which are non-continuous in nature.
The nexttime slot is assigned to him/her only when the other users sharing the same
spectrum have each done one burst of transmission at least.
3. Collection of time slots which are assigned to unique users is called as a Frame. In other
words, a user gets only one time slot per frame to transmit. In TDMA/TDD, half of the
time slots in the frame would be used for forward link and the other halfwould be used
for reverse link. In TDMA/FDD systems, since two separate physical channels exist,
transmit and receive frames are different and on different carrier frequencies.
4. In a TDMA frame, the preamble contains the address and synchronization information
that both the base station and the subscribers use to identify each other.
5. Guard times are utilized toallow synchronization of the receivers between different slots
and frames. Different TDMA standards have different TDMA frame structures.
TDMA Features:
1. TDMA systems divides the radio spectrum into time slots, and in each time slot only
one user is allowed to either transmit or receive. TDMA effectively shares a single
carrier frequency with several users.
2. Transmission for any user is non-continuous, bursty in nature. This reduces the battery
consumption if the subscriber’s transmitter can be switched off when not in use.
3. In TDMA, the handoff process is much simpler as transmission mode is discontinuous.
The mobile can work in slotted mode and is able to monitor the RSSI of other Base
Stationswhen it is idle and not transmitting/receiving anything. Thus MAHO (Mobile
Assisted Hand Off) can be implemented easily.
4. TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus duplexers are not
required. Even if FDD is used, a switch rather than a duplexer inside the subscriber unit
isall that is required to switch between transmitter and receiver using TDMA.
5. A TDMA frame consists of data for many users. Hence, guard times are necessary to
separate users. TDMA system requires high synchronization overhead bits due to
bursty transmission. In each TDMA frame, the preamble contains the address and
synchronizationinformation. Thus, TDMA systems have larger overheads as compared
to FDMA.
6. TDMA could allocate varied number of time slots per frame to different users.
7. In TDMA, the allotted spectrum is not divided into narrow channels. Hence, during
propagation, the TDMA channel bandwidth is comparatively more than the coherence
bandwidth of the medium. This results in frequency selective fading. Hence,
Equalizationis necessary on the receiver side.
Advantages of TDMA
Here is a list of few notable advantages of TDMA −
• Permits flexible rates (i.e., several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each
timeinterval translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).
• Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user can
be changed frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1, three slots in the
frame 2,one slot in the frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).
• No guard band required for the wideband system.
• No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.
Disadvantages of TDMA
The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow −
• High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.
• Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for
synchronizationand supervision.
• Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to
clockinstability).
• Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.
• Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.
Q 6: Explain the concept of Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).
1. In code division multiple access (CDMA) systems, the narrowband message signal is
multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal. The spreading
signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a chip rate which is ordersof magnitudes
greater than the data rate of the message.
2. All users in a CDMA system, as seen from Figure, use the same carrier frequency and
may transmit simultaneously. Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword which is
approximately orthogonal to all other codeword’s.

3. The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only the specific desired
codeword. All other code words appear as noise due to de-correlation. For detection of
the message signal, thereceiver needs to know the codeword used by the transmitter.
Each user operates independently with no knowledge of the other users.
4. In CDMA, the power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise floor afterde-
correlation. If the power of each user within a cell is not controlled such that theydo not
appear equal at the base station receiver, then the near-far problem occurs. The near-far
problem occurs when many mobile users share the same channel. In general, the
strongest received mobile signal will capture the demodulator at a basestation.
5. In CDMA, Figure shows Spread spectrum multiple access in which each channel is
assigned a unique PN code which is orthogonal or approximately orthogonal to PN
codes used by other users. Stronger received signal levels raise the noise floor at thebase
station demodulators for the weaker signals, thereby decreasing the probability that
weaker signals will be received.
6. To combat the near-far problem, power controlis used in most CDMA implementations.
Power control is provided by each base station in a cellular system and assures that
each mobile within the base station coverage area provides the same signal level to the
base station receiver. This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber overpowering the
base station receiver and drowning out the signals of far away subscribers.
7. Power control is implemented at the base station by rapidly sampling the radio signal
strength indicator (RSSI) levels of each mobile and then sending a power change
command over the forward radio link. Despite the use of power control within each
cell, out-of-cell mobiles provide interference which is not under the control of the
receiving base station.
8. CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple-access technique. A spread-spectrum technique

spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A
spreading code is a pseudo-random code that has a narrow ambiguity function, unlike
other narrow pulse codes.
9. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be
transmitted. Data for transmission is combined by bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with
the faster code. The figure shows how a spread-spectrum signal is generated.
Q 7: Explain features of CDMA
Features (attributes) of CDMA are as follows:
1. Frequency usage – Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency.
EitherTDD or FDD may be used.
2. Soft Capacity Limit – Increasing the number of users in a CDMA system raises the
noiselevel in a linear manner. Thus, there is no absolute limit on the number of users
in CDMA. Rather, the system performance gradually degrades for all users as the
number of users is increased, and improves as the number of users is decreased.
Hence, unlike TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit.
3. Multipath Resistance – In CDMA systems, channel data rates are very high. Hence the
symbol (chip) duration is very short and usually much less than the channel delay
spread.Since PN sequences have low auto correlation, multipath which is delayed by
more than a chip will appear as noise. A RAKE receiver can be used to improve
reception by collecting time delayed versions of the required signal.
4. Soft Handoff – Since CDMA uses co channel cells, it can use macroscopic spatial
diversity to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can
simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or more base stations. The MSC
maychoose the best version of the signal at any time without switching frequencies.
5. Self-Jamming – Self Jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-Jamming arises
fromthe fact that the spreading sequences of different users are not exactly orthogonal.
Hencein the de-spreading of a particular PN code, there is some level of cross
correlation. There will be non-zero contributions at the receiver from the transmissions
of other usersin the system.
6. Near Far effect – The near far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an undesired
userhas a high detected power as compared to the desired user. Signals close to the
receiverare received with less attenuation than signals farther away.
7. Fading effects – Multipath may be substantially reduced because signal is spread
over alarge spectrum.
8. Economical – CDMA is the most cost-effective technology that requires fewer cell
sitesand no costly frequency reuse pattern. The average power transmitted by CDMA
mobilestation averages 6 to 7 mill watts(mW), which is significantly lower than the
average power transmitted by FM and TDMA phones. Transmitting less power means
that the average battery life will be longer.
Q 8: How is power control implemented in CDMA?
In the figure, there are two mobile cells A and B. A is closer to the base station and B is far
fromthe base station. Power received (Pr) is the minimum signal level for the performance of
the required system. Therefore, the mobile B should transmit more power to achieve the same
Pr to the base station (PB>PA).
When all mobile stations transmit the signals at the same power (MS), the received levels at
the base station are different from each other, which depend on the distances between BS and
MSs. The received level fluctuates quickly due to fading. In order to maintain the received
level at BS, a suitable power control technique must be employed to control the transmission
power of each user in CDMA systems, called the transmission power control (Control Power).
There are two ways to control the transmission power. First is the open-loop (Open Loop)
control and second isclosed-loop (Closed Loop) control.
A. Open loop power control: It is implemented on reverse link in which the quality of the
signalcoming from reference channel of BS is measured by MS. If the strength of the signal
coming
from BS is above some threshold, then the transaction power of the MS is reduced by MS. If
thequality of signal reaching to the MS is not good then MS increases its transmission power.
Increasing or decreasing the transmission power is done by measuring the quality strength of
thesignal coming from BS to MS on forward channel.
Limitations: In these forward and reverse channels are not correlated. MS does not know that
whether it has minimized the transmission power efficiency or not. There may be delay
betweensignal transmission and reception.
B. Close loop power control: Open loop power control has some limitations and to overcome
them the closed loop power control is implemented. Is uses feedback between BS and MS, in
this the power of the signal coming from MS is measured by BS and BS send a control signal
totell Ms that what action the MS should perform.
➢ Power control is capable of compensating the fading fluctuation.
➢ Received power from all MS are controlled to be equal.
➢ Near-Far problem is mitigated by the power control
The base station reverse traffic channel receiver estimates and responds to the signal
strengthand interference. For a particular mobile station. Since both the signals and
interference are continually varying, power control updates are sent by the base station
every 1.25ms.
Power control commands are sent to each subscriber unit on the forward control
subchannelwhich instruct the mobile to raise or lower its transmitted power in 1 db steps.
If the received signal is low 0 is sent over power control subchannel instructing the
mobilestation to increase its mean output power level. If mobile’s power level is high 1
is sent to indicate that the mobile station should decrease the power level.
The power control is bit corresponds to two modulation symbols on the forward traffic
channel.Power control bits are inserted after data scrambling.
Q. 9 Compare the multiple access techniques FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.
Parameter / FDMA TDMA CDMA

Approach
Concept It is a technology by In TDMA the division of Every bit of a
which the total calls happens on time conversation is been
bandwidth available to basis. The system first tagged with a
the system is divided digitizes the calls, and specific and unique
into frequencies. This then combines those code.
division is done conversations into a
between non unified digital stream on a
overlapping single radio channel.
frequenciesthat are
then assigned toeach
communicating Pair
key resources Frequency Active Time period Codes
Sharing of In FDMA each user In TDMA total available Sharing of resources

resources is allotted a frequency is given to user is done through
frequency, through for a particular time codes (PN sequence)
which period
communication can
be
done all the time
bandwidth here entire band of here entire bandwidth is here entire
frequencies is divided shared among different bandwidth is shared
into multiple RF subscribers at fixed among different
channels/carriers. predetermined or users by assigning
Eachcarrier is dynamically assigned time unique codes
allocated to intervals/slots.
different users.
Signal Filtering in the Synchronization in the Code plus special
Separation frequency domain time domain recievers
Transmission Continuous Discontinuous Continuous
Scheme
System Flexible System Less flexible than Less flexible than
flexibility TDMA& CDMA CDMA, More
Flexible than FDMA
System Less Complex Less Complex than Complex system
complexity thanTDMA & CDMA, More
CDMA Flexible
than FDMA
Cell capacity Limited Limited No absolute limit on
channel capacity but
it is an interference
limited system
Advantages simple, robust flexible, fully digital flexible, soft
handover
Disadvantages Inflexible Guard space needed; complex receivers
synchronization is difficult
Comment used with TDMA and used with SDMA and used with TDMA and
SDMA FDMA FDMA
Q.1 Draw the block diagram and explain GSM architecture in details indicating all the
interfaces.
The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that interact with
themselves and with users through certain network interface. The subsystems are Base
Station Subsystem (BSS), Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operational Support
Subsystem (OSS). Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem but it is considered as a part of
BSS.
1. Mobile Station (MS): Mobile Station is made up of two entities.

A. Mobile equipment (ME):
• It is a portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device.

• It is uniquely identified by an IMEI number.
• It is used for voice and data transmission. It also monitors power and signal quality
of surrounding cells for optimum handover. 160 characters long SMS can also be
sent using Mobile Equipment.
B. Subscriber Identity module (SIM):
• It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
number.
• It allows users to send and receive calls and receive other subscriber services. - It is
protected by password or PIN.
• It contains encoded network identification details. it has key information to activate
the phone.
• It can be moved from one mobile to another.
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): It is also known as radio subsystem, provides and
manages radio transmission paths between the mobile station and the Mobile Switching
Centre (MSC). BSS also manages interface between the mobile station and all other
subsystems of GSM. It consists of two parts.
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
• It encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signal to the antenna.
• It consists of transceiver units.
• It communicates with mobile stations via radio air interface and also communicates
with BSC via Abis interface.
B. Base Station Controller (BSC):
• It manages radio resources for BTS. It assigns frequency and time slots for all
mobile stations in its area.
• It handles call set up, transcoding and adaptation functionality handover for each
MS radio power control.
• It communicates with MSC via A interface and also with BTS.
3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):

it manages the switching functions of the system and allows MSCs to communicate with
other networks such as PSTN and ISDN. It consist of
A. Mobile switching Centre:
• It is a heart of the network. It manages communication between GSM and other

networks.
• It manages call set up function, routing and basic switching.
• It performs mobility management including registration, location updating and
inter BSS and inter MSC call handoff.
• It provides billing information.
• MSC does gateway function while its customers roam to other network by using
HLR/VLR.
B. Home Location Registers (HLR): -

• It is a permanent database about mobile subscriber in a large service area. - Its
database contains IMSI, IMSISDN, prepaid/post-paid, roaming restrictions,
supplementary services.
C. Visitor Location Registers (VLR): -
• It is a temporary database which updates whenever new MS enters its area by HLR
database. - It controls mobiles roaming in its area. It reduces number of queries to
HLR. - Its database contains IMSI, TMSI, IMSISDN, MSRN, location, area
authentication key.
D. Authentication Centre: -
• It provides protection against intruders in air interface. - It maintains
authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (RAND, SRES, Ki).
E. Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):
• It is a database that is used to track handset using the IMEI number.

• It is made up of three sub classes- the white list, the black list and the gray list.
4. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS): It supports the operation and maintenance of GSM
and allows system engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM
system. It supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centres (OMC) which are used to
monitor the performance of each MS, Bs, BSC and MSC within a GSM system. It has three
main functions:
• To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with a

particular market.
• To manage all charging and billing procedures
• To manage all mobile equipment in the system.
Interfaces used for GSM network : (ref fig 2)

1)UM Interface –Used to communicate between BTS with MS
2)Abis Interface— Used to communicate BSC TO BTS
3) A Interface-- Used to communicate BSC and MSC
4) Singling protocol (SS 7)- Used to communicate MSC with other network .
Q.2Explain Traffic & Control GSM channels along with its sub types and characteristics.
There are mainly two types of GSM logical channels:

(i) Traffic channels (TCHs). (ii) Control channels (CCHs).
Traffic channels carry digitally encoded user voice or user data and have identical formats
of both forward link and reverse link. Control channels carry signal and synchronization
commands between the base station and mobile station. Other control channels are used
only for forward and reverse link.
(i) GSM Traffic channels (TCHs).
GSM traffic channel carry digital voice and user data either at half rate or at full rate. When
signal is transmitted at full rate, user data is contained within one time slot per frame.
When signal is transmitted at half rate, user data is mapped on to the same time slots, but it
is sent in alternative frames.
Full Rate Traffic Channels (TCH):

(i) Full-rate speech channel (TCH/FS): This channel carries user speech in digitized form at
a raw data rate of 13 kbps. GSM channel coding is added to digitized speech then the full
rate speech channel carries 22.8 kbps.
(ii) Full-rate data channel for 9600 bps (TCH/F9.6): This channel carries raw user data
which is transfers at 9600 bps with additional forward error correction applied by GSM,
the 9600 bps data sent at 22.8 kbps.
(iii) Full-rate data channels for 4800 bps (TCH/F4.8): This channel carries raw user data
which is transferred at 4800 bps with additional forward error correction applied by GSM,
the 4800 bps is sent at 22.8 kbps.
(iv) Full rate data channel for 2400 bps (TCH/F2.4): This channel carries raw user data
which is transferred at 2400 bps with additional forward error correction coding by GSM,
the 2400 bps is sent at 22.8 bps.
Half-rate Traffic Channels:
(i) Half-rate speech channel (TCH/HS): This channel carries digitized speech which is
sampled at a half rate then the full rate GSM channel coding added to digitized speech and
half rate speech channel carry 11.4 kbps.
(ii) Half-rate data channels for 4800 bps (TCH/H4.8): This channel carries raw user data
which is to be transferred at 4800 bps. With additional forward error correction applied by
GSM, the 4800 bps data sent at 11.4 kbps.
(iii) Half-rate data channels for 2400 bps (TCH/H2.4): This channel carries raw user data
which is to be transferred at 2400 bps with additional forward error correction by the
GSM, the 2400 bp data sent at 11.4 kbps.
GSM Control Channels (CCH):

There are three control channels in GSM:
1. Broadcast control channels.

2. Common control channels.
3. Dedicated control channels.
1. Broadcast control channels (BCH) : The BTS uses this channel to give information to all
MSs within a cell. Information uses by this channel is cell and network identity, current
control channel structure, channel availability and congestion. The broadcast control
channel also sends the list of channels that are currently used within cell.
(a) Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH): The BTS sends information for frequency
correction via the Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH). The FCCH is special data burst,
which occupies first frame (i.e. frame 0) and repeated after every ten frames in control
channel multi-frame.
(b) Synchronization Channel (SCH): BTS broadcast information about time synchronization
to all MSS via synchronization channel (SCH). If the mobile station is 30 km away from
serving base station, it is often necessary to adjust the timing of particular mobile user. The
SCH is transmitted once after every ten frames within the control channel multiframe.
2. Common Control Channels (CCCH):
All the information regarding setting up a connection between MS and BS is exchanged via
the CCCH. The common control channel occupies TSO (framo) of GSM frame and that is not
used by BCH and ideal channels.
(a) Paging Channel (PCH): The PCH gives paging signal from the base station to all mobile
stations within cell. It also notify particular mobile for an incoming call from PSTN.
Alternatively, the PCH is used to provide cell broadcast ASCII text message to all
subscriber, as a GSM SMS features.
(b) Random Access Channel (RACH): If MS wants to setup a call, it uses Random Access
Channel (RACH) to send data to BTS. All mobile must request access or respond to a PCH
with TSO of GSM frame. At BTS, every frame will accept RACH transmission from mobile
during TSO.
(c) Access Grant Channel (AGCH): The AGCH channel is used by base station to provide
forward link communication to mobile station and carries instructional data which tells
mobile to operate in particular physical channel with particular control channel. The AGCH
is the final common control channel message sent by the base station before subscriber is
roaming or moving off the control channel.
3. Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH):
There are mainly three types of dedicated control channels in GSM, same as traffic channel,
they are bidirectional. They have same format and function on both forward and reverse
links.
(a) Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channels (SDCCH): SDCCH carries signaling data which
follows the connection of mobile with base station. The SDCCH ensures that the mobile and
base station connection remains constant while the base station and MSC verify the
subscriber unit and resource allocation to mobile. The SDCCH is also used to send
authentication and alert messages but not speech.
(b) Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH): The SACCH is always associate with traffic
channel or SDCCH, the SACCH carries general information between the MS and BTS. On the
forward link, the SACCH is used to send slow but regularly changing control information to
the mobile, such as power level instruction, and specific timing advance instruction for
each user. The reverse SACCH carries information about the received signal strength and
quality of traffic channel as well as BCH measurement result from neighbouring cell.
(c) Fast Associated Control Channels (FACCH): FACCH carries urgent messages, and contain
the same type of information as SDCCH. A FACCH is assigned to a particular user when
SDCCH has not been dedicated to particular user. The FACCH access the time slots by
taking frame from traffic channel, this is done by using two special bits, called stealing bits,
in TCH channel.
Q.3. Explain GSM frame structure with neat diagram.
Each user transmits a burst of data during the time slot assigned to it. These data bursts
may have one of five specific formats. Normal bursts are used for TCH and DCCH
transmissions on both the forward and reverse link. FCCH and SCH bursts are used in TS0
of specific frames to broadcast the frequency and time synchronization control messages
on the forward link. The RACH burst is used by all mobiles to access service from any base
station, and the dummy burst is used as filler information for unused time slots on the
forward link.
• A frame is one where no time slot is repeated. A frame contains eight time slots TS0
to TS7.
One time slot duration= 576.92 μsec
Number of bits transmitted during 1 time slot= 156.25 bits
Thus, duration of one frame = 576.92μsec×8=4.6153 msec
Each bit duration= 576.92 μsec / 156.25 bits=3.6922 μsec
Transmission rate = 156.25 bits / 576.92 μsec=270.833 kbps
One user’s transmission rate = 270.833 kbps / 8 = 33.854 kbps
• One single time slot in frame has eight fields as follows:
o Tale bits: They are present at the start and end of every time slot to
distinguish one time slot from another. It identifies beginning and end of the
burst.
o Coded data: This is the actual information to be transmitted. Out of 156.25
bits 114 are information bearing bits that are transmitted as two 57 bits
sequences close to beginning and end of the time slot.
o Stealing flag: This bit helps base station to distinguish whether the coded
data is control or actual information. At the time of urgency control its are
also sent using voice channel at that time stealing bit becomes ‘0’ indicating
coded data carries control information.
o Midamble: This consists of 26 bits training sequence. It helps the adaptive
equalizer in mobile or base station receiver to analyze radio channel
characteristics before coding. It gives the amount of fading the channel
provides helping to decide which equalizer to be used.
o Guard period: A guard time of 8.25 bits is provided at the end of every time
slot to prevent overlapping with next time slot preventing actual information
from getting tampered.
• During a frame a GSM subscriber uses on one time slot to transmit and one time slot
to receive and may use spare five time slots to measure signal strength on adjacent
five base station as well as its own base station.
• Each normal speech frames are grouped into larger structures called multi-frames
which in turn are grouped into super-frames and hyper-frames.
• One Multiframe contains 26 TDMA frames, one superframe contains 51 multiframes
or 1326 TDMA frames and one hyperframe contains 2048 superframes or 2715648
TDMA frames. One hyperframe is transmitted after every 3.4815 hours.
• Hyperframe is important in GSM because the encryption algorithms rely on
particular frame number and sufficient security can only be obtained by using a
large number of frames as provided by hyperframe.
Q.4 Define Handoff and explain different handoffs in GSM network.
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC
procedure is called handoff.
1. Depending on different purpose the handoff is classified are as below
a. Intra cell handoff

b. Inter cell handoff
a. Intra-cell handover
➢ Such a kind of handover is performed to optimize the traffic load in the cell or to
improve quality of a connection by changing carrier frequency.
b. Inter-cell handover
➢ It is also known as Intra-BSC handover.

➢ Here the mobile moves from one cell to another but remains within the same
BSC (Base station controller).
➢ Here the BSC handles the handover process
i) Inter-BSC handover
➢ It is also called as Intra-MSC handover.
➢ As BSC can control only a limited number of cells, we might usually need to
transfer a mobile from one BSC to another BSC.
➢ Here the MSC handles the handover process.
ii) Inter-MSC handover

➢ It occurs when a mobile moves from one MSC region to another MSC.
➢ MSC cover a large area. It can be imagined as a handover from Maharashtra
MSC to Gujarat MSC while travelling.
2. Handoff schemes based on algorithms of handoff (handoff protocols)
The mobile unit and the BS are connected via radio links which carry data as well as
signalling information. There are three different handoff strategies based on algorithms of
handoff, which have been proposed for transferring the connection to a new BS.
• MCHO (mobile-controlled handoff)

• NCHO (network-controlled handoff)
• MAHO (mobile-assisted handoff)
Since the number of handoffs increases with decreasing cell size, it will be an almost
impossible task to make a handoff decision for every mobile by one central switch
(centralized). Moreover, in microcells the connection between MS and BS can deteriorate
very quickly. Fast handoff decisions required in such situations can be achieved more
readily by decentralizing the handoff decision process.
Network-controlled handoff (NCHO)
NCHO is a centralized handoff protocol. In this type of handoff the network (surrounding
BS, the MSC or both) makes a handoff decision based on measurements of the RSS
(received signal strength) of mobile and the interferences from different BS. The signal-to-
interference ratio (SIR) is measured by means of a supervisory audio tone (SAT). If the
mobile is measured to have a weaker signal in its old cell, while a stronger signal in a
neighbouring cell, then a handoff decision could be made by the network to switch BS from
the old cell to the new cell. Such a type of handoff in general takes 100–200 ms and
produces a noticeable “interruption” in the conversation.
However, overall delay of such a type of handoff is in general in the range of 5–10 s. Thus,
this type of handoff is not suitable to a rapidly changing environment and to a high density
of users due to the associated delay. The NCHO is widely used in the first-generation
cellular systems, such as AMPS, Total Accesses Communications System (TACS) and Nordic
Mobile Telephone (NMT). In NCHO, the MSC is solely in charge of the handoff process and
the MSs are completely passive.
Mobile-assisted handoff (MAHO)

MAHO is a variant of NCHO strategy. To improve the handoff reaction time and to reduce
the handoff administration load of the MSC, the handoff decisions should be distributed
towards the mobile phones. One way to achieve this could be to let the mobile phones
make the measurements and the MSC make the decisions.
In the MAHO strategy, the network (BS and/or MSC) directs the mobile to measure the
signal strengths from the surrounding BSs and to report those measurements back to the
network. The network then uses these measurements to determine where a handoff is
required with which channel. The delay in this protocol starting from the handoff initiation
till the handoff execution is around 1 s. This time may still be too long to avoid dropping a
call due to street corner effect. Some examples of present cellular networks which
implement MAHO are the GSM system and the IS-95 system.
Mobile-controlled handoff (MCHO)
In this case, the mobile phone is the only entity which measures the handoff criteria and
makes a decision based on them. The MSC is not involved in the handoff process resulting
in reduced burden on the MSC. The mobile has to choose the optimum BS based on the
measurements. Since the handoff process is implemented in the mobile itself, the delay is
usually smaller with a typical value of 0.1 s and is suitable for microcellular systems.
In this strategy, the mobile continuously monitors the radio signal strengths and quality of
surrounding BSs. A handoff can be initiated if the signal strength of the serving BS is lower
than that of another BS by a certain threshold. Then the mobile requests the target BS for a
channel with the lowest interference and handoff mechanism will take place. In such a
case, the MS does not have any information about the signal quality of other users, but
handoff must not cause interference to other users. MCHO is the highest degree of handoff
decentralization. Some of the advantages of handoff decentralization are as follows:
o Handoff decisions can be made fast.

o MSC does not have to make handoff decisions for every mobile, which is a
very difficult task for the MSC of high-capacity microcellular systems (radius
< 1 km).
An example of a MCHO-based handoff control network is the standard for cordless phones
in Europe - digital European cordless telephone (DECT).
Q.5 Explain the features of GSM.

The features of GSM are:
1. Call Waiting - Notification of an incoming call while on the handset
2. Call Hold- Put a caller on hold to take another call
3. Call Barring - All calls, outgoing calls, or incoming calls
4. Call Forwarding- Calls can be sent to various numbers defined by the user
5. Multi Party Call Conferencing- Link multiple calls together
6. Calling Line ID - Incoming telephone number displayed
7. Alternate Line Service a.) One for personal calls b.) One for business calls
8. Closed User Group - call by dialing last for numbers
9. Advice of Charge - Tally of actual costs of phone calls
10. Fax & Data - Virtual Office / Professional Office
11. Roaming: services and features can follow customer from market to market.
Q.6 State the various services offered by GSM system.

The three services offered by GSM systems are;
Telephone services
Bearer services
Supplementary ISDN services
Telephone Services:
Teleservices include Standard mobile telephone Mobile-originated Base-originated traffic.
emergency calling Fax Videotext Tele text, SMS MMS.
Bearer services: The data services include the communication between computers and
packet switched traffic. These services are limited to the first three layers of the OSI
reference model. Data may be transmitted using either a Transparent Mode or Non-
Transparent Mode. Transparent Mode:-Where GSM provides standard channel coding for
user data Non-Transparent Mode: - Where GSM offers special coding efficiencies based on
the particular data interface.
Supplementary ISDN services:
This service are digital in nature and include
• Call diversion
• Caller line ID
• Closed user group
• Call barring
• Call waiting
• Call hold
• Connected line ID
• Multiparty (Teleconferencing)
• Call charge advice
This service also include the Short Messaging Service (SMS) which allow GSM subscriber
and BS to transmit alphanumeric pages of limited length (160 -7 ASCII characters) while
simultaneously carrying normal voice traffic.
1. Draw and explain Basic Architecture block diagram of CDMA System
Fir. 1 Architecture of CDMA

1. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital technique for sharing the frequency
spectrum.
2. Multiple users are assigned radio resources using spread Spectrum techniques. Although
all users are transmitting in the same RF band, individual users are separated from each
other via the use of orthogonal codes.
3. CDMA is based on proven Spread Spectrum communications technology.

4. The first CDMA standard for mobile networks is referred to as Interim Standard 95A (IS-
95A), and is considered to be a 2G technology. CDMA2000 and WCDMA is 3G based
technology.
5. Fig shows basic block diagram of CDMA architecture. The main components are mobile
station (MS), base station subsystem (BSS), network subsystem (NSS), and other
networks like PSTN etc.
1. Mobile System Subsystem
A. Mobile Station (MS)
The MS is the mobile subscriber equipment, which can originate and receive calls and
communicate with the BTS. CDMA, on the other hand, employs spread spectrum technology,
allowing it to make the best use of the available bandwidth. It allows any user to send data over
the full frequency range at any moment.
B. SIM Card
On the other hand CDMA-based devices, do not require a SIM card; instead, ESN is used
(Electronic Serial Number). Because it does not utilise a SIM card, switching from one device to
another is complicated and necessitates a correct method.
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
The BTS transmits and receives radio signals, realizing communication between the radio system
and the mobile station.
B. Base Station Controller (BSC):
The BSC implements the following functions:
o Base Transceiver Station (BTS) control and management

o call connection and disconnection
o mobility management
o stable and reliable radio link provision for the upper-layer services by soft/hard handoff
o power control
o radio resource management.
3. Network Subsystem (NSS)
A. Mobile Switching Center (MSC):
The MSC implements the service switching between the calling and called subscribers. One MSC
is connected with multiple BSCs. The MSC can also be connected to the PSTN, ISDN or other
MSCs. It provides the interface between the radio network and PSTN.
B. Visitor Location Register (VLR):
It is a dynamic database, stores the temporary information (all data necessary to set up call
connections) of the roaming subscribers in the local MSC area. VLR is used to store the subscriber
information of all the MSs in its local area, which can be used to establish the incoming/outgoing
call connections, to support basic services, supplementary services and mobility management.
C. Home Location Register (HLR):
It is a database for mobile subscriber management, the HLR (Home Location Register) is
responsible for storing subscription information (telecom service subscription information and
subscriber status), MS location information, MDN, IMSI (MIN), etc.
D. Authentication Register (AC):
The AC (Authentication Center) is physically combined with the HLR. It is a functional entity of
the HLR, specially dedicated to the security management of the CDMA system. It stores the
authentication information. It also prevents unauthorized subscribers from accessing the system
and prevents the radio interface data from being stolen.
E. Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):
It is a database that is used to track handset using the IMEI number. It is made up of three sub
classes- the white list, the black list and the grey list.
2. Explain in brief forward and reverse CDMA channels.
Frequency allocation: The forward channel carries information from the Base Station to the
mobile unit; the reverse channel carries information from the mobile unit to the base station.
The forward channels are between 869 and 894 MHz, while the reverse channels are between
824 and 849 MHz. In most of the countries, the channel bandwidth is 1.25 MHz.
Figure 19: Forward and reverse spectrum allotted for IS 95
CDMA channels can be broadly categorized as Forward channel and Reverse channel.
1. Forward Channel
CDMA forward link uses same frequency spectrum as AMPS i.e. 869-894 MHz. One channel
bandwidth is 1.25 MHz. Modulation scheme used is QPSK. Orthogonal Walsh codes are used.
Walsh codes are called Hadamard codes and they are used in all CDMA techniques. Forward
channels are separated from each other using different spreading codes. 64 Walsh codes are used
to identify each channel.
The Forward channel is the direction of the communication or mobile-to-cell downlink path. It
includes the following channels −
• Pilot Channel − Pilot channel is a reference channel. It uses the mobile station to
acquire the time and as a phase reference for coherent demodulation. It is
continuously transmitted by each base station on each active CDMA frequency.
And, each mobile station tracks this signal continuously.
• Sync Channel − Synchronization channel carries a single, repeating message,
which gives the information about the time and system configuration to the mobile
station. Likewise, the mobile station can have the exact system time by the means
of synchronizing to the short code.
• Paging Channel − Paging Channel’s main objective is to send out pages, that is,
notifications of incoming calls, to the mobile stations. The base station uses these
pages to transmit system overhead information and mobile station specific
messages.
• Forward Traffic Channel − Forward Traffic Channels are code channels. It is
used to assign calls, usually voice and signalling traffic to the individual users.
2. Reverse Channel
The reverse link is separated from the forward link by 45 MHz. It is used by all the mobiles in the
cell coverage area to transmit to the base station. The reverse channel as it appears at the base
station receiver is a composite of all the outputs from all the mobiles in the base station’s coverage
area. The reverse channel structure allows a maximum of 94 channels which include a maximum
of 32 different Access channels and 62 different Traffic channels.
The Reverse channel is the mobile-to-cell direction of communication or the uplink path. It
consists of the following channels −
• Access Channel − Access channel is used by mobile stations to establish a
communication with the base station or to answer Paging Channel messages. The
access channel is used for short signalling message exchanges such as call-ups,
responses to pages and registrations.
• Reverse Traffic Channel − Reverse traffic channel is used by the individual users
in their actual calls to transmit traffic from a single mobile station to one or more
base stations.
3. Enlist the features offered by CDMA technology.

Features (attributes) of CDMA are as follows:
1. Frequency usage – Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency. Either TDD
or FDD may be used.
2. Soft Capacity Limit – Increasing the number of users in a CDMA system raises the noise
level in a linear manner. Thus, there is no absolute limit on the number of users in CDMA.
Rather, the system performance gradually degrades for all users as the number of users is
increased, and improves as the number of users is decreased. Hence, unlike TDMA or
FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit.
3. Multipath Resistance – In CDMA systems, channel data rates are very high. Hence the
symbol (chip) duration is very short and usually much less than the channel delay spread.
Since PN sequences have low auto correlation, multipath which is delayed by more than a
chip will appear as noise. A RAKE receiver can be used to improve reception by collecting
time delayed versions of the required signal.
4. Soft Handoff – Since CDMA uses co channel cells, it can use macroscopic spatial
diversity to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can
simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or more base stations. The MSC may
choose the best version of the signal at any time without switching frequencies.
5. Self-Jamming – Self Jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-Jamming arises from
the fact that the spreading sequences of different users are not exactly orthogonal. Hence
in the de-spreading of a particular PN code, there is some level of cross correlation. There
will be non-zero contributions at the receiver from the transmissions of other users in the
system.
6. Near Far effect – The near far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an undesired user
has a high detected power as compared to the desired user. Signals close to the receiver
are received with less attenuation than signals farther away.
7. Fading effects – Multipath may be substantially reduced because signal is spread over a
large spectrum.
8. Economical – CDMA is the most cost-effective technology that requires fewer cell sites
and no costly frequency reuse pattern. The average power transmitted by CDMA mobile
station averages 6 to 7 mill watts(mW), which is significantly lower than the average power
transmitted by FM and TDMA phones. Transmitting less power means that the average
battery life will be longer.
4. Explain in brief the basic technology of IS-95 CDMA and CDMA2000.
1. IS-95 (Interim Standard 1995) CDMA
IS-95 (cdmaOne) is a 2G technology. IS95 or Interim Standard 1995 is a second-generation (2G)

cellular technology that introduced the first-ever CDMA-based mobile network.
It uses the spread spectrum technology with a carrier bandwidth of 1.25 MHz to enable voice and
data services offering peak data rates of up to 115.2 kbps.
IS95 was introduced to deliver 2G cellular services through the Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) technology.
The proprietary name for IS-95 is cdmaOne, and it is a digital technology that employs CDMA
for its air interface.
IS95 was the first-ever standard in mobile communications that was based on CDMA technology.
The standard IS-95 has two variants, IS-95A and IS-95 B. IS95 can operate in two frequency
bands: 850 MHz and 1900 MHz.
IS-95 employs Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and uses separate bands for uplink and
downlink. It can use either 824MHz-894MHz or 1850-1990 MHz with separate frequency bands
for the uplink and the downlink.
The carrier frequencies used in IS-95 have a bandwidth of 1.25 MHz, and the channel separation
(difference between the centre frequencies of two channels) is also 1.25 MHz.
IS95A can enable data rates of up to 14.4 kbps, which can be improved to 115 kbps with the
technology enhancements in IS95B.
IS-95 provides capacity advantages for its ability to accommodate more users per MHz of the
bandwidth.
The power consumption in these networks is low, allowing users to make phone calls in decent
quality even when the signal strength is not at its best. Low power consumption also extends the
cell coverage, which increases the cell’s size.
IS95 networks also have soft handovers (SHO) that are more robust than the “hard” handovers in
TDMA/FDMA technologies.
2. CDMA2000
CDMA2000 is a 3G technology
CDMA2000, also known as CDMA2000 1xRTT or IS-2000, is a technology standard used for
delivering 3G cellular services.
CDMA2000 is a successor of IS95 (cdmaOne), and it offers 3G mobile services as specified in
IMT2000, enabling peak data rates of up to 153 kbps in the original launch.
Mobile networks worldwide follow two main paths for migrating from 2G to 3G. The first path is
for GSM networks that employ the UMTS technology for 3G migration, whereas the other path is
CDMA2000 which allows both IS-95 (cdma2000) and D-AMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone
System) to migrate to 3G.
3G mobile networks can offer much higher data speeds as compared to the earlier 2G networks.
Due to the higher data speeds, 3G networks can support multimedia services, including video
streaming.
CDMA2000 networks can operate in both 850 MHz and 1900 MHz frequency bands, just like the
earlier IS95 networks with separate frequency bands for uplink and downlink.
The uplink in CDMA is called the reverse link, and the downlink is called the forward link.
CDMA2000 is backwards compatible with its predecessor, IS95, making the upgrade from IS95
to CDMA2000 easy and seamless.
CDMA2000 has seen several enhancements including CDMA2000 1xEVDO (EVolution Data
Optimised), CDMA2000 1xEVDV (EVolution Data and Voice) and CDMA2000 3 x RTT (Radio
Transmission Technology).
It uses the carrier bandwidth of 1.25 MHZ like IS95 and is both circuit-switched and packet-
switched.
However, while the standard frequency carrier bandwidth is 1.25 MHz, with 3xRTT, CDMA2000
can aggregate up to three 1.25 MHz channels to get a total bandwidth of 3.75 MHz.
For comparison, the UMTS networks have a standard carrier bandwidth of 5 MHz. CDMA2000
1xRTT can support peak data rates of up to 153 kbps in the downlink and the uplink.
With the EVDO Rev B enhancement, CDMA2000 can support maximum data rates of up to 14.7
Mbps.
5. Explain the Difference Between GSM and CDMA.
Parameter GSM CDMA
Full-Form GSM stands for Global System for CDMA stands for Code
Mobile communication. Division Multiple Access.
Basic It is SIM-specific. It is handset-specific.
Availability GSM is highly available and globally CDMA is not very

used. Over 80% of the entire world’s common, and it is available
mobile networks use it. in comparatively fewer
carriers and countries.
These devices are exclusive
to Canada, Japan, and the
United States.
Technology It uses the Time division multiple access It uses the Code division
Used (TDMA) and Frequency division multiple access (CDMA).
multiple access (FDMA).
Voice and Data GSM supports the transmission of both The CDMA technology
voice and data at once. does not support any such
feature. It cannot transmit
voice and data
simultaneously.
Rate of Data It is slower. GSM offers 42 Mbps It is faster. CDMA offers

Speed (Megabytes per second) in 3G (HSPA). 3.6 Mbps (Megabytes per
second) in CDMA.
Maximum GSM offers a maximum speed of 384 CDMA offers a maximum

Downloading Kbps (Kilobytes per second). speed of 2 Mbps
Speed (Megabytes per second).
Storing of GSM stores it in the SIM card. CDMA stores it in a phone

Customer or headset.
Information
Roaming GSM offers worldwide roaming. CDMA offers limited

roaming.
Network In every cell, the network tower serves It has a physical channel
as a mobile phone in that particular area. along with dedicated codes
for every device present in
the network.
Spectrum The GSM technology follows a wedge The CDMA technology

spectrum (carrier). follows a spread spectrum
technology.
Data Transfer The GSM technology makes use of The CDMA technology
Technology EDGE. uses the EVDO ready data
transfer technology. Thus,
the data transfer here is also
very fast.
Division The carrier is divided into time slots. CDMA allows transmission
Each user gets a different time slot. of each user all the time
Therefore, no one else can access the over the entire frequency
same calling slot until the ongoing call spectrum.
ends.
Signal Detection One can detect the GSM signals because One cannot easily detect
they stay concentrated in a narrow signals in CDMA.
bandwidth.
Built-in GSM does not come with built-in CDMA comes with built-in
Encryption encryption. encryption.
Security The GSM technology offers less security The CDMA technology
as compared to the CDMA technology. offers more security as
compared to the GSM
technology.
SIM Card For the working of a GSM device, one The CDMA phones don’t
would always require a SIM card. have any such requirements.
Flexibility The GSM technology is more flexible The CDMA technology is

compared to CDMA. One can not so flexible.
interchangeably use and replace a SIM
on multiple devices.
Radiation On average, the GSM phones emit The CDMA devices emit
approx 28 times more radiation than the very low radiation.
CDMA ones.
Wave Pulse A GSM phone emits a more continuous The CDMA devices have no
wave pulse. So, you don’t need to such pulses.
reduce its exposure to electromagnetic
fields.
6. How are CDMA-based mobile networks different from GSM?
1. GSM networks use TDMA/FDMA and require the frequency channels to be planned
carefully to avoid co-channel and adjacent channel interference; CDMA networks use
spread spectrum technology that employs unique codes for each user and enables the
network to use the same frequency carrier in all cells.
2. CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access, and it is a technology that can enable
wirelessconnectivity through the use of specialized codes.
3. The key parameters needed for a CDMA-based mobile network are frequency carrier
(channel) and code (e.g. Walsh code). GSM networks use a combination of FDMA
(Frequency Division Multiple Access) and TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) for
wireless connectivity.
Fig. 1 Example of frequency reuse in a GSM network where four frequency carriers are
used to provide coverage in a geographical area
4. In GSM networks, the frequency channel allocation needs to be planned very carefully
and requires RF engineers to have specialised skills in frequency planning to avoid co-
channel and adjacent channel interference.
5. That is because the carrier to interference ratio (C/I) needs to be at an acceptable level in
TDMA/FDMA based systems like GSM.
6. It means that the frequency channel your mobile phone is connected to needs to be
stronger than other channels using the same frequency (co-channel) by a good margin.
That margin is called the acceptable C/I ratio, expressed in dB. Fig. 1 shows four
frequency channels are reused to avoid the same frequencies being right next to each
other.
7. On the other hand, CDMA networks do not have the frequency reuse limitation and use
the same frequency carrier (channel) in all cells. Fig. 2 shows the concept of universal
frequency reuse. CDMA networks use the spread spectrum technology, which is
designed to operate at a very low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) while using a very large
bandwidth.
8. In CDMA networks, the transmitted signal from each mobile user is spread across the
available bandwidth and is assigned a unique code (spreading code). A unique de-
spreading code is applied to retrieve the original signal at the receiver end. Even though
all users use the same frequency carrier, the chances of any co-channel interference are
minimised since the spreading and de- spreading codes are unique for each user. Both
IS95 and CDMA2000 are built upon the Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
technique.
Fig. 2 Frequency reuse in CDMA networks – same frequency reused by all cell
9. Unlike TDMA/FDMA based networks like GSM, where a handover requires a mobile
phone to first disconnect from one cell before connecting to a new cell, CDMA networks
use a concept called soft handover (handoff).
10. Since CDMA networks use the same frequency across all cells, a mobile phone can
communicate with multiple cells simultaneously. As a result, the mobile phone can
gradually disconnect from the cells that are no longer in range whilst staying connected
to other required cells. Soft handover makes the handoff process more robust, making it
less likely to drop the calls.
7. Explain in brief Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA)

Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) is a third-generation (3G) standard that
employs the direct-sequence code division multiple access (DS-CDMA) channel access method
and the frequency-division duplexing (FDD) method to provide high-speed and high-capacity
service. WCDMA is the most commonly used variant of the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS).
• WCDMA stands for Wideband Code Division Multiple Access and is the 3G technology
that employs the Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DS-WCDMA) channel
access method and the Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) method to provide high-
speed and high capacity service
• Third generation (3G) wireless capability has been developed in response to a growing
demand in data services
• There are several different radio access technologies defined within ITU, based on either
CDM or TDMA technology. Different regional solutions were proposed as solutions to the
requirements of IMT-2000. These included Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) utilizing Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and
Time Division Duplex (TDD)
• The fragmentation of the proposals led to the creation of two working groups. One group
is known as the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) which is working on the
Unified Mobile Telecommunication Standard (UMTS) based on WCDMA.
• The other group is known as 3GPP2 works on CDMA 2000
• Organization 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has continued that work by
defining a mobile system that fulfils the IMT-2000 standard, This system a called
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)
• ITU finally approved a family of five 3G standards which are part of the 3G framework
known as IMT-2000. These standards are:
WCDMA (UMTS 99)
WCDMA (HSPA)
CDMA2000
TD-CDMA
TD-SCDMA
• WCDMA features two modes:
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): Separately users by employing both codes as well as
frequencies. One frequency is used for the uplink, while other is used for downlink
Time Division Duplex (TDD): Separates users by employing codes, frequencies and time
wherein the same frequency is used for both uplink and downlink
• WCDMA does no need base station timing synchronization
• WCDMA provides significant flexibility to provide support of multiple users at
independent data rates. The flexibility necessitates the utilization of multiple complex
waveforms for validation and test.
8. Explain in brief WCDMA Air Interface

One of the main air interfaces for 3G system is referred as wide band CDMA (WCDMA). It is one
of the air interfaces used with UMTS mobile communication standard which allows
communication between UE and Node B. Below table shows some of the key parameters of W-
CDMA air interface.
S.No. Parameters Specification
1 Channel Spacing/ 5 MHz

Separation / Bandwidth
2 Forward RF channel Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

structure
3 Chip Rate 3.84 Mcps
4 Coherent Detection Pilot symbols
5 Reverse Channel Control and pilot channel time multiplexed, I & Q

Multiplexing multiplexing for data and control channel
6 Spreading modulation Balanced QPSK (Downlink), Dual-channel QPSK

(Uplink), Complex spreading circuit
7 Spreading Factors 4 – 256
8 Spreading (Downlink) Variable length orthogonal sequence for channel

separation, Gold sequence for cell and user separation
9 Spreading (Uplink) Same as forward, different time shifts in I & Q channels
10 Data modulation QPSK (Downlink), BPSK (Uplink)
S.No. Parameters Specification
11 Multi rate Various spreading and Multicode
12 Frame Length 10ms with 15 time slots
13 Service multiplexing Multiple Services with different QoS Requirements

Multiplexed on one Connection
14 Number of slots/frames 15
15 Power Control Open and Close loop (1.6 KHz)
16 Handover Soft handover
9. Define Near-far effect and explain the power control used in CDMA 2000 and WCDMA
Fig. Near Far Effect in CDMA
Near-far effect
In CDMA, the power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise floor after decorrelation.
If the power of each user within a cell is not controlled such that they do not appear equal at the
base station receiver then the near-far problem occurs.
The near far problem is undesirable effect in CDMA systems. It occurs when many mobile users
share the same channel. In general, strongest mobile signal will capture the demodulator at the
base station. In CDMA strongest signal level raise the noise floor at the base station demodulators
for the weaker signals thus decreasing the probability that weaker signals will be received. To
combat the near-far problem, power control is used in most CDMA implementations.
Power control used in CDMA 2000 and WCDMA

i. In cdma2000 and WCDMA, power control is essential in both forward link and reverse link.
ii. The reverse link power control is present right from 2G CDMA standards to curb the near-far
effect.
iii. Since, in CDMA, all users transmit and receive at same frequency and at same time,
interference is always present. In such a situation, if a mobile is close to base station its power at
the base station will be more than the mobile which is far. The mobile which is far will lose its
power in the journey to base station due to shadowing effects.
iv. Thus, there is power control on the reverse link. The power at the base station received from
all the mobile stations should be same and satisfy minimum SNR level.
v. In the forward link, the slow power control of 2G CDMA standards fail if the mobile is
surrounded by high interfering noise.
vi. Hence, forward link power control is employed at high level in both 3G CDMA standards of
cdma 2000 and WCDMA.
vii. The power control in cdma 2000 and WCDMA is to minimize interference due to presence of
other mobile users, fading, log normal shadowing as well as from fast Rayleigh fading.
viii. In cdma2000, power control is at the rate of 800Hz in both the links and it is at a rate of
1500Hz in both the links in WCDMA.
- Bluetooth and WiFi
Q1. What is Bluetooth? Explain the terms Piconet and Scatternet used in Bluetooth.
• Bluetooth wireless technology is a short-range communications technology intended to

replace the cables connecting portable unit and maintaining high levels of security.
• Bluetooth technology is based on Ad-hoc technology also known as Ad-hoc Pico nets,
which is a local area network with a very limited coverage.
PICONET:
1. Bluetooth is a WPAn (Wireless Personal Area Network) open standard that provides an
adhoc way of connecting devices in the 10m range.
2. It is a short range, low cost and power efficient radio technology that supports point-to-
point andpoint-to-multipoint connections.
3. It connects handheld devices like printers, laptops, mobile phones and other accessories
in the 10m radius. It operates in the ISM band. Bluetooth operates in the 2.4GHz band
and uses a frequency hopping TDD method for each radio channel
4. The Bluetooth enabled devices can locate each other, but user action is essential in order
to make connections with other devices and from networks.
5. Upto eight devices can be connected in a Bluetooth network called, PICONET.
6. One of them acts as a master and remaining act as slaves. Hence, a maximum of 7 slaves
can be supported inside a piconet.
7. Whenever two or more devices detect each other and communicate through Bluetooth, a
PICONET is formed
SCATTERNET:
1. Eight devices can be considered in a Bluetooth network called Piconet. One of them
acts as amaster and other act a slave.
2. A scatter-net is formed when two or more piconets connect through a bridge node.
3. In addition to seven active slaves, there can be up to 255 parked nodes in the net that
can onlyrespond to a beacon signal from the master.
4. The slaves are dumb devices that do the task that the master tells them to do.
5. All the communication is between the master and slave and not between the slaves.
Fig. Scatternet
Q2. Draw and explain in detail Bluetooth protocol architecture
Fig. Bluetooth protocol architecture
The protocol architecture of the Bluetooth consists of following in a Bluetooth protocol stack:
1. Radio (RF) layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including frequency, the
use of frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs modulation/demodulation
of the data into RF signals. It defines the physical characteristics of Bluetooth
transceivers. It defines two types of physical links: connection-less and connection-
oriented.
2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system and is
equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the connection establishment
within a piconet, addressing, packet format, timing and power control.
3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already established
links which includes authentication and encryption processes. It is responsible for
creating the links, monitoring their health, and terminating them gracefully upon
command or failure.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol layer: It is also known as the
heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper
and lower layers of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets
received from upper layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs
segmentation and multiplexing.
5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It
allows discovering the services available on another Bluetooth-enabled device.
6. RF comm layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for Radio Frontend

Component. It provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX. It also provides
emulation of serial ports over the logical link control and adaption protocol(L2CAP).
The protocol is based on the ETSI standard TS 07.10.
7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange

objects between 2 devices.
8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service. The
basic function of this layer is calling control (setup & release) and group management
for the gateway serving multiple devices.
10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.
Q3. Draw and explain the Bluetooth frame structure and Network connection.
Bluetooth packet can be of 1-slot (625 us) or 3-slot (1875 us) or 5-slot (3125 us).
• Each packet consists of a 72-bit access code.
• The access code is used for packet identification.
• Every packet exchanged on the channel is preceded by its access code.
• Recipients on the piconet compare incoming signals with access code. If the two do not match,
the received packet is not considered valid and rest of its contents are ignored.
• The 72-bit access code is derived from master identity.
• Thus, access code is also used for synchronization and compensating for offset.
• Header part of the packet is used by the Link Control (LC) logical channel. It has the following
format:
• AM_ADDR: temporary address assigned to active members of the piconet, used on all packets
in both directions sent between the master and the addressed slave
• TYPE: type of packet. There are 12 types of packets for each SCO and ACL physical links, and
four types of common control packets for both
• FLOW: It is used for flow control. It is asserted by slave when its buffer is full and cannot receive
any more data.
• ARQN: It is used to piggy back an acknowledgement onto a frame.
• SEQN: It contains sequence number for packet ordering.
• HEC: header error check for header integrity.
• There can be two types of payloads: voice and data. Synchronous connection oriented (SCO)
packets only have voice field, while Asynchronous connection less (ACL) packets only have data
field.
Q.4. Enlist the advantages, disadvantages and applications of Bluetooth.
Advantages of Bluetooth: there are many benefits and advantages to using wireless devices.
1. Bluetooth is actually inexpensive: The technology of Bluetooth is cheap for companies
to implement, which results in lower costs for the company.
2. Bluetooth is automatic: Bluetooth doesn't have you set up a connection or push any
buttons.
3. Standardized protocol: Bluetooth is standardized wireless, meaning that a high level of

compatibility among devices is guaranteed.
4. Low interference: Bluetooth devices almost always avoid interference from other
wireless devices.
5. Low energy consumption: As a result of Bluetooth using low power signals, the
technology requires very little energy and will use less battery or electrical power as a
result.
6. Sharing voice and data: The standard for Bluetooth will allow compatible devices to
share data and voice communications. This is great for mobile phones and headsets, as
Bluetooth simplifies driving and talking on your cell phone.
7. Instant PAN (Personal Area Network): You can connect up to seven Bluetooth devices
to each other within a range of up to 30 feet, forming a piconet or PAN. For a single room,
you can also set up multiple piconets.
8. Upgradeable: Upgradeable is the standard for Bluetooth. There are newer versions of
Bluetooth in the works, which offer many new advantages and backward compatible with
older versions.
9. The technology stays: Bluetooth technology is a worldwide, universal wireless standard.
With it being as popular as it is, you can count on it being around for years to come.
Disadvantages:
The only real downsides are the data rate and security. Infrared can have data rates of up to 4
MBps, which provides very fast rates for data transfer, while Bluetooth only offers 1 MBps.
Although there are very few disadvantages, Bluetooth still remains the best for short range wireless
technology.
1. Bluetooth Security Issues: There are a number of ways in which Bluetooth security can
be penetrated, often because there is little security in place. The major forms of Bluetooth
security problems fall into the following categories:
a. Bluejacking: Bluejacking is often not a major malicious security problem,
although there can be issues with it, especially as it enables someone to get their
data onto another person's phone, etc.
b. Bluebugging: This more of an issue. This form of Bluetooth security issue allows
hackers to remotely access a phone and use its features.
c. Car Whispering: This involves the use of software that allows hackers to send and
receive audio to and from a Bluetooth enabled car stereo system.
Applications of Bluetooth: -
Following are some of the capabilities that Bluetooth can provide consumers: -
1. Make calls from a wireless headset connected remotely to a cell phone.
2. Eliminate cables linking computers to printers, keyboards, and the mouse.
3. Hook up MP3 players wirelessly to other machines to download music.
Q.5 Write a short note on "Wi-Fi Technology".

1. Wi-Fi is a technology that uses radio waves to provide network connectivity. It stands for
wireless frequency. Wi-Fi uses radio waves to transmit information between your device
and a router via frequencies.
2. Wi-Fi is a blanket term for multiple technologies that use the IEEE 802.11
communications standards to create local area networks or LANs. Wi-Fi-enabled
products use radio waves to transmit data and communicate with one another. Initially the
technology used the GHz frequency, but it has since expanded to 5 GHz, 60 GHz, and 6
GHz frequency bands.
3. Wi-Fi, at a basic level, works on the same principles that make your radio or over-the-air
TV possible. Wi-Fi devices send radio waves to one another—but instead of broadcasting
analog audio or video, these waves digitally encode network packets that comply with
the Internet Protocol, just like the ones sent over wired Ethernet connections.
The basic components of a Wi-Fi network include:
• A router, which does the traffic among the devices on the network. The router serves the
key role in mediating between all the devices on your local network and internet.
• A wireless access point that provides the radio connection between the router and the local
wireless devices.
• A modem that connects the local network to the wider internet. While not strictly
necessary for making the Wi-Fi network work, without it the devices on the network can
only talk to each other and not the wider world.
802.11 Standard
• Wi-Fi is a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on the IEEE
802.11 standards.
• Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi
Certified to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing.
• Devices that can use Wi-Fi technology include personal computers, video-game consoles,
phones and tablets, digital cameras, smart TVs, digital audio players and modern printers.
• Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN and a wireless access
point. Such an access point (or hotspot) has a range of about 20 meters (66 feet) indoors
and a greater range outdoors.
• Hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves, or as
large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access points.
• Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz (12 cm) UHF and 5.8 gigahertz (5 cm) SHF
ISM radio bands.
• Anyone within range with a wireless modem can attempt to access the network; because
of this, Wi-Fi is more vulnerable to attack (called eavesdropping) than wired networks.
Wi-Fi Security
• Initially, most Wi-Fi networks were open, with data traveling over the air unsecured.
This posed a problem for companies concerned that an employee connecting from a
public coffee shop could be leaking data to anyone else in the room who had a Wi-Fi
receiver.
• The Wi-Fi Alliance addressed by adding different security protocols to the standard under
the Wi- Fi Protected Access banner, including the latest, WPA3. Users connecting to
secured access points through properly configured WPA and a VPN connection are now
generally secure from some ofthe technology’s earlier open-network issues.
Q6. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Wi-Fi Technology.
Advantages of Wi-Fi/wireless networking

1. Increased efficiency
Improved data communications lead to faster transfer of information within businesses and
between partners and customers. For example, salespeople can remotely check stock levels
and prices while on sales calls.
2. Access and availability

Because wireless technology allows the user to communicate while on the move, you are
rarely out of touch - you don't need extra cables or adaptors to access office networks.
3. Flexibility
Office-based wireless workers can network without sitting at dedicated computers and can
continue to do productive work while away from the office. This can lead to new styles of
working, such as home working or direct access to corporate data while on customer sites.
See more on employees working from home.
4. Cost savings
Wireless networks can be easier and cheaper to install, especially in listed buildings or
where the landlord will not permit the installation of cables.
5. New opportunities
Wireless networking could allow you to offer new products or services. For example, many
airport departure lounges, train stations, hotels, cafes and restaurants have installed 'hot
spot' WiFi services to allow mobile users to connect their equipment to their 'home' offices
while travelling.
Disadvantages of Wi-Fi/wireless networking

Despite the many benefits that wireless can claim over wired networks, there are also potential
Wi-Fi disadvantages also.
1. Security
Wireless transmission is more exposed to attacks by unauthorised users, so you must pay
particular attention to securing your wireless systems.
2. Installation problems
You may experience interference if others in the same building also use wireless
technology, or where other sources of electromagnetic (radio) interference exist. This
could lead to poor communication or, in extreme cases, complete loss of wireless
communication.
3. Coverage
In some buildings, getting consistent coverage can be difficult, leading to 'black spots'
where the signal isn't available.
4. Transmission speeds
Wireless transmission can be slower and less efficient than 'wired' networks. In larger
wireless networks, the 'backbone' network is usually wired or fibre rather than wireless.
Q7: Differentiate between Wi-Fi and Bluetooth technology.
Sr. Parameter Wi-Fi Bluetooth

No.
1 Full Form Full-form of Wi-Fi is Wireless Bluetooth has no full-form.
Fidelity.
2 Component Wi-Fi demands a wireless router to Bluetooth demands a
set up the connectivity and adapter Bluetooth setting or adapter on
on the devices. all devices to set up
connectivity.
3 Power It consumes high power. It consumes low power.
Consumption
4 Security WiFi is more secure than Bluetooth is less secure than
Bluetooth. WiFi.
5 Multi User WiFi can hold a large number of Bluetooth holds a smaller
users to be connected. number of users to be
connected.
6 Bandwidth WiFi requires high bandwidth. Bluetooth demands low
bandwidth.
7 Coverage WiFi can cover an area up to 32 Bluetooth can cover an area up
meters. to 10 meters.
8 Frequency WiFi frequency range 2.4GHz to 5 Bluetooth frequency range
Range GHz 2.400 GHz to 2.483 GHz
9 Modulation In WiFi modulation technique is In Bluetooth modulation
Technique OFDM(Orthogonal Frequency technique is GFSK (Gaussian
Division Multiplexing) and frequency shift keying).
QAM(Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation).
10 Bit-rate Bit-rate in bluetooth is 2.1
Bit-rate in WiFi is 600 Mbps.
Mbps.
11 IEEE
It’s under IEEE 802.11 Standard It’s under IEEE 802.15.1
Standards
12 Applications 1. Wifi anaylzer 1. Consumer
2. Games
2. wifi inspector
3. Industry
4. sport training

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6ETC04: Open Elective II

Q 1: Explain in brief Basic Cell Fundamentals in wireless communication. (IMP)

Figure 1: Basic Architecture of a cellular system

2. Elements Of a Cellular system

Figure 2: Channel connectivity between M.S and B.S

Q 4: Explain in brief Evolution of Mobile Communication. (IMP)

1. First Generation (1G)

 In 1979, the Japanese telecommunications provider Nippon Telephone and

 Unable to interoperate between countries

2. Second Generation (2G)

 The second generation in the evolution of wireless communication introduced a

 Low data rate

 The standards included GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) and

 GPRS supports flexible data transmission rates and provides continuous

3. Third Generation (3G)

 Bandwidth: 15–20 MHz

 Costly infrastructure, equipment and implementation

 The 4G network is an enhanced version of 3G networks, developed by the

 Bandwidth: 15–20 MHz

 Costly infrastructure, hardware

5. Fifth Generation (5G)

 As the latest stage in the evolution of mobile communication, 5G addresses one of

 Costly infrastructure, hardware

Q 5: Compare 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G of cellular mobile system (IMP)

Simplex mode is Half Duplex Full Duplex

Sender and In simplex In Half Duplex In Full Duplex

The simplex Full Duplex

Simplex The Half The Full-

It is suitable It is suitable It is suitable

Example of Example of Example of

Q.1: Explain in brief frequency reuse concept in wireless communication.

Figure 1: Frequency Reuse and cluster formation

Figure 2: Scenarios of proper and improper handoff

Q.3. Explain the type (scenarios) of Handoff/Handover. OR

 It is also known as “Break before make” connection.

 It is used in FDMA and TDMA based mobile system.

 Figure shows the mechanism of hard handoff.

 It is also called as Mobile Directed handoff or make before Break Connection.

 Once the link is established the connection to old BS is terminated.

 It is used in UMTS to improve the signal quality

 It is more seamless handover.

 Figure shows the mechanisms of soft handoff.

c. Inter System Handoff

C. Handoff schemes based on algorithms of handoff (handoff protocols)

Mobile-assisted handoff (MAHO)

Mobile-controlled handoff (MCHO)

1. Handoff decisions can be made fast.

An example of a MCHO-based handoff control network is the standard for cordless

There is a performance criterion of cellular mobile systems like:

b) Service Quality like coverage and quality of service.

c) Number of Dropped calls.

d) Special features like call forwarding, call diverting, call barring.

Following techniques used to improve cell capacity in cellular system,

2) 6 Sectors 600 each

 Improvement in Signal capacity.

 Increase in number of handoffs.

C) COVERAGE ZONE/ MICROCELL ZONE CONCEPT

 It is based on a microcell concept for 7 cell reuse.

frequency reuse pattern for N = 4 and N = 7

For cluster size N = 7For cluster size N = 4