BY: DR MUHAMMAD UMAIR

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 Classification of Textile Fibers
Natural fiber

Natural
Fibers

Animal Vegetable Mineral

Fibers Fibers Fibers

Seed
Wool Silk Hair Leaf Fiber Bast Fiber Asbestos Basalt
Fibers

Cotton
Kapok Sisal Abaca Flax Hemp Banana Ramie
fiber

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Introduction

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 Introduction
Cotton referred to as the “King of fibers” is most important textile fiber in the world.

Cotton is a vegetable fiber which surrounds the seeds of the cotton plant.

Cotton has been cultivated for more than 5000 years.

Cotton plant belongs to the family “GOSSYPIUM”.

Perennials Annual Crop

(that lives more 1.2-1.8 m
than two years)
Up to 6 m

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Species of Cotton

There are four commercially-grown species of cotton:

Gossypium hirsutum – upland cotton, native to Central

America, Mexico

Gossypium barbadense – known as extra-long staple cotton,

native to tropical South America

Gossypium arboreum – native to India and Pakistan

Gossypium herbaceum – cotton, native to Southern Africa

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 Varieties/Types of Cotton
Short and rigid fibres produce
Low quality • staple length: < 21 mm , coarse yarns of lower quality,
10% World • microns: 13-22 , produce thick fabrics with specific
Production • strength: 14–18 g/tex weight >250 g/m² ,
Central Asia,
denim, drill, Work wear, upholstery,
USA, India
carpets
Medium quality
85% World medium thick fabrics with specific
• staple length: 20-30 mm ,
Production weight 100–250 g/m ²
• microns: 12-17 ,
Central Asia, bed linen, table cloths, good quality
• strength: 25–33 g/tex
Europe, Africa, denim (jeans) cloth as well as
USA, Pakistan underwear.
Middle east

Top quality • staple length: between 30 and 65 Thin, long, very resistant to tearing
3-5% world mm , Good resilience and elasticity
production • microns: 10-15 , Fine, strong cotton yarn
Egypt and USA • strength: 33–45 g/tex Fabric weight <100 g/m²

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 Varieties/Types of Cotton

Commercial cotton may be classified into following

categories with reference to staple length:

1. Very Short Staple Cotton: (Less than & equal 21mm)

2. Short Staple Cotton: (Between 22-25mm)

3. Medium Staple: (Between 26-28mm)

4. Ordinary Long Staple: (Between 29-34mm)

5. Extra Long Staple: (Equal and greater than 34mm)

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 Varieties/Types of Pak Cotton

➢MNH-93 (Cotton of Punjab region)

➢NAYYAB-78 (Cotton of Sindh region)

➢Organic Cotton

➢BCI Cotton

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Organic Cotton

It is generally understood
as cotton grown from non
genetically modified plants,
that is
”to be grown without the use of any
synthetic agricultural chemicals such as
fertilizers or pesticides”

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➢ Ecological footprint

• Cotton covers 2.5% the world's cultivated land yet uses 16% of the
world's insecticides, more than any other single major crop.

• Chemicals used in the processing of cotton pollute the air and surface
waters.

• Residual chemicals may irritate consumers' skin.

• Decreased biodiversity and shifting equilibrium of ecosystems due to the

use of pesticides.

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BCI Cotton:

The Better Cotton Initiative exists “to make global

cotton production;
✓better for the people who produce it
✓better for the environment it grows in
✓better for the sector’s future”

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 Introduction
Cotton polymer is a linear, cellulose polymer.

The repeating unit is cellobiose which consists of two glucose unit.

Cotton consists of 5000 cellobiose units therefore degree of polymerization is 5000.

Polymer length is about 5000 nm, and thickness is 0.8 nm.

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 Introduction
The cotton fiber is made up of countless cellulose molecules.

Cotton is removed mechanically from the seed bolls by the cotton ginning.

The ginned cotton is then pressed into bales and sent to the factories to be
spun into yarns.

Hydroxyl groups – hydrophilic – attract water

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 Cotton polymer system
•Cotton is a semi-crystalline fiber; crystalline regions are
65-70 % while amorphous regions are 30-35 %.
•Hydrogen bonding are the dominant and most important
forces of attraction between polymeric chains. –OH, -
CH2OH give rise to hydrogen bonds.

Dimensionally stable
Good abrasion resistance
Good stability in water
Strong
Stiff
Mechanically stable

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Cotton polymer system

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Chemical Composition of Cotton Fiber

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Structure of Cotton Fiber

Twisted Ribbon

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 Structure of Cotton Fiber

Cuticle is the outside or skin of fiber. it is The primary cell wall is about 200 nm thick. It
composed of waxy layer (cotton wax) a few is composed of 20 nm thick fibrils; spiral at 70°
molecule thick. to the fiber axis.

Beneath the primary wall lies secondary The hollow canal running the length of the
wall made of concentric layer of spiraling fiber is called Lumen. Its walls are inner most
fibrils; this forms the bulk of the fiber. concentric layers of fibrils of secondary wall.

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Structure of Cotton Fiber
Longitudinal Structure of Cotton Fiber
1. Base/Root Tip
2. Body
3. Tip

Body

Base

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 Structure of Cotton Fiber
Convolutions

The convolutions give cotton an uneven fibre surface, which increases inter-fibre
friction and enables fine cotton yarns of adequate strength to be spun. The cross-
section of a cotton fibre is often described as being kidney-shaped.

50 convolutions per cm

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Cross-sections of fibers showing
fully developed primary walls,
mature fibers (SEM)

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Cross-section of fibers showing
partially developed primary walls,
immature fibers (SEM).

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 Structure of Cotton Fiber
Typical development of
cotton growth

Maturity is a measure of
how thick the cell wall is,
compared to the lumen.

• Mature/Over-mature

• Immature

• “Dead”
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 Cross-Sectional Structure of Cotton Fiber

Small groves

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 Structure of Cotton Fiber

schematic representation of the cellulosic and non-cellulosic materials in the cotton fiber

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 Structure of Cotton Fiber

Cotton fibre kidney-

looking like a shaped
twisted ribbon cross-section

collapsed bundle of
and twisted tube cotton fibres

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 Physical Properties of cotton
Color Nearly white to light tan
Lustre Not very much
Density 1.50-1.54 g/cc
Moisture regain 8.5%
Tenacity Dry:Wet (g/den) 2.1-6.3 : 2.5-7.6
Elongation at break (%) 3.10
At 2% Extension ---74% Recovery
At 5% Extension ---45% Recovery
Heat conduction Good
Soiling Easy
Susceptible to damage Mildew
Sunlight Turn yellows and weakened under long
exposure

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 Properties of cotton fiber
Tenacity:
Strength comes from the good alignment of polymer,
formation of hydrogen bonds between polymer chains, and
spiral fibril in secondary and primary walls.
Cotton gains strength when wet due to further
improvement in chain alignment and formation of hydrogen
bonds with 5% increase in tenacity.
Elastic nature:
Cotton is inelastic due to high crystalline structure and for
this reason It wrinkle and creases readily. When it's wet the
hydrogen bonds breaks and reformation of hydrogen bonds
at new place prevent cotton recovery.

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 Properties of cotton fibre
Hygroscopic nature:
Cotton is absorbent due to polar group –OH in its
structure; this attract water. That gives better penetration of
dyes, chemicals and wetting agent.
Thermal properties:
Cotton can with stand hot ironing. Excessive application of
heat cause cotton fibre to char and burn without any prior
melting. This indicate that cotton is not thermoplastic.
• Turns yellow after several hours at 120C
• Decomposes at 150C
• Severely damaged in few minutes at 240C
• It burns readily in air
Effect of Acid:
• Attacked by hot dilute or cold concentrated acids.
• Not affected by cold weak acids

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 Properties of cotton fiber
Chemical properties:
1. Cotton gets weaken and destroyed by acids. Mineral and
inorganic acids hydrolyze cotton more readily than organic
acids.
2. Cotton fibers are resistant to alkalis and are relatively
unaffected by laundering due to lack of attraction between
cotton polymer and alkalis.
3. Non cellulosic part of cotton is removed by scouring
(NaOH) and bleaching (H2O2)
Insects:
Not effected by moth grubs and beetles
Micro-organisms:
Attacked by fungi, bacteria and mildew ( flourish under hot
humid conditions)

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 The role of fiber length
The yarn count that can be spun from
With other fiber properties being
cotton depends on its fiber length.
equal, at the same count, yarns spun
With other properties being equal,
from longer cotton are stronger than
finer yarns can generally be spun
those from shorter cotton.
from longer cotton.

When spun into a specific count,

The fiber length has a direct bearing
longer cotton requires less twists,
on yarn strength because the longer
especially in yarns, and consequently
the fibers in yarn, the greater
higher productivity for the spinning
number of points of contact and
frame. Fiber length is usually
cohesion between them,
associated with strength and
consequently resulting in increased
fineness. Long fiber cotton is usually
yarn strength.
of higher fineness and strength.

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 Chemical modification of cotton fiber
PA cotton:
Treating with acetic anhydride in acetic acid converts in
acetylated cotton (PA cotton).
No smell, non-toxic, more resistance against heat
AM cotton:
Treated with 2-aminoethylsulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide
Better dyeing, better resistance against light and washing,
rot-resistance
CM cotton:
Treated with monochloroacetic acid and sodium hydroxide
Absorbs more water and accepts crease resistant finishes
CN cotton:
Treated with acrylonitrile: as cyanoethylated (CN) cotton
Resistance against rotting and heat, easy dying,
PL cotton:
Treated with propiolactone
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Production of Cotton

Planting

Growing

Harvesting

Cleaning

Ginning

Bailing

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 What is a Life Cycle?

Seed
• A life cycle is
the series of
changes in Flower Seedling
the life of an
organism

Small
Plant
Plant

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Steps from Seed Boll to Fiber Growth

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 The life cycle of Cotton

Did you know?

Cotton is a slow-growing plant that requires at least 24-
25 weeks to grow!

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 Formation of fiber
Fiber Growth 24 days cycle Growth Ring

Lengthwise Fiber strengthen its internal structure,

Hundred of fibers appears from seed coat during each day add new layer of cellulose,
the course of first week deposition continue for twenty-four days
First six days growth is slow, next fifteen days it
is much more rapid
2000 times diameter
Next three days grows more slowly
When Boll opens the moisture evaporates from the fiber, until this happens the fiber
maintain tube like appearance, with circular cross-section; After drying out the cell
walls collapse, forming ribbon like structure that resemble bicycle inner tube

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The life cycle of Cotton

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 Germination

• After the seed is planted,

it takes around 5- 10
days to germinate and
sprout
• The sprout will grow two
small leaves called
cotyledons, which help
with photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is where a plant
turns sunlight into energy and
food for the plant!

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 Seedling

• The initial leaves

(cotyledons) will help the
roots to develop

• Once the root system has

developed, more leaves
begin to appear. This
will take 2-4 weeks.
Now the plant will grow to be
2-5 feet tall!

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 Square (Bud)

• Flower buds, called squares

will appear on the plant
within 5-7 weeks after it is
planted
• The white flowers signal the
beginning of the pollination
process, which begins within
24 hours of the bud’s
appearance
You need dry, hot days
for pollination to occur!

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 Boll

• Cotton fibers grow from

the seeds inside the boll

• After the boll stops

growing, it will fill with
cellulose (plant material)

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 Mature Plant

• After the cellulose has

filled the boll, the boll
bursts open, and
cotton spills out

• Now 25 weeks after

planting, the cotton is
ready for harvest!

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 Cotton Ginning

• The freshly picked seed cotton is separated from

seeds through Ginning procedure. The separated
cotton is then called ‘Gin Cotton’.
• Cotton Gin is of two types
1. Roller Gin (for longer length cotton fibers)
2. Saw Gin (for shorter and medium length cotton)

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 Cotton Ginning

Wooden roller
with leather
discs . The
revolving roller
passes closer to
stationery knife

Roller Gin (slower, costly, used in Pak) 45

 Cotton Ginning

Steel grating with

narrow slits

Fibers clinch into

teeth and pulling
them through slits
Seeds remain
behinds

Saw Gin 46
 Where does cotton grow?

• Cotton grows best in warm climates

• Most of the world’s cotton comes from:
• China
• India
• United States
• Uzbekistan
• Other cotton-growing countries include:
• Brazil
• Pakistan
• Turkey

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Major producers of Cotton are

◦ China (23.3 %)
◦ USA (17 %)
◦ India (11.6 %)
◦ Pakistan (7.9 %)
◦ Brazil (3.9 %)
◦ Turkey (3.3 %)
◦ Egypt (1.8 %)

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Ideal Applications
of Cotton include
Warm-weather apparel
Active sports wear
Work clothes
Upholstery
Draperies
Rugs
Towels
Bedding

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Fiber Mix (Natural versus Manmade)

70 % Manmade 29% Manmade

30% Natural 71% Natural

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Fiber Mix (Cotton versus Manmade)

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Cotton Fiber Production Worldwide

World Cotton Production in ‘000’ tons World cotton yield: kilograms lint per hectare

World cotton area of production ‘000 ha’ [hectares]. Area of cotton production by country - 2018

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Textile value chain map of Pakistan

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 Cotton Grade

Trash includes:
• Bits of leaf
• Stem Trash decreases the fibre
• Dirt quality

Small quantities of cotton in

the shades of brown, rust,
Naturally coloured cotton is
green, blue, yellow and
also available
lavender are being grown in
North and South America.

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 Cotton Grade
Grade refers to the colour of the fibre and the absence of trash
contents as well as the absence of tangles of fibre(ginning)
Best quality grade is lustrous, silky, white and clean

8 main grades and 32 subdivisions

Colour of cotton is described in the range of white to yellow:

Extra white, white, spotted, and yellow
Colour is also described in terms of lightness to darkness

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 Trash Content

• Shirley Analyser
- Separates trash
(seeds, twigs, bugs etc)

- Leaves clean fibre

• Trash Content =

weight of trash x 100%

weight of sample
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 Properties of Cotton
Aesthetics

◦ Lustre: Matte, Pleasant

◦ Drape: Soft to stiff
◦ Texture: Pleasant
◦ Hand : Smooth to rough
◦ Shear : conform to complex shapes

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 Durability

◦ Cotton is medium strength fiber

◦ Stronger wet than dry

◦ Longer staple cotton produces stronger yarns because of more contact

points between fibers

◦ Abrasion resistance is moderate. Heavier fabrics will take longer to

abrade.

◦ Elongation is low, around 3%

◦ Low elasticity

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 Care
Cotton can be washed with strong detergents

Requires no special care during washing and drying

Cotton releases all types of soil readily so cold water can also clean
adequately

Chlorine bleaches can be used. However, bleach should be considered

a spot removal method and not routinely used because excessive
bleaching weakens cellulosic fibers

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 Care
During ironing cotton responds best to a combination of steam and heat

Cotton is not thermoplastic so can be ironed at high temperature

Cotton should be stored clean and dry. If damp, mildew can form

Mildew first appears as little black dots, but it can actually eat through the
fabric, causing holes if enough time elapses

Cotton is harmed by acids. Fruit and fruit juice stains should be treated
promptly with cold water before they set and become even more difficult
to remove

Cotton oxidizes in sunlight, which causes white and pastel cottons to

yellow

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 Cotton swelling in water

Immersion in water
45-50% uptake

Access to dyes
and finishing chemicals

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 Cotton textile processing

Alkaline Scouring
remove hydrophobic waxes / fats in cell wall
allow diffusion of textile chemicals / moisture

Mercerisation improves lustre, stability and dyeability

Bleaching lumen contents coloured on drying

yellow tint to fibres - quality

Dyeing water soluble

react with cellulose hydroxyl groups

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Cotton Mercerisation: swelling in caustic soda

Improves, dyeability, lustre, fabric smoothness

Improves dimensional stability - setting
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Chemical durability of cotton

Attacked by acids – polymer chains broken

Alkali stable

Stable against repeated washing – high crystallinity

Stable to bleach

Biodegradable - damp conditions – mildew

Adequate resistance to sunlight – exterior use

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Summary of key cotton properties

Strong - abrasion resistant - stiff / inelastic creasing

Fine - depending on variety/quality

Chemically / thermally stable

Dimensionally stable - shrinkage after initial wash

- moisture setting / resetting

Absorbs / transmits moisture

slow drying

dirt pickup
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The Attraction of Cotton

Comfortable
apparel (contact with skin)

Hard wearing
Washable
regular use, long life

Absorbent
domestic use
A part of every-day life
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 Why Do Cotton Garments Wrinkle?

The hydrogen bonds holding the molecular chains together

are weak.

When fabrics are bent or crushed, particularly in the

presence of moisture, the chains move freely to new
positions.

When pressure is removed, there are no forces within the

fibers to pull the chains back to their original position so the
fabric remains wrinkled.

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