Dr. K.

Warikoo

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© Vivekananda International Foundation 2020

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Dr. K. Warikoo is former Professor, Centre for Inner
Asian Studies, School of International Studies,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. He is currently
Senior Fellow, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library,
New Delhi. This paper is based on the author’s writings
published earlier, which have been updated and
consolidated at one place. All photos have been taken
by the author during his field studies in the region.
 Siberia and India:
Historical Cultural Affinities

India and Eurasia have had close social and cultural linkages, as
Buddhism spread from India to Central Asia, Mongolia, Buryatia,
Tuva and far wide. Buddhism provides a direct link between
India and the peoples of Siberia (Buryatia, Chita, Irkutsk, Tuva,
Altai, Urals etc.) who have distinctive historico-cultural affinities
with the Indian Himalayas particularly due to common traditions
and Buddhist culture. Revival of Buddhism in Siberia is of great
importance to India in terms of restoring and reinvigorating
the lost linkages. The Eurasianism of Russia, which is a Eurasian
country due to its geographical situation, brings it closer to India in
historical-cultural, political and economic terms. This paper reflects
upon this author’s experiences of travels in Buryatia, Khakassia ,
Altai and Tuva Republics of Russian Federation, bringing to light
certain commonalities of traditions and beliefs still prevalent in this
Siberian region and India.

There is wide scope for developing economic and cultural interaction

between Eurasia and India, as the two regions maintained cultural

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

contacts since ancient times. Archaeological evidence supports the

concept of unity of the Eurasian region and the link of Russia and
Central Asian states with India into a complex of cross-cultural
bindings. Indian Vedas, Shamanism and Tengrism of Eurasia have
so many commonalities. In the 18th century Buddhism penetrated
to Altai where Buddhist rituals were assimilated with the traditional
Shamanist practices. One can find traces of ancient Vedic doctrines
in the traditional rituals and practices of the Siberian people even
today.

BURYATIA

Covering an area of 351,300 sq. kms. and situated in the southern

part of East Siberia to the southeast of Lake Baikal, the Republic
of Buryatia has its borders touching Mongolia in the south, the
Republic of Tuva in the southwest, the Irkutsk oblast in the northwest
and the Chita oblast in the east. The major part (about 60 per cent
of coastline) of the 636 kms long Lake Baikal, the deepest freshwater
lake in the world, falls within the territory of Buryatia. The capital
city of Ulan-Ude is the administrative, political, economic, and
cultural centre of the Republic of Buryatia. It is one of the oldest
and large cities of Siberia. Ulan Ude city is small, compact and well
organised. On the main Arbat Street, there is a symbol of Ulan Ude
city – the Swayambo placed above two dragons, which reminds
of strong Indian cultural influence (Photo 1). On a visit to the
Rimpoche Baksha Temple in Ulan Ude city on 27 September 2007,
this author met a Buddhist Lama from Ladakh (India), who was
spending over three months in this monastery (Photo 2). On the
outskirts of Ulan Ude city, there is a traditional Buryat restaurant
– Yurt, where one can have the ethnic Buryat cuisine and national
music and dance. They make circular dance around Ogun (fire

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

place), which is placed in the centre of the restaurant. That Ogun,

the Sanskrit term for fire is still in vogue here, only testifies to the
continuing Indian connection with Buryatia.

Selenga ,which is the largest river having a length of over 1,200 kms
and flowing through Russia, Mongolia and Buryatia, falls in the
Baikal Lake. Selenga river has strong flow of water and depth. It is
like the Ganges of India and is an integral part of Buryat culture. So
many national Buryat songs have been written about the Selenga.
Well known Buryat artist Anna Subonova has composed and sung
several songs eulogising the grandeur and essence of Selenga for
Buryatia. Selenga river flows along the road to Baikal lake and the
clouds of vapour over the course of the Selenga river present an
extraordinary sight.

Buddhist lamas from Buryatia who had access to the rulers of Russia
from the time of Empress Elizabeth (1741-1762), became influential
at the Tsarist Russian courts of Alexander III and Nicholas II,
through the efforts of Peter Alexandrovich Badmaev (1851-1919), a
Buryat physician and practitioner of Tibetan medicine at the Court.1
Well known Buryat Lama Agvan Dordji (Dordjiev) had gained
substantial influence with the Dalai Lama in early 20th century.
He was received by Nicholas II in October 1900 and in July 1901,
Dordji proposed to the Tsar that “Russia should proclaim herself the
champion of Asia and the defender of Buddhism”.2

In 1741, the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna issued an imperial decree

“recognising Buddhism in Buryatia and 11 datsans which existed at
that time were confirmed with 150 lamas in them”.3 In 1764, Russian
government appointed the Buryat lama Damba-darja Zayayev as
the Chief Bandida Hambo Lama of all Buddhists living to the south

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

of Lake Baikal. He became the supreme official head of the Buddhist

order in Buryatia as the first Bandida Hambo Lama (1766-1777).4 And
this tradition has continued till modern times. In 1811 the foremost
Aginsky monastery with separate departments of philosophy,
tantras and medicine, was set up. Its degrees were recognised. In
1853 Russia issued a decree on “the Status of the Lamaist Clergy in
Eastern Siberia” which regulated the administrative and economic
status of datsans and lamas until the 1917 Revolution. By 1917, there
were 47 Buddhist monasteries (datsans) in Buryatia, each being a
spiritual and cultural centre.

After the October Revolution of 1917 the Buryat-Mongol

Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was established in the year
1923. All Soviet and administrative personnel in Buryat Republic
were initially recruited from lamas, ex-lamas and students of lamaist
monasteries. These lamaist modernists projected Buddhism as
atheistic and Buddha as a predecessor of Lenin. The leading Buryat
historian Zhamtsarano stressed that “Gautam Buddha had given the
world an accomplished system of Communism”. Though lamaism
was crushed during Stalin’s period, a new generation of Buryat
intellectuals who had grown up in the 1950s, now started writing
in Russian and Mongolian languages about Mongolia and Mongols.
Several Buryat poets such as Dondok, Dashi Dambaev, Lopsan
Taphkaev and Bayar Dugarov played key role in the reawakening
of Buryat Mongol consciousness. One Buddhist monastery became
the centre of Buddhist preaching and practice and several Buryat
lamas even represented the former Soviet Union at international
peace conferences.

Gorbachev’s policy of glasnost and perestroika facilitated the

revival of Buryat culture and traditions. In 1989 Bayar Dugarov

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

led a successful campaign for the celebration of the ancient Buryat

holiday Sagaalgan (New Year). In 1990 Dugarov and other Buryat
cultural personalities initiated the five year celebrations of Geser,
thus reviving the local heritage. In fact, the campaign to promote
Geser as figure of national unity assumed an official character,
following a decision to this effect by the Supreme Soviet of the
Buryat Republic at its meeting on 15 November 1990. This decision
led to the organisation of festivals dedicated to the Geser epic for
which a special Geser Directorate was created by the government
of Buryatia. It may be pointed out that the epic of heroic king
Geser is recorded in poetry and prose throughout Central Asia,
Tibet and Karakoram Himalayas. That the Tibetan, Mongolian,
Buryat, Ladakhi and Balti singers maintain the oral tradition of
singing Geser, shows the longevity of the cultural affinity between
Indian Himalayas and Buryatia. On 27 March 1991, the Republic
was named as the Republic of Buryatia of the Russian Federation.
First All Buryat Congress was held on 22 February 1991 to discuss
issues of the revival of Buryat language, culture and history. This was
followed by the establishment of All-Buryat Cultural Association
with the objective of promoting Buryat language, culture and
contacts between Buryat Mongol areas. Buryatia is also witnessing
the revival of Shamanism and Buddhism.

Despite having a long chequered history, Buryats have always

demonstrated benevolence and respect to their neighbours,
who arrived in the Baikal region at different periods of time.
Notwithstanding their Russian education and training, Buryat
intellectuals played key role in retaining the Buryat traditions
and culture while modernising themselves. In this process of
syncretisation, as a result of application of Russian science, technology,
language, literature and culture in the traditional nomadic society of

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

Buryatia, the indigenous Buryats retained their local traditions and

ethos adjusting themselves to the new wave of dominant Russian
and later Soviet cultural and political influence. Even though the
use of Russian language became widespread amongst the Buryats,
they retained the indigenous Mongolian characteristics, nomadic
lifestyle, Buddhist and Shamanist religion and traditions, Tibetan
language, Buryat history and folklore. The majority of Buryats,
though following Buddhism, remain attached to the Shamanist
practices. The rites of birth, marriage, death and seasonal festivals
have Shamanist characteristics, notwithstanding the participation by
lamas and their recitation of sacred Buddhist texts. Today, cultural,
religious and social traditions of different peoples in Buryatia are
closely interwoven forming a unique pattern of peaceful coexistence.
Buryats have maintained their Shamanist and mythical traditions
and practices. Buddhism and Buddhist tradition which was brought
to Buryatia from India, Tibet and Mongolia, forms the main base of
its culture. The Buddhist philosophy, Tibetan system of medicine,
astrology, language and printing of literature have not only survived
but even developed in Buryatia.

Harsh climatic conditions, nomadic lifestyle, dependence on

natural resources- forests, mountains, lakes etc., sparsely populated
settlements situated at a distance from each other and other
environmental factors played their role in the development of
various rituals, traditions and culture of the Buryats. Thus we see
the Buryats revering the elements of nature - earth, sun, moon, fire
and water. Similarly collectivism, mutual help and hospitality are
accorded importance in their day to day life. It is considered sinful
to defile fire and water. Also one must not break trees, instead one
should give them gifts by hanging coloured pieces of cloth on its
branches. The practice of making offerings at Beruza trees and tying

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

coloured pieces of cloth on the branches of trees is quite prevalent

in Buryatia as in most parts of India (Photos 3 & 4). On both sides
of the highway from Ulan Ude to Lake Baikal, the birch and pine
trees are in abundance. Golden yellow leaves of birch trees provide
a beautiful sight in autumn. On the way to Lake Baikal, visitors
stop at a place and bow before the birch trees offering tea, bread,
coins etc. Further moving towards Lake Baikal, they pay obeisance
to Usan Lopsan - the god of Baikal, offering coins to its wooden
statue (Photos 5, 6 & 7). They make three rounds from the left
clockwise around the statue like the one we have in Hindu tradition.
Buryats attach great importance to colours, certain numerals etc.
White (saagan) is considered to be the colour of sanctity and well-
being. Black symbolises danger, grief or death. Red is revered as it is
related to fire, light and warmth and it is believed to bring power, joy
and well-being. So we find Ulaan (red) in the words Ulaan-Baatar,
Ulaan-Ude, Ulaan-Hongor etc. Yellow is associated with the Sun and
gold and is given prominence in the palette of colours in Buddhism.
Blue denotes the eternal sky and water. Green symbolises the earth,
vegetation and growth.

Today there are eighteen Buddhist datsans (monasteries), twelve

Buddhist communities, seventeen Orthodox temples and parish
churches, seven ancient Russian Orthodox communities, and over
twenty religious denominations and movements of various kinds
in Buryatia. A temple complex called Jarun Khashor, which unites
different Buddhist sects was opened in Kizhinga. The past several
years have witnessed the revival of old traditions in Buryatia. Old
datsans are being restored and new temples and Christian churches
are being constructed. In July 1991, a jubilee was celebrated in
Buryatia to mark 250 years of the official recognition of Buddhism
in Russia and Dalai Lama was invited to Buryatia on this occasion,

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

which turned the event extraordinary and historic. People in

Buryatia and Chita Oblast braved heavy rains and stood waiting
to see the Dalai Lama. Buddhists of Mongolia and the Russian
Federation, particularly the Republics of Buryatia, Kalmykia and
Tuva, look towards the Dalai Lama as their spiritual leader. In
early November 2007, about 400 Buddhists from Mongolia and
the Russian Federation visited India and organised a week-long
cultural festival in Dharmshala, the seat of the Dalai Lama and
Tibetan Government-in-Exile. They held an exhibition showcasing
Buddhist culture and traditions in the Russian Republics, besides
having concerts and performances by visiting cultural groups. This
was a major organised effort by the Buddhists of Buryatia and Tuva
to revive their ancient historical and spiritual ties with the homeland
of Buddha.

After 1990, several monasteries were renovated and new ones

constructed at Tsugol, Gusinoozersk, Kyrensk, Atzagat, Egituevsk,
Murochinsk, Gegetui, Anninsk, Sanaginsk and Ust-Ordynsk.5 A
School for higher Buddhist studies was opened in 1991 at Ivolginsk
Datsan, with a few students having enrolled there.

The combination of the influences of Buddhism, Shamanism

of indigenous peoples, and Staroobryadchestvo (Old Russian
Orthodox Christianity) has enriched the spiritual sphere of the
society in Buryatia. The most ancient traditional religion of Buryats
and Evenks has been Shamanism since ancient times. Both the
Indo-Buddhist, Mongolian and Russian-European cultures and
Shamanism, Buddhism and Christianity have played their role in the
formation and development of Buryat culture through history. Due
to its unique geographical location (being situated on the borders of
Russia, Mongolia and China) and historical-cultural development,

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

Buryatia and Buryats present a unique synthesis of both culture of

the East through Buddhism and Mongolian language and culture
and that of the West through the medium of Russian language and
culture. The three main value systems of the Buryats - Buddhism,
Shamanism and epic-heroism (Geser) have become important for
the preservation and promotion of Buryat ethno-cultural identity.
Reopening of Buddhist monasteries, forging of close contacts with
Mongolia and the Dalai Lama, renewal of shamanist practices and
claims, and the promotion of heroic figure of Geser (Photo 8) signify
the assertion of their distinct and indigenous identity by the Buryats.

This author alongwith a group of five Indian musicians participated

in the International Festival on Sounds of Eurasia, which was
organised by the East Siberian Academy of Culture and Arts and the
Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications, Buryatia Republic
of the Russian Federation at Ulan Ude from 25 September to 1
October 2007. It was a major event in renewing the age old cultural
contacts between Buryatia and India. The only foreign participants
in this Festival were the group of Indian musicians representing the
Himalayan Research and Cultural Foundation, New Delhi (Mrs.
Savita Bakshi – Sitar, Mr. R.K. Majumdar – Santoor, Mr. Anil Kaul –
Tabla, Mr. Rakesh Anand – Flute/Bansuri and Mr. Ravinder Kaul –
Comperer) which was led by this author. It was for the first time that
any Indian cultural group visited Buryatia/East Siberia during the
past several decades. This programme was the result of cooperation
between the Himalayan Research and Cultural Foundation and East
Siberia Academy of Culture and Arts (ESACA), for promoting Indo-
Russian/India-Eurasia cultural contacts. The journal Himalayan and
Central Asian Studies brought out a Special Buryatia Issue which
was released on this occasion. The Festival received enthusiastic
official and public response in Ulan Ude. On 25th September 2007,

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

the Indian delegation was accorded a ceremonial welcome before

being formally received by the Rector, East Siberian Academy of
Cultures and Arts. The inaugural ceremony which took place at the
Ulan Ude Musical College, was attended by the cultural/literary elite
of Ulan Ude, with over 600 people assembled in the Hall.

In his inaugural message, Mr. V.V. Nagovicin, President-Chairman

of Government of Buryatia, expressed his happiness at this occasion
as it provided “an opportunity to the people of the Republic to
learn traditional instrumental music of Russia and India.” He was
especially delighted at the publication of Buryatia Special Issue of
Himalayan and Central Asian Studies by the Himalayan Research
and Cultural Foundation which was released during this Festival.
Mr. G.A. Aidaev, Mayor of Ulan Ude city, while speaking on the
occasion of the Inauguration of the Festival on 25th September 2007,
stated that “participation of our Indian friends in the Festival once
again emphasises our kind fraternal ties”. Prof. R.I. Pschenichnikova,
Rector, East Siberian State Academy of Culture and Arts, described
the traditional music as a bridge between the past, present and
future. This author described this festival as another link in the long
chain of historico-cultural contacts. “And we are thus seeing history
being enacted, as this composite cultural programme, academic
presentations, artistic performances by well known and experienced
artists from Buryatia, Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk, Chita and India
symbolise common cultural traditions, values and aspirations of the
people in this entire region”, he added.

The Festival concluded on Saturday, 29th September 2007. And in

the evening, a formal ceremony was held at the main hall of Ulan
Ude Musical College, where a Gala Concert of all the participants
from India, Buryatia, Chita, Krasnoyarsk, Khakassia and other parts

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

of Siberia was held (Photo 9). All these artists and musicians from
different cultural/ethnic backgrounds presented a fantastic musical
programme which demonstrated both harmony and symphony
between different musical traditions. Indian classical music of
Santoor, Sitar and Flute accompanied the Russian Balalaika, Buryat
Chanz and Yatagan and other instruments. The gala concert of all
these artists and musicians, spell bound the audience with their
musical performances.

ALTAI

Altai has been variously described as ‘Gate to Shambhala’, ‘Pearl

of Asia’, ‘Siberia’s Switzerland’, ‘The Golden Mountains’ and so on.
The ‘Golden Mountains’ are revered by the Altaians, Buddhists and
Burkhanists.6 In 1988 UNESCO declared the Golden Mountains
and the Mount Belukha a World Heritage site. The name Altai
comes from Mongolian Altan which means golden. The Altai
region spans over vast area at the junction of Russia, Kazakhstan,
Mongolia and China. Altai is full of natural bounties – rivers and
lakes, splendour of snowy peaks, luxuriant taiga, steppes, rich flora
and fauna. Amazing natural landscapes, historical antiquity, rich
mineral resources, agriculture and tourist attraction lend Altai a
unique character. Bordered by Novosibirsk, Kemerovo Oblasts and
Khakassia and Tuva Republics of Russia, Bayan-Olgii province of
Mongolia, Kazakhstan and Altai Prefecture in Xinjiang region
of China, Altai is situated in the centre of Eurasia. The area has
witnessed criss-crossing of different ethnic and linguistic groups
through history.

After the October revolution in Russia, the Oyrot Autonomous

Oblast was established on 1 June 1922, as recognition of distinctness

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

of the Altai people. On 7 January 1948 the Oblast was renamed as

Gorno-Altai Autonomous Oblast. And soon after the disintegration
of the former Soviet Union, Gorno Altai Autonomous Oblast
was reorganized in 1992 and split into two administrative units –
Altai Krai and Altai Republic.7 Whereas Altai Krai is dominated
by the flat farmland and big industries, Altai Republic is mainly
constituted of mountains and forests inhabited by the indigenous
Altaian people. Barnaul is the administrative centre of Altai Krai,
which is a part of Siberian Federal Okrug (District). Altai Republic is
largely mountainous and covers an area of 92,600 sq. kms. Having a
population of about 206,000, Altaians constitute over 35%, Russians
being about 57% and Kazakhs about 6%. Gorno Altaisk is the
administrative centre of Altai Republic, which is part of Siberian
Federal District.

Nicholas Roerich described Altai as the centre of Eurasia being

situated at “an equal distance from the four oceans”. And in the centre
of the Altai is the northern point of the Central Asian mountain
range, and the highest peak of Siberia – Belukha (4,506 metres). To
Roerich Mount Balukha symbolized Shambhala. Roerich painted
Belukha several times. He “viewed Belukha as a local counterpart
to Mount Kailas”,8 the holy peak in Tibet. To Roerich “Belukha and
Kailas were geographic and metaphysical twins”.9 During his Central
Asian expedition (1925-28), Roerich studied antiquities, traditions,
customs, medicinal herbs and the history of migrations of peoples.
Roerich wrote: “The Katun is affable. The blue mountains are clear.
The Belukha mountain is white. The flowers are bright and the green
herbs and ciders are soothing”. The region is blessed with rivers,
lakes, hot springs, forests and significant minerals reserves. The
main rivers are Biya and Katun which originate in the mountains
and flow northwards. The Katun river is central to the spirituality

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

and culture of the Altaians, who like in India conduct several rituals
in reverence of the river.

I visited Altai twice in June 2014 and June 2015. Notwithstanding

the preponderance of the Russian population, an aura of Asianness
pervades in this part of Russia.10 The ethnic Russians here
strongly identify with the Altaians and are keen to protect local
environment, nature and culture. The Russians here are quite
friendly, straightforward and nourish deep affection and ideological/
civilisational affinity with India. The concept of ‘Altai-Himalayas’ –
the close geocultural and spiritual affinity between the two great
mountain systems and cultures, was a common issue brought in for
academic discussion between Indian and Altai specialists.11 I visited
the painting exhibition of Ms. Larisa Pastushkova, who has done a
lot of paintings devoted to India, Tibet, Nepal and Mongolia. One
could see that the people here have some sort of deep cultural and
spiritual affinity with India.12

Prof. A.V. Ivanov stressed the need to strengthen the historical-

cultural heritage of Eurasia to save the region from the adverse
affects of western social and political influences. He called upon
Russia to take into account the historical-cultural background of its
Asiatic space. This author gave a call for reviving the civilisational
links between India and Eurasia. He stated that Buddhism provides
a direct link between India and the peoples of Siberia (Buryatia,
Inkutsk, Tuva, Altai etc), who have distinct historico-cultural
similarities with the Indian Himalayas particularly due to common
traditions and Buddhist culture. He stressed the need to have
collaborative research to study in depth various aspects of ancient
history, race movements and archaeological remains in India and
Siberia, common sources and roots of Indic and Siberian culture.

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

Prof. M.A. Shishin described India as a core part of the Eurasian

concept. He believed that the power of spirituality will integrate
Eurasia.13

On 28th June 2014, I alongwith Dr. Irina Zherinosenko - the

culturologist and Associate Professor at Altai State Technical
University, Barnaul, Danil Mamyev - Director of the Karakol
National Park, Alfred - the ace videographer and Vitaly - the legal
consultant and culturologist left Barnaul in Lexus SUV for Gorno
Altai. The journey took about 12 hours and after crossing the Ob
river we passed through lush green grassfields, pine and brich trees
lining the road and wheat, mustard fields on the way. The area is
sparsely populated and the highway is well maintained. We stopped
over at Biysk town, which is about 200 kms from Barnaul. It is here
that the rivers Katun and Biya join to form the Ob river. We reached
Onguday, the main town of Altai Republic in the evening and went
to the rest house in Uch Enmek.

The Karakol valley is home to several villages, many ancient burials

and the sacred mountain of Uch Enmek (Sumeru). The Valley
is the heart of the Uch Enmek Nature Park, being managed by
Danil Mamyev. A geologist by training and having over 30 years
experience in environmental field and indigenous issues, Danil
Mamyev is the initiator and moving spirit behind the development
and functioning of the Karakol Ethno-National Park. He has been
an ardent promoter of traditional culture, customs and beliefs of the
indigenous Altai people, at the same time being very committed to
preservation of the local environment.

Uch Emmek – the Karakol National Park is spanned over a big area.
Several yurts have been erected here for the tourists. We stayed in

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

the yurts for the night. However, new modern building of guest
house with all facilities started operating soon after our arrival.
Danil, the founder Director of the Karakol Park, explained the
sanctity of this place and its surroundings. The aura of sacredness
prevails here.14 No trace of garbage is found inside the Park or its
surroundings, everything being put in the designated bins. There
is a separate kitchen in the park, where we and other guests had
dinner. A fire place is marked by a tripod in the kitchen dining hall
and is considered to be the sacred space. Hot bath and steam sauna
in the bania provided in the Park, enable the guests to relax after
tiresome journey and treks.

Pilgrimage to Mount Sumeru

Mount Meru is a sacred mountain in Hindu, Jain as well as Buddhist

cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical,
metaphysical and spiritual universes. Meru is also called Sumeru
in Sanskrit. Roerich believed “Belukha and Kailash to be earthly
manifestations of Mount Meru (Sumeru), the sacred mountain,
which through a process of syncretism, can be found in a number
of Siberian and Central Asian shamanic traditions. Roerich saw
Belukha-Kailas-Meru as a reflection of what he felt was a universal
tendency of all faiths to create central cosmological structures that
were vertical in nature – be they mountains, trees or built structures.
Whatever its physical form, any such axis mundi around which the
universe revolved, linked the earthly world with heaven above, and
also with whatever underground realm existed below.”15

According to Puranas, Meru is the home or seat of the gods. A 4th

century Sanskrit dictionary Amarkosha (1.49) describes Meru/
Sumeru as ‘Golden Mountains’, the mountain of jewels and the

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

abode of gods (Meru: Sumeru hemadri-Ratansanuh Suralayah).16

According to Itihasik Sthanwali (a historical dictionary of place
names) north Meru is situated near Siberia.17 In his book The Arctic
Home in the Vedas, Bal Gangadhar Tilak concludes that “the ancestors
of the Vedic Rishis lived in an Arctic home in inter-Glacial times.”18
According to Tilak, “Mount Meru is the terrestrial North Pole of
our astronomers”.19 The Surya-Siddhanta states that Mount Meru
lies in ‘the middle of the Earth’. Narpatijayacharya, a 9th century text,
mentions Sumeru to be in the middle of the Earth. Varahmihira in
his Panch-siddhantika states Mount Meru to be at the North Pole.
This description in the ancient Indian text tallies with the belief
firmly held by the indigenous Altaians even today. The Puranas and
Hindu epics, often state that Surya, i.e. the sun-god, alongwith its
planets and stars together as one unit, circumambulate Mount Meru
every day. According to Tilak, Mount Meru is described in the Vedic
literature, as the seat of seven Adityas in the Taittiriya Aranyaka,
while the eighth Aditya namely Kashyapa is said never to leave
the great Meru or Mahameru.20 Kashyapa is further described as
communicating light to the seven Adityas, and himself perpetually
illuminating the great mountain.21

Bal Gangadhar Tilak , popularly known as Lok Manya Tilak,

published his book The Arctic Home in the Vedas from Pune in
1903. It was a sequel to his Orion or Researches into the Antiquity
of the Vedas, which was published earlier in 1894. Tilak was a
mathematician turned astronomer, historian, journalist, philosopher
and an enlightened leader and fighter for India’s independence from
the British colonial rule. In this book Tilak propounded the idea
that the North Pole was the original home of the Aryans during the
pre-glacial period, which they had to leave due to the ice deluge and
had to migrate to the northern parts of Europe and Asia in search

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

of lands for new settlements. Tilak who studied and interpreted

certain Vedic hymns, Vedic chronology and Vedic calendars,
discusses the antiquity of the Vedas, of the Aryans and their possible
original home as being somewhere near the Arctic (North Pole).
My personal experiences at Sumeru Parvat testify to the veracity
of the few statements made by Bal Bangadhar Tilak about Sumeru
in his book The Arctic Home of the Vedas. Having never travelled
as far as Sumeru, Tailak’s imagination, vision and knowledge was
extraordinary. His works and contribution need to be studied by the
professional historians, astronomers and philosophers in depth and
disseminated widely.

Prof. K.S. Valdiya, former Professor of Geodynamics at Jawaharlal

Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore, has
interpreted the historical data provided by ancient Indian Puranas
and epics to identify and pinpoint the ancient geography of India.
While pointing to the position of Bharatvarsh (India), Valdiya cites
Kurma Puran (43) and Vishnu Puran (Part 2,2) as stating that “in
the middle of Jambudweep is situated the many-splendoured Meru,
the focal point of the world of the Puran people”.22 And “Bharatvarsh
lay south of the Meru masiff, across the arch-shaped Himalaya
mountain belt”.23 Valdiya also cites Markandeya Puran, Varah
Puran, Matsya Puran, Devi Puran, Kurma Puran and Mahabharat
to pinpoint the northern neighbours of Bharatvarsh. He writes,
“Northwest of Bharatvarsh, across the Himalaya, was a country
known as Ilavritvarsha following a bow-shaped terrain around
the Meru massif of great height and tremendous splendor.”24 And
the “countries neighbouring Ilavritvarsh are Bhadrashwavarsh in
the east, Hiranyavarsh in the northeast, Kimpurushvarsh in the
southeast, Bharatvarsh in the south, Harivarsh in the southwest,
Ketumalavarsh in the west, Ramyakvarsh in the northwest and

20
 Dr. K. Warikoo

Kuruvarsh in the north”.25 According to Valdiya this configuration

places “Meru at the centre of Jambudweep in the Pamir massif in
Central Asia”.26 He identifies the countries described as Ilavritvarsh,
Ketumalavarsh, Harivarsh, Bhadrashwavarsh, Hiranyavarsh,
Ramyakvarsh and Kuruvarsh as the Central Asian countries of
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Xinjiang, Uzbekistan,
Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.27

On the basis of the Puranic description of the northern

neighbouring territories of India, Professor Valdiya’s interpretation
and my extensive field visits in Central Asia, Siberia and the Altai-
the Sumeru Parvat can easily be identified to be in Hiranyavarsh
of the Puranas and not near the Pamir massif (Ilavritvarsh). Quite
interestingly a publication of Dandi Swami Shri Jaybodh Ashram
titled Avichal Prabhat Granth (published in Delhi, India) describes
the approximate geographical situation of Kalap Gram, which is
stated to be bounded by mountains of which Sumeru is one gate. It
further states that Kalap Gram is full of small and big trees, flowers,
pure cold water and natural beauty.28 This publication describes this
place as a divine abode of gods, where great sages including Narayan
Markanday, Ved Vyas, Diptiman, Galav, Ashwathama, Kripacharya,
Parshuram etc. come from the sky to meet and meditate.29 This only
testifies to the general belief among the Hindus of India about the
sacredness of Sumeru and it being the abode of gods. That this belief
is also prevalent even today among the Altaians in Altai territory –
the actual place of Sumeru, bears ample testimony to the existence
of the sacred space of Sumeru in Altai and its spiritual importance
for Hindus, Buddhists and the indigenous people of Altai.

We left the Karakol Park guest house for the Sumeru mountain in the
morning of 29 June 2014. I found all the five of us (myself, Dr. Irina,

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

Danil, Alfred and Vitaly) having similar thoughts and actions on

spirituality, sanctity of Sumeru Parvat, lakes and natural bounties,
need to preserve the environment of these spaces, and to promote
indigenous cultural heritage. On the way we saw the remains of
Scythian Kurgan burial complexes, which were earlier excavated by
the Soviet archaeologists. Their finds are preserved in the Hermitage
Museum at St. Petersburg. On reaching the base camp, we parked
the jeep here and packed our food stuff , accessories and load on
six horses. The horseman Churla and Danil led our way on horses
towards Sumeru Parvat. On reaching the forest, we dismounted and
performed a ritual by tying white bands to the pine trees seeking
nature’s blessings for our onward strenuous trek to Sumeru Parvat
(Photos 10 & 11). After about three hours ride, we stopped due to
sudden and heavy rains. We pitched the tents in the forest, lit fire,
cooked our night meals and went to sleep. A small stream flows
aside at the hill, top of which is laden with snow. Strong winds and
heavy rains accompanied by lightning continued through the night,
reminding of the difficulty of reaching the destination.

Next day (30 June 2014) too was cloudy. Yet we packed up and moved
towards the mountains in a zigzag fashion, as several mounts had to
be covered one after another. The horse was very intelligent chosing
the right path amidst the sharp edged stones and wet lands. Wearing
our raincoats, we moved on inspite of heavy rains. After a ride of
five hours, we camped at the point, from where Sumeru Parvat is
visible. We pitched our tents and lit fire. After having tea and simple
dinner (grechka, kasha etc), we retired for the night sleep, which
was disturbed by strong winds almost sweeping our tents. Sunny
weather greeted us on the Tuesday morning of 1st July 2014, which
allowed a clear view of Sumeru. We did not pack our tents and left
our stuff at the camp. We did not ride the horses, as it is the tradition

22
 Dr. K. Warikoo

to go to Sumeru from this point on foot as a mark of reverence to the

holy place. The path was laden with sharp edged stones and difficult
mountain terrain, too difficult for the horses.

We stopped at the Altar place before moving towards Sumeru.

Danil (the leader and master of ritual ceremonies) performed the
traditional rituals, tying white bands to the Altar, made a fire to
which sampa (barley flour), ghee, herbs etc. were offered. Milk was
also fed to the fire, by each one of us. The flame of the fire was good,
indicating the approval of the spirits for our pilgrimage to Sumeru.
We also did parikrama making rounds of the Altar and fire. This
tradition closely resembles to that of a yagna by Hindus in India.
Danil offered milk to sky, earth and around to the spirits. He stated
that good wind blew after his ritual, which was a positive signal of
the acceptance of our offerings by the spirits.

Sumeru and its surrounding territory have been considered

sacred by the Altaian people since ancient times. Altai people have
powerful emotional connection with this sacred territory and have
kept this place secluded from public exposure. Even the photograph
of Sumeru has not been popularized, which is not the case with
Belukha. When Nicholas Roerich climbed Balukha mountains, he
mistook it as Sumeru. Later on he wished to get to Sumeru, but he
did not receive the Soviet visa in time. And when his visa reportedly
arrived, Roerich had passed away in Kulu (India) two weeks earlier.
Altai people believe that Sumeru, locally called Uch Enmek, is the
abode of holy chakras, which regulate this earth. And my experience
at Sumeru testifies to this belief.

We reached Sumeru (about 2,600 metres high) in the afternoon of

1st July 2014. It is barren devoid of any trees etc. On the top, there are

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

three peaks connected with each other. Altaians call these peaks as the
three antennae connecting the earth with the cosmos, and imparting
energy to this world. There are several lakes around Sumeru and
several fresh water streams originating from the mountains. At the
foothill of Sumeru, there is a beautiful lake covered with ice and
clean water. The Altai people do not have any tradition of written
scriptures. Their rituals and traditions are in the oral form, having
passed on from generation to generation by word of mouth only.
According to Danil, knowledge of these rites and traditions comes
to the chosen few from the spirits of the land, from earth and sky.
Fire and wind are considered to be sacred. Danil is the only chosen
Altaian master who can make or lead pilgrims to Sumeru. Churla,
the horseman, is his junior follower and is still learning the Altaian
rituals. After spending few hours at the foot of Sumeru and on the
banks of the lake, we moved back to our camp and retired in our
tents after having tea and dinner. And next morning we started our
return journey to our base camp at Karakol park. The horses being
keen to reach home early, were a bit faster in our descent.

On Thursday, 3rd July 2014, we visited various places in the Karakol

Valley to see ancient objects. Danil has developed the Park in
a manner that the main Altaian symbols and objects like the
traditional Altai home Ail, fire place, wooden poles having several
knots denoting the three words – sky, earth and below the earth,
are preserved and showcased here. We tie white bands to the tree.
Different ethnic groups. Mongols, Tuvans, Altaians etc. have their
separate fire places, to make their fire rituals. Later on, the ashes
are brought and put together at a central fire place. A triangle made
of three poles standing in a corner of the Park, denotes smaller
Mongolian mountain. Later we moved on the road, and saw ancient
petroglyphs having marks of deer and some runic script on the rocks

24
 Dr. K. Warikoo

believed to be about 4,000 years old, lying in the open alongside the
roads. Altai people believe in spirits, fire, wind and sky. They attach
great value to horse and as a mark of respect they do not throw the
bones of a dead horse on the ground, but keep them on the trees.

Moving further on, we reached a hill with dense forest, where a

Chortan in chiseled stone has been erected over the ashes of a
Buddhist lama who had come back to Altai preaching Buddhism and
died at the age of 108 years (Photo 12). However, the Altai people
believe more in Burkhanism – a mix of Shamanism and Buddhism.
On the way, we could see Sumeru at various points, which according
to Dr. Irina is a good sign as Sumeru remains generally shrouded
under the clouds.

We then went to Verkhniy Uymon, which is an old Altai settlement

of Old Believers. During his Central Asian Expedition (1925-
28), Nicholas Roerich had stayed at an Old Believer Vakhramey
Atemanov’s house in Verkhniy Oymon. On the completion of the
Central Asian Expedition, Roerich planned to come back to Altai
and settle in Verkhniy Uymon. Nicholas Roerich had told to Uymon
dwellers, “Golden is this locality, in five years I’ll be here”. Roerich
believed Altai to be the centre of Eurasia, stating it to be at “an equal
distance from the four oceans”. The northernmost point of the
Central Asian mountain range – the highest peak of Siberia-Belukha
is here in the centre of Altai. The old traditional Siberian house
where Roerich stayed has been restored by the Siberian Roerich
Society and turned into a memorial house museum of Nicholas
Roerich (Photos 13 & 14). Now it is a cultural and historical sight
not only of the village Oymon but of the whole Altai region, drawing
crowds of visitors here. This Museum is included in the list of the
monuments of the Altai culture and an important destination point

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of domestic and foreign tourists. After entering the museum, there

is a separate shop selling Roerich’s books, video films, reproductions
of his paintings, souvenirs etc. The museum has rare collections of
Roerich’s photographs, works, books, paintings, Roerich Pact etc.
We took a collective photograph holding aloft the Banner of Peace,
in front of the main building of the Roerich Memorial House and
Museum.

Quite nearby there is a small old house, which has been turned
into a museum about Old Believers, who migrated to Siberia in
the 18th century to escape persecution during the reforms in Russia
carried out by Orthodox Church. This house is about 150 years old,
belonging to an old lady. Various artefacts, spun cloth items, bands
etc. traditionally used by the Old Believers, are preserved here. The
lady incharge explained extempore and passionately for over an hour
the life style, culture and beliefs of Old Believers, in a poetic fashion.
It was interesting to note Swastika symbols spun in the clothing and
embroidered items of the Old Believers, which leads one to believe
the prevalence of ancient Vedic customs and traditions in this part
of Russia.

On our way back to Onguday we saw few caves in the hills, where
in old times some people are believed to have meditated. It may
be relevant to point out here that a popular myth associated with
Kalaroos caves located in Kupwara district, some 90 kms. from
summer capital Srinagar, Kashmir, is that these caves are secret
tunnels to Russia. There is a mammoth stone called Satbaran,
meaning seven doors. Local belief is that it was the temple built by
Pandavas. Though few persons have ventured to go for some distance
inside the cave, nobody has dared to go till the end. Any possible
connection between the caves in Altai and the Kalaroos cave is a

26
 Dr. K. Warikoo

subject of further investigation by the scientists and archaeologists.

Vegetarianism and yoga are becoming popular in Russia. There are

three Indian restaurants including one vegetarian one in Novosibirsk.
There is a natural affection among the Russians, particularly the
older generation, for India, Indian culture and philosophy. I met
several old Russians at Verkhiny Oymon, who hugged me warmly
on hearing that I am from India. One such family had spent few
years in Aerovile, Pondicherry and they even named their son, who
was born in Pondicherry, after the great Indian sage Vashisht. 30

Next day (6th July 2014) we left the guest house at the Park to visit
Kol Baktash kurgan near Inya village, about 100 kms away from the
Park. There are many petroglyphs of the deer, ancient big homed
cows (stated to have existed about 30,000 years ago), shamans
performing their rituals, sun etc. A group of visitors from Yakutia,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkey were also there to see their
ancient heritage. They spoke and understood each other’s languages
(in Turki dialect). On the way to Kol Baktash we stopped at several
places and also saw a big rock along the bank of Katun river believed
to be the abode of local spirits. Moving further, we stopped near the
Yelman stream, and climbed a hill on foot to see the ruins of ancient
sun temple, believed to have existed over 10,000 years ago. There are
two layers of stone walls with an entrance marked by two vertical
stones ((Photo 15). The Altai sacred bush Archin is sufficiently
found here on the rocks. Local Altaian people first make their ritual
prayers and then pluck Archin for use in their ceremonies including
the fire rituals.

We moved on to stop at a place where Chui river coming from the

direction of Mongolia joins Katun river (originating from Belukha).

27
 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

This point being the meeting place of two rivers is held sacred by the
Altaians. They tie white and blue ribbons to bushes nearby. A group
of Kyrgyz tourists was also doing the same here. This tradition is
quite similar to the Hindu tradition of holding the Sangam of rivers
as holy, as we witness in Allahabad where the rivers Yamuna, Ganges
and Saraswati meet or at Shadipur (also called Prayag) in Kashmir
where rivers Jhelum and Indus meet.

Moving on, we reached a site where three big ancient stones are
preserved. Two stones have distinct marks of two lines making
three sub-divisions – sky, earth and below the earth (Photo 16).
The Altaians believe in three-world cosmology (upper, middle and
under world), pray to many spirits and hold mountains, lakes, trees,
and fire as sacred. This is in many ways similar to Vedic and Hindu
beliefs prevalent in India even today.

In the evening we returned to our guest house in the Karakol Park.

A local Altai folk singer (Kaichi) treated us with his folk songs
playing local instruments – flute, two stringed instrument etc. He
recited Om Mani Padme Hum and also an ode to the holy Sumeru.
Around 10 pm, after dinner, Danil performed the closing ceremony/
thanks giving fire ritual in an Ail, in the Park. He lit fire, performed
traditional rituals, offered milk, vodka and ghee to the fire. Each
one of us did the same. The fire was very good, smokeless with full
flame rising to the top of the Ail, thereby signalling the auspicious
culmination of our pilgrimage to Sumeru.

I got another opportunity to make another pilgrimage to Sumeru in

June 2015. This time I was invited to perform few fire rituals which
I did at the Karakol Park (the base camp) before commencing our
journey , at Sumeru near the white lake and later again at Karakol

28
 Dr. K. Warikoo

after the successful culmination of our pilgrimage for thanks giving.

This time we took a different route to Sumeru from the previous
journey in 2014, so that we could see the two lakes , one black water
and the other with white water. In fact a well educated Pandit had
informed me at Delhi about the existence of the two lakes, which
he said that a dip in the black water lake would wash one’s sins
and the dip in white water lake would bless. Since both the lakes
were too deep surrounded by the bushes and marshes, one could
not reach there . This time again, we returned to our base camp
at Karakol Park following a longish route so that we could do full
circumambulation (parikrama) of Sumeru Parvat. This time my
pilgrimage was spiritually fulfilling and one could visualise Tilak’s
description of Sumeru perfectly matching with the reality (though
Tilak had not personally visited Sumeru).

KHAKASSIA

Covering an area of 61,900 sq. kms. in eastern part of Siberia, the

Republic of Khakassia of the Russian Federation is situated in the
valleys of the Abakan and Yenisie rivers. Besides occupying the
Minusinsk Basin, it also occupies part of the Chulym-Yenisie Valley.
Khakassia has its borders touching Krasnoyarsk Territory in the
north and east, Republics of Tuva and Altai in the south and southwest
and Kemerovskya Oblast in the west. Khakassia is known as the
‘archaeological Mecca’ due to it being a repository of archaeological
sites and rich historical and cultural heritage. Huge steles are
preserved and displayed at the national museum of Khakassia at
Abakan, many of these long stele having engravings of sun, moon,
three eyes etc (Photos 17 & 18). If there is any Indian connection of
these runic inscriptions and petroglyphs so abundant in Khakassia,
is a subject to be investigated by the Indian archaeologists. From

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 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

ancient times, Khakassia maintained trade and cultural relations

with Russia, Mongolia, China, Tibet and Central Asia.

Khakass people rever mountains, lakes, beruza (birch) and pine

trees. On the outskirts of Abakan, a small museum housed in a yurt
has a big ancient stone locally known as Old Mother Stone, which has
a mark of third eye and trident (Photo 19). This stone is venerated
by Khakas people, particularly the women who come to seek its
blessings for bearing children. Several dolls, milk etc offered to the
stone. Believed to be over 2,000 years old, there are three segments
visible on the stone denoting three worlds - sky, earth and below the
earth. About 30 to 40 per cent of Khakas people still follow/practice
shamanism. This author witnessed the performance of a Shamanist
ritual in Abakan (in August 2009). Khakas shamans (both male and
female) who were dressed for that occasion in flowing robes laced
with threads and bird feathers, were dancing/going around a fire
citing verses/rhymes and softly beating their drum. Some Khakas
participants even put some flour in the fire. Small bands of cloth
(red, blue and white) were tied to a big beruza tree (Photo 20).
Beruza is held sacred in Siberia, in the same way as is done in India.
Smoke of incense burnt in a bowl is waved/touched by the people, a
practice common in India.

On the way to the Kazanovka village open air museum, one found
so many rock carvings. Victorina, Director of this museum pointed
to a hill top near the bank of Askis river, which about a century
ago had a big stone. People used to visit this place in large numbers
believing that this stone had healing powers. There was a cave under
the stone having two small stones. This stone was stated to have been
destroyed during Khruschev’s time as idol worship was anathema
to the Soviet communist ideology. It is believed that Magnashev

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

family, whose family deity was this hill top stone, killed themselves
after the destruction of this stone. In Khakassia, as in parts of Indian
Himalayas, each clan has its own family/clan deity/stone, which is
revered by them. Victorina also took us to one semi-white stone
lying in a big steppe land which is believed to have healing powers.
This author saw a number of men and women coming in their
cars to seek blessings of the stone (Photo 21). They removed their
shoes and went around three times and hugged this stone offering
money at its feet. Victorina explained that the stone, believed to be
over 2,000 years old, has three eyes which have become somewhat
invisible due to vagaries of nature over this long period of time.

Nicholas Roerich: The Bridge between Eurasia and

the Himalayas

Nickolas Konstantinovich Roerich, who was born in St. Petersburg,

Russia on 9 October 1874, became a world renowned painter,
philosopher, historian, archeologist, writer, traveler and founder of
an international movement for the preservation and promotion of
cultural heritage. Even during his student years at the Petersburg
Academy of Arts, Nicholas Roerich became involved in various
archeological expeditions in various regions of Russia. He was a
prolific artist having created thousands of paintings. His paintings
are known for distinct Roerich style with deep historical and
philosophical content, colour purity and simplicity of expression.

N. Roerich’s quest for understanding of philosophy, universal values

of humanism and ethics led him to also study philosophy of the East
and the works of great Indian thinkers and writers – Ramakrishna,
Vivekananda and Rabindra Nath Tagore. Roerich became interested

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in the study of common roots and values of Russian and Indian

cultures seeking to correlate their history, mythology, folklore and
traditions.

In this pursuit, Roerich and his family travelled to India in 1923

taking his abode in Kullu Valley in the lap of the Himalaya
mountains. From here Roerich began his famous expedition (1923-
28) to Central Asia traversing high mountains and unexplored paths
through Sikkim, Kashmir, Ladakh, Xinjiang (China), Russia, Siberia,
Altai, Mongolia, Tibet etc. Roerich expedition is not only known as
one of the major expeditions in Central Asia and trans-Himalayas,
but it has also contributed immensely to the development of Russian
Oriental studies, with particular focus on Central Asia. Roerich’s
books–Heart of Asia (Southbury, 1929), Altai Himalayas (Moscow,
1974) and Himalayas: Abode of Light (Bombay, 1947) are outstanding
works in this field. Roerich also made a distinct contribution to the
understanding of Himalayan culture and spiritualism through his
paintings series Himalayas, Maytreya, Sikkim’s Path etc.

Nicholas Roerich conducted another expedition in the years 1934-

35, in Inner Mongolia, Manchuria and China with the objective of
collecting seeds of plants which prevent the destruction of soil. This
mission showed his great concern for the denuding of forests and
vegetation.

Nicholas Roerich broadened the view of culture which includes the

cosmic evolution of mankind, ethics and spiritual experiences of man,
beauty, knowledge, science, art, education, history and traditions.
He propagated peace through culture, which encompassed art,
science and religion. The creative artist in him prepared the Banner
of Peace which became the symbol of the unity of mankind and

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

its cultures. The Banner represented three spheres within a circle,

in amaranth colour, on a white background; the spheres meaning
the past, present and future achievements of humanity surrounded
by the circle of Infinite. In the words of N. Roerich, “What the Red
Cross flag is for the preservation of physical health, our Banner of
Peace is the protector of spiritual health of humanity”.

Nicholas Roerich passed away in Kullu Valley in India on 13

December 1947, where he was cremated. The Institute of Himalayan
Studies, Urusvati in Kullu valley of Western Himalayas, which was
founded by N. Roerich, is a living monument bearing testimony
to his multi-faceted contribution. Nicholas Roerich promoted
international peace and understanding through culture, cross-
country exchanges and knowledge

TUVA

Covering an area of 170,500 sq. kms. and bordered by Mongolia

in the south, Altai to the west, Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk
and Buryatia republics of Rusian Federaton in the north, Tuva is
recognised as the geographical centre of Asia. Notwithstanding the
domination of Mongolia over Tuva from 13th to early 18th centuries
and subsequent Chinese sovereignty over Tuva till 1911, Tuva and
its people retained their indigenous traditions, culture and religion.
Over 80 per cent of the total population (300,000) are Budhhists.
Inspite of being adherents of Mahayana Buddhism, Tuvans continue
to believe in native shamanism. Tuvans often go to shamans for
healing their ailments and to seek remedies to their problems. And
shamans do visit Buddhist monasteries to offer prayers. Both beliefs
co-exist here following the basic principles of respect for and
harmony with nature.31

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I arrived at Kyzyl, the capital city of Tuva on the evening of 29

October 2016, travelling by taxi from Abakan, the capital city of
Khakassia. Many taxis ply daily between Abakan and Kyzyl with
passengers. The 450 kms long highway is well maintained and snow
clearing machines clear the snow promptly. The highway is lined by
pine and beruza trees and the snow on trees and around makes it a
picturesque sight.

Tuva was incorporated in the former Soviet Union in 1944, after

overcoming Chinese claims over it. As per official data , in 1929
there were 25 Buddhist monasteries (khuree), 4,813 lamas and 487
shamans in Tuva32. During the Soviet period, religion remained
suppressed and Buddhist monasteries were closed and destroyed.
In 1937, there were only 5 monasteries, 67 lamas and 30 shamans
in Tuva, the practice of religion and beliefs having been confined
to individual homes. The lamas and shamans suffered due to the
Soviet anti-religious policy. However, both managed to continue
their religious activities underground.

After the disintegration of former USSR, there has been

unprecedented resurgence of indigenous language, culture, beliefs
and Buddhism in Tuva. About 20 Buddhist prayer houses (dugan)
and 15 Buddhist monasteries (khuree) have been built in Tuva. The
visit of Dalai Lama to Tuva in 1992 gave big impetus to the revival
of Buddhist practices, publication of Buddhist texts, construction of
monasteries and so on. The people of Tuva came in huge numbers to
have a glimpse of Dalai Lama. During this visit Dalai Lama offered
prayers at Hayirakan mountain about 105 kms. from Kyzyl and
suggested a spot for building a replica of the ancient Buddhist shrine
alongwith the carving of ancient Buddha rock engraving, so that the
ancient shrine is recreated (Photo 22). Work has already begun on

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 Dr. K. Warikoo

this site and is expected to be completed soon. This site is located up

in the mountains where water cannot reach and flood the new rock-
cut Buddhist shrine. Tuvans hold this mountain as sacred and there
are many mystic legends associated with Hayirakan. Tuvans come to
this place offering prayers to Buddha and take back with them fistful
of the sacred land’s earth.33

Overlooking the capital Kyzyl and located on the right bank of the
Yenisie river, stands 1,002 meters high mountain Dogee. Tuvans
consider this mountain sacred and offer prayers. There are numerous
pyramids built of stone with a pole in the center, hung chalama
(band of cloth) , kadako (silk scarves) as well as the remains of fire
on this mountain. In the year 2006, the Buddhist mantra Om Mani
Padme Hum was built of stones on the hill Dogee. The 120 metres
long sacred mantra was painted with 500 kgs. of white colour and
sanctified 34(Photo 23).

Construction of a new central Buddhist monastery in Kyzyl began

in 2014 at a spot identified by Dalai Lama. Dr. Kaadyrool Bichildey,
former Minister of Education and Science of Tuva and a Buddhist
himself, has been leading the movement for restoring the historical,
cultural , linguistic and Buddhist heritage of Tuva. Many Tuvan
Buddhists make their donations to raise funds for these projects,
which also get support from the government of Tuva. The federal
government of Russia is tolerant of this process and many Tuvans
feel free today as they can practice their religion and culture. A
festival of music and culture Ustuu Hurae began to be held in 1999,
when reconstruction of the ruins of an ancient Buddhist temple in
Chadan was started. The festival , usually held in August, showcases
the simplicity of life in tents, natural atmosphere, music, tolerance
and kindness in Tuva. 35

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Tuvan shamans have also become popular now, with many tourists
visiting them from abroad. Shamans’ hymns and algyshes (wishful
songs) have been translated into German and English languages.
Shamans also perform their ritual ceremonies. The cult of ovaa
(spirit guardians of a place) and eeren (protectors of the family) ,
both being shamanist traditions, have been adopted by Tuvan
Buddhists. Shamanism is flourishing alongside Buddhism. There is
a central shamanist organisation in Kyzyl , with local branches in
different parts of Tuva. In 1993 first Tuvan-American conference of
Shamanism was held in Tuva with participants from USA, Canada,
Finland besides Tuvan academics and members of shaman society
Dungur (drum) .The Tuvan government has also set up a research
centre for the study of shamanism, providing land and buildings for
the shamanist organisation.36

In the Chaa-Hol district , about 100 kms. from Kyzyl, there is an

ancient image of Buddha (13th century AD) in a carved rock niche
(Photo 24). After the Sayano-Shushensk hydel power station became
operational, the rock niche submerged in the dam water. However,
the niche with a bas-relief image of Buddha and his two pupils ,
has been recreated on the hill, 99 metres above the sea to protect it
from any flood waters.37 This has been possible due to Bicheledey’s
efforts. He has also spearheaded the campaign for the preservation
and promotion of Tuvan language, history and culture.

First November is now celebrated as the Day of Tuvan language.

As per language law adopted in 1990s, both Russian and Tuvan
languages enjoy equal status. Tuvan Academy of Culture has been
established. Tuvan language belongs to Altai family of the Turkic
language group. It is also good neighbour of Mongolian language.
Earlier Tuvan language had old Mongolian script. Later it adopted

36
 Dr. K. Warikoo

Latin script. After joining the former Soviet Union, it adopted

Cyrillic script. Local experts believe that Cyrillic script does not fit
Tuvan language, as it does not reflect all sounds. Tuvans believe that
moves for the preservation and promotion of Tuvan language and
heritage should not be viewed as any separatist tendency.38 A symbol
of Tuvan letter has been erected at Beldir Keji, near Shaganar. A
Buddhist monastery, a symbol of Tengrism and an image of Buddha
have been built here. A huge cultural complex has come up at this
place. In short , Tuva is experiencing an organised revival of its
indigenous language, culture , traditions and beliefs of Buddhism
and shamanism.

Conclusion

In view of the above statements, there is need for collaborative

research to study in depth various aspects of ancient history, culture,
race movements and archaeological remains in India and Eurasia,
common sources and roots of Indic and Siberian cultures and
civilisations. That the concept of three worlds, third eye and trident
were embodied in ancient stones of over 2,000 years old and which
were and continue to be revered both in Khakassia and Altai, has
direct resemblance to the tradition and cosmic philosophy prevalent
in India even today. Similarly the practice of treating lakes, springs,
mountains and beruza trees sacred in Eurasia is quite similar to
the Indian tradition and practice. The Altaian, Tuvinian and other
indigenous peoples perform fire ceremonies and also haircuts of
young children (mundan) in the same manner as Hindus do in India.
The Altaian people also believe in Seven Stars (Sapt Rishi in India)
and Seven Kans in Altai. There is also a tradition of placing amulets
at the time of laying a foundation stone of a house in Buryatia.,Tuva
and Altai. This practice is quite similar to that prevailing in India. It,

37
 Siberia and India: Historical Cultural Affinities

therefore, becomes necessary to identify common traditions, beliefs

and practices among the peoples of Siberia and India.

Resurgence of Buddhism in Buryatia, Tuva (in Siberia) and

Kalmykia Republics of Russian Federation accompanied with the
urge of Buddhist devotees in Russia to visit the Buddhist centres
of pilgrimage in India, is bringing this otherwise peripheral region
closer to India in civilisational and ideological terms. On an
average about 1,000 Buddhist devotees, mainly youth, from Russia
(Kalmykia, Buryatia, Tuva, Moscow, St. Petersburg etc.) visit India
each year to make their pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Varanasi
etc. or to attend the sermons by Dalai Lama at Dharamshala. The
Kalachakra ceremony by Dalai Lama attracts even more devotees.
Many young students from Tuva and Kalmykia visit India to study
Buddhism and Tibetan language. Many people particularly in
Tuva and Buryatia have Indian names like Rita, Sanjay, Sanjeev,
Ramesh, Padma, Indira, Vashishta etc. Indian classics Panchtantra
and famous stories of Birbal, the wise minister of Mughal emperor
Akbar , have left their imprint on the folklore of Tuva and adjoining
regions, mainly due to the penetration of Buddhism and Buddhist
lamas from India. Currently, over fifty Buddhist lamas from
India, mainly Tibetans trained in Karnataka, Dharmshala etc. are
staying and offering their services in various monasteries in Tuva
and Buryatia. Revival of Buddhism in Siberia has direct relevance
for India for restoring its lost linkages. India on its part needs to
restore and turn its vast fund of ancient historical Buddhist sites into
centres of international cultural tourism. This will attract tourists
as well as pilgrims from our neighbours in Eurasia. Siberia is a
corridor through which cultural and civilisational interaction can
be reinforced.

38
(Photo 1) The author standing in front of Swayambo placed above two dragons
(symbol of Ulan Ude city) at Arbat Street, Ulan Ude, Buryatia

(Photo 2) A Ladakhi Lama at Rimpoche Baksha Temple in Ulan Ude, Buryatia

39
 (Photo 3) Offerings made at birch trees (Buryatia)

(Photo 4) Coloured cloth tied to birch trees (Buryatia)

40
 (Photo 5) Notice Board describing Usan Lopson near the Baikal Lake

(Photo 6) The author (third from the left) standing in front of Usan Lopson
(the God of Baikal Lake), Buryatia

41
(Photo 7) Author standing third from left making offerings at Baikal Lake

(Photo 8) Statue of Geser seated on horse, Ulan Ude, Buryatia

42
(Photo 9) A View of the Gala concert, Ulan Ude, Buryatia (29-9-2007)

(Photo 10) View of Sumeru Parvat, Gorno Altai (29 June 2014)

43
(Photo 11) On the way to Sumeru (in the circle) (30 June 2014)

(Photo 12) Chortan at Karakul Valley, Gorno Altai (3 July 2014)

44
(Photo 13) N. Roerich Memorial House, Verkhniy Uymon,
Gorno Altai (4 July 2014)

(Photo 14) Holding Banner of Peace at Roerich House,

Verkhniy Uymon (4 July 2014)

45
(Photo 15) Stone gate at the ruins of ancient temple near
Yelman Stream, Gorno Altai (6 July 2014)

(Photo 16) Ancient stones, Gorno Altai (6 July 2014)

(Photo 17) Stele at National Museum, Abakan, Khakassia

46
 (Photo 18) Drawing of Ancient Pillar with
symbols of Sun etc. found in Khakassia

(Photo 19) Mother Stone near Abakan, Khakassia

47
(Photo 20) Khakass people tying ribbons to Beruza tree in Abakan

(Photo 21) People pay reverence at ancient stone near Abakan,

Khakassia, Russia

48
 (Photo 22) Dalai Lama identified this spot for Buddhist shrine
at foothills of Hayirkan mountain, Tuva

(Photo 23) Buddhist mantra Om Mani Pdme Hum built of stones

on Dogee hill, Kyzyl (Tuva)

49
 \

(Photo 24) Burgaan Daa Buddhist Shrine, Chaa-Hol, Tuva

50
References

1. Emanuel Sarkisyanz, “Communism and Larmaist

Utopianism in Central Asia”. The Review of Politics Vol. 20
(4), October 1958. p. 627

2. Ibid., p. 628.

3. Ibid., p. 629.

4. Lokesh Chandra, “Life of Damba Darja Jaya Yin”. In Cultural

Horizons of India. Vol. 7, New Delhi, 1998. pp. 265-66.

5. Lokesh Chandra, 1998, op.cit.

6. K.Warikoo, On the Trail of Silk Route: Pilgrimage to Sumeru,

Altai, Siberia. Himalayan and Central Asian Studies Vol. 18,
Nos. 3-4, July-December 2014. p 16.

7. Ibid. p 17.

8. John McCannon, By the Shores of White Waters: the Altai

and its place in the spiritual geopolitics of Nicholas Roerich.
Sibirica. Vol.2, No.2, 2002. p.174.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid .p 18.

11. Ibid pp 18-19.

12. Ibid . p 19.

51
13. Ibid.

14. Ibid p 20.

15. John McCqnnon, op cit. p.175.

16. Amarkosa of Amarasimha .Edited by Pt. Haragovinda Sastri

Varanasi, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1998. p.17.

17. Itihasik Sthanwali. Jaipur, Rajasthan Hindi Granth Academy.

p.758. (In Hindi).

18. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, The Arctic Home in the Vedas. Poona,
Tilak Bros., 1903.

19. Ibid. p.62.

20. Ibid. p.65.

21. Ibid.

22. K.S. Valdiya, Geography, Peoples and Geodyanamics of India

in Puranas and Epics. New Delhi, Aryan Books International,
2012. p.33.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid. p.36.

25. Ibid. p.37.

26. Ibid. p.38.

52
27. Ibid.

28. Avichal Prabhat Granth. New Delhi n.d. (In Hindi). p.118.

29. Ibid.

30. K.Warikoo, On the Trail of Silk Route. op cit. p28.

31. K.Warikoo, Tuva : The Centre of Asia. Himalayan and

Central Asian Studies Vol 23, Nos. 1-2, January-June 2019. p
5.

32. Cited by Kara-ool,Chairman of the Government of Tuva

in his welcome speech at the International Conference on
Buddhism (7-9 September 2016) held in Tuva.

33. K.Warikoo, Tuva : The Centre of Asia. op cit. p 6.

34. Ibid. p 7.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid. p 8.

53
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