Chapter 14

Non-thermal processing of fishes

Bindu J.
bindujaganath@gmail.com
Fish Processing Division
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology
Cochin-682029,Kerala, India

Food processing involves the transformation of raw materials into

consumer-ready products, with the objective of stabilizing them to prevent
negative changes in quality and ensure food safety. To consumers, the
most important attributes of a food product are its sensory characteristics
like texture, flavour, aroma, shape and colour. The aim of food
manufacturers is to develop and employ processing technologies that
retain or create desirable sensory qualities or reduce undesirable changes
which take place during processing. Alternative or novel food processing
technologies are being explored and implemented to provide safe, fresher-
tasting, nutritive foods without the use of heat or chemical preservatives.
The major non thermal technologies gaining importance are High-pressure
processing, Pulsed light technology, Pulsed electric field, Irradiation etc.

High pressure processing

The application of very high pressures (upto 87,000 psi, 6000 bar or
600 MPa) for preservation of food substances in combination with or
without heat is known as high pressure processing (HPP). This process is
also known as high hydrostatic pressure processing (HHP) or ultra-high
pressure processing (UHP). When compared to thermal processing,
pressure treated foods have a fresher taste, better appearance, texture
and nutritional value. High pressure processing can be conducted at
ambient or refrigerated temperatures, thereby eliminating thermal effects
and cooked off-flavors. The technology is highly beneficial for heat
sensitive products. The first high pressure processing line was introduced
in Japan for jam manufacture in 1990‘s and has since been upgraded to
several food products. A number of HPP products have been
commercialized in North America, Europe and in China. Machines are
now available with operating pressures in the range 400-700 MPa and
capacities ranging up to 900 kg per batch. Since HP processing affect
mainly the non-covalent bonds of the food, the quality characteristics of
foods such as color, flavor and nutrients generally remain unaffected
(Knorr, 1993).

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Principles of High Pressure Processing

The two main principles of direct relevance to the use of high

pressures in foods are the Le Chatelier‘s Principle and the Isostatic
Principle. Le Chatelier‘s applies to all physical processes, and states that
when a system at equilibrium is disturbed the system responds in a way
that tends to minimize the disturbance (Pauling, 1964). This means that
HP stimulates reactions that result in a decrease in volume but opposes
reactions that involve in an increase in volume. Any phenomenon (e.g.
phase transition, change in molecular configuration, chemical reaction)
that is accompanied by a decrease in volume will be enhanced by
pressure. Secondly, the Isostatic rule states that pressure is
instantaneously and uniformly transmitted throughout a sample under
pressure whether the sample is in direct contact with the pressure
medium or hermetically sealed in a flexible package that transmits
pressure (Olsson, 1995). Pressure is transmitted in a uniform (isostatic)
manner throughout the sample; the time necessary for pressure
processing is therefore independent of sample size, in contrast to thermal
processing.

Mechanism of Pressure Treatment

Each processing cycle consists of an initial pressurization period

where the pressure builds up and the processing is undertaken with or
without application of heat to the product. The food product to be treated
is packed in a flexible or semi flexible container or pouch and placed in a
pressure vessel capable of sustaining the required pressure. The product
is submerged in pressure-transmitting medium, which is a liquid. Water
is commonly used as the pressure-transmitting medium. Other liquids
include castor oil, silicone oil, sodium benzoate, ethanol or glycol etc in
various combinations with water or separately. The pressure-transmitting
fluid should be able to protect the inner vessel from corrosion and liquids
base on the manufacturer‘s specification is usually used. The process
temperature range and the viscosity of the fluid under pressure are some
of the factors involved in selecting the medium. The hydraulic fluid is
pressurized with a pump, and this pressure is transmitted uniformly
throughout the packaged food. High pressure processing is independent
of size and geometry of the food and acts instantaneously, thereby
reducing the total processing time. The process is most suitable for liquid
foods and solids which contain a certain amount of moisture. Since the
pressure is transmitted uniformly and simultaneously in all directions,
food retains its shape even at extreme pressures. Once the pressure is

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build up to the desired level the product is held at this pressure for a few
minutes and then decompression or pressure release takes place. Once
there is a fall in pressure the product temperature falls below that of the
initial product temperature. During the pressurization process adiabatic
heating takes place and there is an increase in the temperature of the food
product which is again dependent on the pressure transmitting fluid,
product, pressurization rate, temperature and pressure. In the case of
water the increase in temperature due to adiabatic heating is 3°C for every
100 MPa increase in pressure.

Major Advantages of the Technology

1. It does not break covalent bonds; therefore, the development of

flavours unacceptable to the product quality is prevented and the
natural qualities of products are maintained.

2. It can be applied at room temperature thus reducing the amount of

thermal energy needed for food products during conventional
processing.

3. Since High pressure processing is isostatic (uniform throughout the

food), the food is preserved evenly throughout without any particlcs
escaping the treatment.

4. High pressure is not time-mass dependent i.e. it acts

instantaneously thus reducing the processing time.

5. High pressure processing is independent of size and geometry of the

food.

6. The process is environment friendly since it requires only electric

energy and there are no waste products.

Applications in Marine Products

Sea foods are highly perishable and usually spoil faster than other
muscle foods. They are more vulnerable to post-mortem changes when
compared to meat or any other animal product. Fish is characterized by
the presence of odourless compounds called Trimethylamine oxide (TMAO)
which on spoilage is converted to trimethyl amine by bacterial enzymes,
and is used as the assessment of quality. Generally volatile bases are
produced in fish muscle by autolytic enzymes, putrefactive micro-
organisms or by chemical reactions. High pressure processing can play a
vital role in reducing the microbial load and thereby maintaining the
quality of the product without bringing about any changes in the raw
product.
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 HPP can be applied in a wide area of fish processing. HPP can be
used to extend the shelf life of products. It can be used to eliminate
pathogens like E. coli, Salmonella and Listeria and spoilage bacteria
without affecting color and flavor of the product. HPP can be used to
develop new gel based products with desired sensory attributes and
mouth feel. HPP is used worldwide in shell fish processing for 100 %
removal of meat from the shells and for reducing the microbial risks
during raw seafood consumption. The application of high pressure
processing in muscle foods is either for tenderization of the muscle or for
extension of shelf life. This process inactivates vegetative microorganisms
and reducing the bacterial contaminations and the pathogens (Ohshsima
et al., 1993). High pressure can be used to modify functional properties of
the food material while simultaneously enhancing safety of raw seafood‘s
and retaining its sensory and nutritional qualities. High pressure
promotes increased shelf life without affecting, chemical, microbiological,
and sensory characteristics while inactivating pathogens inherent in the
product. Since the processing is usually done at low or moderate
temperatures, this does not affect the covalent bonds, but disrupts
secondary and tertiary bonds and reduces the enzymatic activity and
thereby minimize loss in flavor bearing components (Torres & Velazquez,
2005). High pressure treatment in combination with salting and smoking
are reported to extend the shelf life of different types of products (Montero
et al., 2007) and the combination of high pressure and short treatment
was found effective in improving the quality of smoked salmon
(Gudbjornsdottir et al., 2010). Applications for marination and
impregnation of desired flavors and colors can also be effectively
undertaken. Pressure assisted thermal processing for development of shelf
stable ready to eat products is another promising area of research.
Pressure assisted freezing and pressure assisted thawing helps in
retaining the microstructure and reduce drip loss in fish products.

Seafood is a highly perishable commodity and technologies like high

pressure processing are essential to increase the market value of some
high value fishes. High pressure processing has a growing demand in the
global market. A lot of studies are being done on HPP from the past
decade. Further studies on the effects of this technology on the
biochemical characteristics and microflora of shellfish are necessary. The
effectiveness of high pressure on microbial and enzyme inactivation, while
maintaining optimal product quality is a crucial factor for the
commercialization of the technology. HP processing offers many
advantages over conventional processing methods known to seafood. This
is exemplified by the success of HP-processed oysters in USA by Motivatit
Seafood, Goose Point Oysters and Joey Oysters. However, as HP
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processing becomes more widely available, initial capital costs may be
reduced, making technology accessible to more producers. In addition, the
commercialization of the technology for other foods may provide
encouragement for seafood processors, by allaying apprehension
regarding the use of this novel technology and demonstrating consumer
acceptance of HP-processed products (Fig. 1.).

Pulsed light technology

Pulsed light (PL) is an emerging non-thermal technology for

decontamination of food surfaces and food packages, consisting of short
time high-peak pulses of broad-spectrum white light (Dunn et al., 1989).
The term light is generally used to mean radiations having wavelength
ranging from 180 to 1100 nm, which includes ultraviolet rays (UV 180–
400 nm, roughly subdivided into UV-A, 315–400 nm; UV-B, 280–315 nm;
UV-C, 180–280 nm); visible light (400–700 nm) and infrared rays (IR 700–
1100 nm). (Palmieri and Cacace, 2005). Pulsed light is produced using
technologies that multiply power manifold. It is used for the rapid
inactivation of microorganisms on food surfaces, equipment, and food
packaging materials (Dunn et al., 1995). The effect on microorganisms is
mostly due to the photochemical action of the ultra violet part of the light
spectrum that causes thymine dimerization in the DNA chain preventing
replication and ultimately leading to cell death (Gomez-Lopez et al., 2007).

Pulsed light is a modified and claimed improved version of delivering

UV-C to bodies. The classical UV-C treatment works in a continuous
mode, called continuous-wave (CW) UV light. Inactivation of
microorganisms with CW-UV systems is achieved by using low-pressure
mercury lamps designed to produce energy at 254 nm (monochromatic
light), called germicidal light (Bintsiset al., 2000). More recently, medium-
pressure UV lamps have been used because of their much higher
germicidal UV power per unit length. Medium-pressure UV lamps emit a
polychromatic output, including germicidal wavelengths from 200 to 300
nm (Bolton & Linden, 2003). PL treatment of foods has been approved by
the FDA (1996) under the code 21CFR179.41 (Fig. 2.).

Generation of Pulsed Light

Light can be emitted from different sources by different

mechanisms, due to the spontaneous transition of some atoms from an
excited state to a condition of lower energy. Light can be delivered either
continuously or in the form of pulses. (Palmieri and Cacace, 2005). Pulsed
light works with Xenon lamps that can produce several flashes per
second. During the pulse treatment the spectrum produced is 20000

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times brighter than sunlight at the surface of the earth (Dunn et al.,
1995). Electromagnetic energy is accumulated in a capacitor during
fractions of a second and then released in the form of light within a short
time (nanoseconds to milliseconds), resulting in an amplification of power
with a minimum of additional energy consumption. As the current passes
through the gas chamber of the lamp unit, a short, intense burst of light
is emitted. The light produced by the lamp includes broad-spectrum
wavelengths from UV to near infrared. The wavelength distribution ranges
from 100 to 1,100 nm.

Merits and Demerits

Merits

The inactivation of microbes by PL is very fast process and cause

rapid disinfection in a very short period. It is a green technology as the
consumption of energy is very less during its application. It has been
proven as a safe technology for living being and their environment without
producing harmful residuals, chemicals and toxic by-products in the PL
treated foods. It does not affect the nutritional and sensory quality of the
products. The concerns of ionized radicals and radioactive by-products in
foods by consumers are removed in PL due to its nonionizing spectrum
(Dunn et al.1995).

Demerits

PL application in meat industry has some constraints as the low

penetration power and chances of lipid oxidation (Fine &Gervais, 2004).
To get the desired outcome, the packaging materials showing high
penetration of PL should be used while treating the packed food by this
method. The limited control of food heating still remains the main concern
in PL technology. Sample heating is perhaps the most important limiting
factor of PL for practical applications (Gomez-Lopez et al., 2007).

Irradiation

Irradiation is the process of applying low levels of radiation to any

food material to sterilize or extend its shelf life. It is a physical method
that involves exposing the prepackaged or bulk foodstuffs to gamma rays,
x-rays, or electrons. Foods is generally irradiated with gamma radiation
from a radioisotope source, or with electrons or x-rays generated using an
electron accelerator (Barbosa-Canovas et al., 1998). These rays have high
penetration power and thus can treat foods for the purpose of
preservation and quality improvement. During exposure of food the
amount of ionizing radiation absorbed is termed 'radiation absorbed dose'

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(rad) and is measured in units of rads or Grays. A strictly regulated
process of dosimetry is used to measure the exact dose of radiation
absorbed by the food. One Gray is equal to one joule of energy absorption
per kilogram of a material. Irradiation has been approved for the microbial
disinfestations of various food products in the US (USFDA, 1998). A
number of countries worldwide have irradiated products in the markets.
Irradiation has the potential to enhance food safety for fresh foods that
will be consumed raw and for raw foods that require further processing.
Food irradiation mainly is done by the radioactive element cobalt-60 as
the source of high energy gamma rays. Gamma rays are electromagnetic
waves or photons emitted from the nucleus of an atom. These gamma rays
have energy to dislodge electrons from food molecules, and to convert
them into ions which are electrically charged. However, the rays do not
have enough energy to dislodge the neutrons in the nuclei of these
molecules and hence they are not capable of inducing radioactivity in the
treated food. The radiation dose varies depending on the thickness
moisture, and characteristics of the foods. External factors, such as
temperature, the presence or absence of oxygen, and subsequent storage
conditions, also influence the effectiveness of radiation (Doyle, 1990).

Applications of Irradiation

In general, irradiation of food does not significantly affect the

protein, lipid, and carbohydrate quality. Minerals are stable to food
irradiation. The overall chemical changes in food due to irradiation are
relatively minor and hence there is little change in the nutritional quality.
Irradiation of moist food under frozen condition and in the absence of
oxygen significantly decreases the overall chemical yields by about 80%;
so the cumulative effects of irradiating to a dose of 50 kGy at −30°C is
essentially equivalent to a dose of 10 kGy at room or chilled temperature.
A dose of 1-10 kGy has can control food-borne parasites responsible for
diseases such as trichinosis, A minimum dose of 0.15 kGy can prevent
development of insects in dried fish. Irradiation is considered as a
phytosanitary measure often obligatory if certain agricultural commodities
are to be exported . The unique feature of radiation decontamination is
that it can be performed in packaged foods even when the food is in a
frozen state (Fig. 3.). Table I gives details of irradiation processes for
seafoods.

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Table 1: Radiation processes of seafoods (Source: Venugopal, Protech 2013-Pg28)

Treatment and Radiation process Benefits

storage
temperature
-10 to -20C Radicidation Improvement of hygienic
Packaged, (Radiation hygienization) quality of frozen, materials
frozen, ready-to- Dose required: 4-6 kGy for export such as frozen
export fish can Elimination of non-spore shrimp, cuttlefish, squid,
be treated before forming pathogens such as finfish, fillets, and IQF
shipment. Salmonella, Vibrio, Listeria items.
Frozen storage etc.
15 to 30C Radiation disinfestation Dry products free from
Ambient storage Dose required < 1 kGy spoilage due to insects,
Elimination of eggs and from dried fishery
larvae of insects. products including fish
meal and feed for
aquaculture.
Inactivation of Salmonella
spp. and other pathogens
-1to +3C Radurization (Radiation Extends chilled shelf life of
(Post-irradiation pasteurization for shelf life fresh marine and
storage: under extension) freshwater fishery
ice). Dose: 1-3 kGy products two to three
Reduction of initial times.
microbial content by 1 to 2 Additional benefit includes
log cycles. Specific reduction of non-spore
reduction of spoilage forming pathogens
causing organisms.

Pulsed electric field

Pulsed electric field processing is a non-thermal food preservation

technique used mainly for inactivation of microbes. PEF technology
involves the application of short pulses of high voltage to liquid or semi-
solid foods placed between two electrodes. Most PEF studies have focused
on PEF treatments effects on the microbial inactivation in milk, milk
products, egg products, juice and other liquid foods. The pulsed electric
field induces poration of cell membranes and thereby the cell membranes
of microorganisms, plant or animal tissue are permeable. This process of
electroporation is suitable for use in a broad range of food processes and
bioprocesses using low levels of energy. PEF technology has many
advantageous in comparison to heat treatments, because it kills
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microorganisms and at the same time maintains the original color, flavor,
texture, and nutritional value of the unprocessed food (Fig. 4.).

Pulsed Electric Field Preservation (Source: i3 foods)

Pulsed electric field can be applied in fishes fresh and frozen fish
dried, brined or marinated fish. Mass transport processes, such as
moisture transport and removal, are improved by the electroporation of
fish tissue, resulting in enhanced drying, brining and marinating of fish.
The required field strength for cell disintegration of fish is 1,0 – 3,0 kV/cm
and the energy delivery is 3 – 10 kJ/kg The applied pulsed electric field
leads to cell disintegration in tissue, enhancing product quality and
production processes. It also helps in inactivation of parasites such as
nematodes. PEF processing enhances mass transport, processes during
extraction, pressing, drying, brining and marinating processes.PEF
technology speeds up drying of food products, minimizing processing
times and energy consumption. The process can be applied to fruits,
vegetables, potatoes and meat. Enhancement of extraction processes is
also an advantage of electroporation. Extraction and pressing yields are
increased, for example for fruit juice, vegetable oil and algae oil and
protein. PEF technology speeds up freezing of food products, allowing a
reduction of processing times and energy consumption. The cell
disintegration increases the freezing rates. Cellular water flows easily out
of the cell and ice nucleation outside the cell starts. As smaller ice
molecules are formed, product quality of frozen food is improved. ( www.
pulsemaster).

Fig. 1.High Pressure Processing Facility at ICAR-CIFT

A Research model 2 litre capacity High Pressure machine from M/s Stansted Fluid Power
Ltd, United Kingdom at Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin.

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Fisheries Technology, Kochi, India. 2017 Page 161
 Blower: Purify the air
inside the sterilization
unit and a cooling effect
for the lamp. Will increase
the life of lamp

Sterilizatio Fig.2 Pulse light

n unit:
The sample equipment at CIFT
is placed
below the
Xenon lamp Pulse
inside this generator:
chamber Electrical
for energy is
treatment. converted to
short duration
pulses of broad
spectrum
white light.
200-1100 nm

Fig.3 Applications of
irradiation

Fig.4 Pulsed electric

field

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Fisheries Technology, Kochi, India. 2017 Page 162
Further reading

Barbosa-Cánovas, G. V., Gongora-Nieto, M. M., Pothakamury, U. R.,

Swanson, B. G., 1999. Preservation of foods with pulsed electric
fields, Academic Press Ltd., London, pp. 1-9, 76-107, 108-155.

Bintsis, T., Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, E. and Robinson, R. K. (2000). Existing

and potential application of ultraviolet light in the food industry-a
critical review. J. Sci. Food Agr. 90: 637-645

Bolton, J. R. and Linden, K. G. (2003). Standardization of methods for

fluence (UV dose) determination in bench-scale UV experiments. J.
Environ. Eng. 129: 209-215

Dunn, J. (1996) . Pulsed light and pulsed electric field for foods and eggs.
Poultry Science. 75(9): 1133–1136

Dunn, J., Ott, T. and Clark, W. (1995). Pulsed light treatment of food and
packaging. Food Technologist. 49(9): 95–98

Dunn, J.E., Clark, W.R. and Asmus, J.F. (1989). Methods for preservation
of foodstuffs. Maxwell Laboratories Inc., San Diego, USA. US Patent
4871559

FDA. 1996. Code of Federal Regulations. 21CFR179.41

Fine, F. and Gervais, P. (2004). Efficiency of pulsed UV light for microbial

decontamination of food powders. J. Food Protect. 67: 787–792

Gomez-Lopez, V.M., Devlieghere, F., Bonduelle, V. and Debevere, J.

(2005b). Intense light pulses decontamination of minimally processed
vegetables and their shelf-life. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 103, 79-89

Gomez-Lopez, V.M., Ragaerta, P., Debeverea, J. and Devlieghere, F. (

2007). Pulsed light for food decontamination: A review. Trends Food
Sci. Technol. 18: 464-473

Gudbjornsdottir, B., Jonsson, A., Hafsteinsson, H., Heinz, V. (2010) Effect

of high-pressure processing on Listeria spp. and on the textural and
microstructural properties of cold smoked salmon LWT - Food Sci.
Tech. 43, 366-374.

https://www.pulsemaster.us/pef-pulsemaster/product-process-
improvement

Knorr, D. (1993) Effects of High-hydrostatic-pressure processes on Food

Safety and Quality. Food Tech. 47(6): 156-161.

Montero, P., Gomez-Estaca, J. and Gomez-Guillen, M. C. (2007) Influence

of salt, smoke and high pressure on Listeria monocytogenes and
spoilage microflora in cold smoked dolphinfish. J. Food Protect. 70:
399–404

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Ohshima, T., Ushio, H., Koizumi, C. (1993) High-pressure processing of
fish and fish products .Trends Food Sci Tech.4 (11): 370–375

Olsson, S. (1995) Production Equipment for Commercial Use. In: Ledward,

D.A., Johnston, D.E., Earnshaw, R.G. and Hasting, A.P.M. (Eds),
High Pressure Processing of Foods, Nottingham University Press,
Leicestershire, Nottingham, pp 167- 180.

Palmieri L and Cacace, D (2005). High Intensity pulsed light technology.

In: Emerging Technologies for food processing (Da-Wen Sun., Ed), pp
279-306, Elsevier Academic Press, UK

Pauling, L. (1964) College chemistry: An introductory textbook of general

chemistry. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and company. USA

Torres, J. A. and Velazquez, G. (2005) Commercial opportunities and

research challenges in the high pressure processing of foods J. Food
Eng. 67: 95–112

U.S.FDA, (2011) Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls

Guidance (contains 21 chapters)Fourth Edition, Food and Drug
Administration.

Venugopal, V., Doke, S.N. and Thomas, P., (1999) Radiation processing to
improve the quality of fishery products, Critical Reviews in Food
Science and Nutrition, 39, 391-440,

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Fisheries Technology, Kochi, India. 2017 Page 164