1.

DEVICES USED FOR NERVE REGENERATION

 Neuroregeneration involves the regrowth or repair of nervous tissues, cells or cell
products. Neuroregenerative mechanisms may include generation of
new neurons, glia, axons, myelin, or synapses.
 Neuroregeneration differs between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and
the central nervous system (CNS) by the functional mechanisms involved, especially
in the extent and speed of repair.
 When an axon is damaged, the distal segment undergoes Wallerian degeneration,
losing its myelin sheath.
 The proximal segment can either die by apoptosis or undergo the chromatolytic
reaction, which is an attempt at repair.
 In the CNS, synaptic stripping occurs as glial foot processes invade the dead synapse
 The nervous system is divided by neurologists into two parts: the central nervous
system (which consists of the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous
system (which consists of cranial and spinal nerves along with their
associated ganglia).
 While the peripheral nervous system has an intrinsic ability for repair and
regeneration, the central nervous system is, for the most part, incapable of self-repair
and regeneration.
Types
Neurapraxia
 Nerve compression in neurapraxia
 Neurapraxia is the least severe form of nerve injury, with complete recovery.
 In this case, the axon remains intact, but there is myelin damage causing an
interruption in conduction of the impulse down the nerve fiber.
 Most commonly, this involves compression of the nerve or disruption to the blood
supply (ischemia).
 There is a temporary loss of function which is reversible within hours to months of
the injury (the average is 6–8 weeks).
 Wallerian degeneration does not occur, so recovery does not involve actual
regeneration.
 There is frequently greater involvement of motor than sensory function with
autonomic function being retained.
 In electrodiagnostic testing with nerve conduction studies, there is a normal
compound motor action potential amplitude distal to the lesion at day 10, and this
indicates a diagnosis of mild neurapraxia instead of axonotmesis or neurotmesis
Axonotmesis
 This is a more severe nerve injury with disruption of the neuronal axon, but with
maintenance of the epineurium. This type of nerve damage may cause paralysis of the
motor, sensory, and autonomic, and is mainly seen in crush injury.
 If the force creating the nerve damage is removed in a timely fashion, the axon may
regenerate, leading to recovery. Electrically, the nerve shows rapid and complete
degeneration, with loss of voluntary motor units. Regeneration of the motor end plates
will occur, as long as the endoneural tubules are intact.
  Axonotmesis involves the interruption of the axon and its covering of myelin, but
with preservation of the connective tissue framework of the nerve (the encapsulating
tissue, the epineurium and perineurium, are preserved). Because axonal continuity is
lost, Wallerian degeneration occurs.
 Electromyography (EMG) performed 2 to 4 weeks later shows fibrillations and
denervation potentials in musculature distal to the injury site.
 Loss in both motor and sensory spines is more complete with axonotmesis than with
neurapraxia, and recovery occurs only through regenerations of the axons, a process
requiring time.
 Axonotmesis is usually the result of a more severe crush or contusion
than neurapraxia, but can also occur when the nerve is stretched (without damage to
the epineurium). There is usually an element of retrograde proximal degeneration of
the axon, and for regeneration to occur, this loss must first be overcome. The
regeneration fibers must cross the injury site and regeneration through the proximal or
retrograde area of degeneration may require several weeks. Then the neuritis tip
progresses down the distal site, such as the wrist or hand. Proximal lesion may grow
distally as fast as 2 to 3 mm per day and distal lesion as slowly as 1.5 mm per day.
Regeneration occurs over weeks to years.
Neurotmesis
 Neurotmesis is the most severe lesion with no potential of full recovery. [2] It occurs on
severe contusion, stretch, or laceration. The axon and encapsulating connective tissue
lose their continuity.
 The last (extreme) degree of neurotmesis is transsection, but most neurotmetic injuries
do not produce gross loss of continuity of the nerve but rather internal disruption of
nerve structures sufficient to involve perineurium and endoneurium as well as axons
and their covering.
 Denervation changes recorded by EMG are the same as those seen with axonotmetic
injury.
 There is a complete loss of motor, sensory and autonomic function.[2] If the nerve has
been completely divided, axonal regeneration causes a neuroma to form in the
proximal stump. For neurotmesis, it is better to use a new more complete
classification called the Sunderland System.
Types of Devices

 Electrical stimulation for tissue repair (ESTR) helps reduce swelling, increase
circulation, and speed up wound healing.
 Interferential current (IFC) stimulates nerves to reduce pain.
 Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) stimulates the nerves in muscles to
restore function and strength, prevent muscle atrophy, and reduce muscle spasms.
 Functional electrical stimulation (FES) involves a unit implanted in the body to
provide long-term muscle stimulation aimed at preserving function and motor skills.
 Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) uses an implantable device to relieve pain.
 Iontophoresis helps deliver ionically charged medication to tissue to help speed up
healing.
Electrical Nerve Stimulator
 Peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS), an important tool to aid administration of
peripheral nerve blocks. Improvements in electrical nerve localization technology
have led to a number of commercially available nerve stimulators that are superior
and more advanced compared to older devices.
 With the introduction of ultrasound-guided nerve blocks, however, there has been
confusion on the role of nerve stimulation in the setting of ultrasound-guided nerve
blocks.
 This review focuses on the foundation of nerve stimulation with a short historical
background, the latest developments in the technology, and the role of nerve
stimulation with ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blocks.
 Electrical nerve stimulation in regional anesthesia is a method of using a low-intensity
(up to 5 mA) and short-duration (0.05 to 1 ms) electrical stimulus (at 1- to 2-Hz
repetition rate) to obtain a defined response (muscle twitch or sensation) to locate a
peripheral nerve or nerve plexus with an (insulated) needle before injecting local
anesthetic in close proximity to the nerve to block nerve conduction for surgery or
acute pain management. The use of nerve stimulation can recognize an intraneural or
intrafascicular needle placement injection, prevent further needle advancement
intraneurally and help reduce the risk of nerve injury.

 Electrical nerve stimulation can be used for a single-injection technique, as well as for
guidance during the insertion of continuous nerve block catheters. More recently,
ultrasound guidance in combination with nerve stimulation (“dual monitoring”) has
become a common practice to guide needle placement and robust medicolegal
documentation of nerve block procedures.

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulator (TENS)

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is a therapy that uses low voltage
electrical current to provide pain relief. A TENS unit consists of a battery-powered device
that delivers electrical impulses through electrodes placed on the surface of your skin.
The electrodes are placed at or near nerves where the pain is located or at trigger points
There are two theories about how transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
works. One theory is that the electric current stimulates nerve cells that block the
transmission of pain signals, modifying your perception of pain. The other theory is that
nerve stimulation raises the level of endorphins, which are the body’s natural pain-killing
chemical. The endorphins then block the perception of pain.
Types

Uses of TENS

A TENS may be used to help with many types of chronic (long-term) pain, such as:

 Arthritis or other joint pain

 Back and neck pain
 Fibromyalgia
 Muscle pain
 Neuropathic pain

NEURAL AND NEUROMUSCULAR IMPLANTS

Brain implants, often referred to as neural implants, are technological devices that connect
directly to a biological subject's brain – usually placed on the surface of the brain, or attached
to the brain's cortex. A common purpose of modern brain implants and the focus of much
current research is establishing a biomedical prosthesis circumventing areas in the brain that
have become dysfunctional after a stroke or other head injuries.[1] This includes sensory
substitution, e.g., in vision. Other brain implants are used in animal experiments simply to
record brain activity for scientific reasons. Some brain implants involve creating interfaces
between neural systems and computer chips. This work is part of a wider research field
called brain–computer interfaces. (Brain–computer interface research also includes
technology such as EEG arrays that allow interface between mind and machine but do not
require direct implantation of a device.)
Neural implants such as deep brain stimulation and Vagus nerve stimulation are increasingly
becoming routine for patients with Parkinson's disease and clinical depression
1. Deep brain stimulation
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a neurosurgical procedure involving the placement of a
medical device called a neurostimulator, which sends electrical impulses, through
implanted electrodes, to specific targets in the brain (the brain nucleus) for the treatment of
movement disorders, including Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, dystonia,[1] and other
conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and epilepsy. While its underlying
principles and mechanisms are not fully understood, DBS directly changes brain activity in a
controlled manner.

The exact mechanism of action of DBS is not known.[29] A variety of hypotheses try to
explain the mechanisms of DBS:

1. Depolarization blockade: Electrical currents block the neuronal output at or

near the electrode site.
2. Synaptic inhibition: This causes an indirect regulation of the neuronal output
by activating axon terminals with synaptic connections to neurons near the
stimulating electrode.
3. Desynchronization of abnormal oscillatory activity of neurons
4. Antidromic activation either activating/blockading distant neurons or
blockading slow axons
Vagus nerve stimulation
Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a medical treatment that involves delivering electrical
impulses to the vagus nerve. It is used as an add-on treatment for certain types of
intractable epilepsy and treatment-resistant depression.
Mechanism
The vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve and arises from a series of rootlets in the medulla;
it carries both afferent (80%) and efferent (20%) fibers. It has the longest and widest
distribution of all the cranial nerves and functions as a bidirectional link between the brain
and peripheral organs. Afferents from the vagus nerve project to the nucleus tractus
solitarii which subsequently communicates with other regions of the brain including
the dorsal raphe nucleus, locus coeruleus, amygdala and other areas.

There are multiple potential mechanisms which may account for the efficacy of VNS in
treating epilepsy and other conditions including:
1. There is evidence that VNS results in cortical desynchronization in epilepsy
patients who had a favorable clinical response relative to those who did not.
This makes sense given that seizures consist of abnormal hypersynchronous
activity in the brain.
2. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that inflammation plays a significant role
in epilepsy as well as associated neurobehavioral comorbidities such as
depression, autism spectrum disorder and cognitive impairment.[26] There is
evidence that VNS has an anti-inflammatory effect through both peripheral
and central mechanisms.
3. VNS can change the activity of several neurotransmitter systems
involving serotonin, norepinephrine and GABA. These neurotransmitters are
involved in both epilepsy and other neuropsychiatric conditions such as
depression and anxiety.
4. VNS may alter the functional connectivity in several brain regions and
enhance synaptic plasticity to reduce excitatory activity involved in seizures.
 [29][30]
It has also been shown to change the functional connectivity of
the default mode network in depressed patients
Purpose
Brain implants electrically stimulate, block[2] or record[3] (or both record and stimulate
simultaneously signals from single neurons or groups of neurons (biological neural
networks) in the brain. This can only be done where the functional associations of these
neurons are approximately known. Because of the complexity of neural processing and the
lack of access to action potential related signals using neuroimaging techniques, the
application of brain implants has been seriously limited until recent advances in
neurophysiology and computer processing power. Much research is also being done on the
surface chemistry of neural implants in effort to design products which minimize all negative
effects that an active implant can have on the brain, and that the body can have on the
function of the implant. Researchers are also exploring a range of delivery systems, such as
using veins, to deliver these implants without brain surgery; by leaving the skull sealed shut,
patients could receive their neural implants without running as great a risk of seizures,
strokes, or permanent neural impairments, all of which can be caused by open-brain surgery.

3. HEART LUNG MACHINE

A heart-lung machine is a piece of equipment that temporarily takes over the work of the
heart and/or lungs, providing blood and oxygen to the body. Also called a cardiopulmonary
bypass machine (CBM) or a heart-lung bypass machine, it is most often used during serious
procedures that require the heart to be stopped.

Patients are kept on a heart-lung machine for only as long as it takes to stop the heart from
beating, complete open-heart surgery or a procedure on the lungs, and restart the heart.

A heart-lung machine may also be used on a person who needs heart or respiratory support
for non-surgical reasons. For example, the machine can be used for someone with heart
failure who is waiting for a heart transplant.

Block Diagram
Working

The pump oxygenator developed by Dr. Gibbons saw its first success on May 6, 1953. A
patient placed on the heart-lung machine survived an open-heart atrial septal defect repair.
Continued research and design has allowed the heart-lung machine to become a standard of
care in the treatment of heart and lung disease, while supporting other non-conventional
treatments.

The pump oxygenator developed by Dr. Gibbons saw its first success on May 6, 1953. A
patient placed on the heart-lung machine survived an open-heart atrial septal defect repair.
Continued research and design has allowed the heart-lung machine to become a standard of
care in the treatment of heart and lung disease, while supporting other non-conventional
treatments.

The standard heart-lung machine typically includes up to five pump assemblies. A centrifugal
or roller head pump can be used in the arterial position for extracorporeal circulation of the
blood. The four remaining pumps are roller pump in design to provide fluid, gas, and liquid
for delivery or removal to the heart chambers and surgical field. Left ventricular blood return
is accomplished by roller pump, drawing blood away from the heart. Surgical suction created
by the roller pump removes accumulated fluid from the general surgical field. The
cardioplegia delivery pump is used to deliver a high potassium solution to the coronary
vessels. The potassium arrests the heart so that the surgical field is motionless during surgical
procedures. An additional pump is available for emergency backup of the arterial pump in
case of mechanical failure.

A pump is required to produce blood flow. Pump technology has advanced from the
Sigmamotor pump, a fingerlike contraption that uses peristalsis to propel blood, through
tubing, from the oxygenator to the body. This technology was abandoned for more reliable
roller pump technology. Currently roller and centrifugal pump designs are the standard of
care. Both modern designs can provide pulsatile

The roller assembly rotates and engages the tubing, PVC or silicone, which is then
compressed against the pump's housing, propelling blood ahead of the roller head. Rotational
frequency and tubing inner diameter determine blood flow. Because of its occlusive nature
the pump can be used to remove blood from the surgical field by creating negative pressure
on the inflow side of the pump head.

he centrifugal pump also has a negative inlet pressure. As a safety feature this pump becomes
inefficient when gaseous emboli are introduced. The centrifugal force draws blood into the
center of the device. Blood is propelled and released to the outflow tract tangential to the
pump housing. Rotational speed determines the amount of blood flow, which is measured by
a flowmeter placed adjacent to the pump housing. If rotational frequency is too low, blood
may flow in the wrong direction since the system is non-occlusive in nature. Magnetic
coupling links the centrifugal pump to the control unit.

A reservoir collects blood drained from the venous circulation. Tubing connects the venous
cannulae to the reservoir. Reservoir designs include open or closed systems. The open system
displays graduated demarcations corresponding to blood volume in the container. The design
is open to atmosphere allowing blood to interface with atmospheric gasses. The pliable bag of
the closed system eliminates the air blood interface, while still being exposed to atmospheric
pressure. Volume is measured by weight or by change in radius of the container. The closed
reservoir collapses when emptied as an additional safety feature.

Bubble oxygenators use the reservoir for ventilation. When the reservoir is examined from
the exterior the blood is already oxygen rich and appears bright red. As blood enters the
reservoir gaseous emboli are mixed directly with the blood. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are
exchanged across the boundary layer of the blood and gas bubbles. The blood will then pass
through a filter that is coated with an antifoam solution, which helps to remove fine bubbles.
As blood pools in the reservoir it has already exchanged carbon dioxide and oxygen. From
here tubing carries the blood to the rest of the heart-lung machine.

In opposition to this technique is the membrane oxygenator. Tubing carries the oxygen poor
blood from the reservoir through the pump to the membrane oxygenator. Oxygen and carbon
dioxide cross a membrane that separates the blood from the ventilation gasses. As blood
leaves the oxygenator it is oxygen rich and bright red in color.

As blood is ready to be returned from the heart-lung machine to the patient the arterial line
filter will be encountered. This device is used to filter microemboli that may have entered, or
been generated by the heart-lung machine. After this filter tubing completes the blood path as
it returns the blood to the arterial cannula to enter the body.

Fluid being returned from the left ventricle and surgical suction require filtration before the
blood is reintroduced to the heart-lung machine. Blood enters a filtered reservoir, called a
cardiotomy, which is connected with tubing to the venous reservoir. Other fluids, such as
blood products and pharmaceuticals are also added in the cardiotomy for filtration, of
particulate.

Heat exchangers allow body and organ temperature to be adjusted. The simplest heat
exchange design is a bucket of water. As the blood passes through the tubing placed in the
bath the blood temperature will change. A more sophisticated system separates the blood and
water interface with a metallic barrier. As the water temperature is changed so is the blood
temperature, which enters the body or organ circulation changing the tissue temperature.
Once the tissue temperature reaches the desired value the water temperature is maintained.
Being able to cool the blood helps to preserve the organ and body by metabolizing fewer
energy stores.

Because respiration is being controlled, and a machine is meeting metabolic demand, it is

necessary to monitor the patient's blood chemical makeup. Chemical sensors placed in the
blood path are able to detect the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin. Other, more
elaborate sensors can constantly trend the blood pH, partial pressure of oxygen and carbon
dioxide, and electrolytes. This constant trending can quickly analyze the metabolic demands
of the body.

Sensors that communicate system pressures are also a necessity. These transducers are placed
in areas where pressure is high, after the pump. Readings outside of normal ranges often alert
the operator to obstructions in the blood flow path. The alert of high pressure must be
corrected quickly as the heart-lung machine equipment may disengage under the stress of
abnormally elevated pressures. Low-pressure readings can be just as serious alerting the user
to faulty connections or equipment. Constant monitoring and proper alarms help to protect
the integrity of the system.
4. NERVE CONDUIT

A nerve guidance conduit (also referred to as an artificial nerve conduit or artificial nerve
graft, as opposed to an autograft) is an artificial means of guiding axonal regrowth to
facilitate nerve regeneration and is one of several clinical treatments for nerve injuries. When
direct suturing of the two stumps of a severed nerve cannot be accomplished without tension,
the standard clinical treatment for peripheral nerve injuries is autologous nerve grafting. Due
to the limited availability of donor tissue and functional recovery in autologous nerve
grafting, neural tissue engineering research has focused on the development of bioartificial
nerve guidance conduits as an alternative treatment, especially for large defects. Similar
techniques are also being explored for nerve repair in the spinal cord but nerve regeneration
in the central nervous system poses a greater challenge because its axons do not regenerate
appreciably in their native environment.

The creation of artificial conduits is also known as entubulation because the nerve ends and
intervening gap are enclosed within a tube composed of biological or synthetic materials.
[2]
Whether the conduit is in the form of a biologic tube, synthetic tube or tissue-engineered
conduit, it should facilitate neurotropic and neurotrophic communication between the
proximal and distal ends of the nerve gap, block external inhibitory factors, and provide a
physical guidance for axonal regrowth.[3] The most basic objective of a nerve guidance
conduit is to combine physical, chemical, and biological cues under conditions that will foster
tissue formation.

Materials that have been used to make biologic tubes include blood vessels and skeletal
muscles, while nonabsorbable and bioabsorbable synthetic tubes have been made
from silicone and polyglycolide respectively.[5] Tissue-engineered nerve guidance conduits
are a combination of many elements: scaffold structure, scaffold material, cellular
therapies, neurotrophic factors and biomimetic materials. The choice of which physical,
chemical and biological cues to use is based on the properties of the nerve environment,
which is critical in creating the most desirable environment for axon regeneration. The factors
that control material selection include biocompatibility, biodegradability,[6] mechanical
integrity,[3] controllability during nerve growth, implantation and sterilization.

In tissue engineering, the three main levels of scaffold structure are considered to be:

 the superstructure, the overall shape of the scaffold;

 the microstructure, the cellular level structure of the surface; and
 the nanostructure, the subcellular level structure of the surface.[
Superstructure
The superstructure of a conduit or scaffold is important for simulating in vivo conditions for
nerve tissue formation. The extracellular matrix, which is mainly responsible for directing
tissue growth and formation, has a complex superstructure created by many interwoven
fibrous molecules. Ways of forming artificial superstructure include the use of thermo-
responsive hydrogels, longitudinally oriented channels, longitudinally oriented fibers, stretch-
grown axons, and nanofibrous scaffolds.
In traumatic brain injury (TBI), a series of damaging events is initiated that lead to cell death
and overall dysfunction, which cause the formation of an irregularly-shaped lesion cavity.
[8]
The resulting cavity causes many problems for tissue-engineered scaffolds because
invasive implantation is required, and often the scaffold does not conform to the cavity shape.
In order to get around these difficulties, thermo-responsive hydrogels have been engineered
to undergo solution-gelation (sol-gel) transitions, which are caused by differences in room
and physiological temperatures, to facilitate implantation through in situ gelation and
conformation to cavity shape caused, allowing them to be injected in a minimally invasively
manner.[8]
Methylcellulose (MC) is a material with well-defined sol-gel transitions in the optimal range
of temperatures. MC gelation occurs because of an increase in intra- and inter-molecular
hydrophobic interactions as the temperature increases.[8] The sol-gel transition is governed by
the lower critical solution temperature (LCST), which is the temperature at which the elastic
modulus equals the viscous modulus. The LCST must not exceed physiological temperature
(37 °C) if the scaffold is to gel upon implantation, creating a minimally invasive delivery.
Following implantation into a TBI lesion cavity or peripheral nerve guidance conduit, MC
elicits a minimal inflammatory response.[8] It is also very important for minimally invasive
delivery that the MC solution has a viscosity at temperatures below its LCST, which allows it
to be injected through a small gauge needle for implantation in in vivo applications.[8] MC has
been successfully used as a delivery agent for intra-optical and oral pharmaceutical therapies.
[8]
Some disadvantages of MC include its limited propensity for protein adsorption and
neuronal cellular adhesion making it a non-bioactive hydrogel. Due to these disadvantages,
use of MC in neural tissue regeneration requires attaching a biologically active group onto the
polymer backbone in order to enhance cell adhesion.
Scaffold material

The selection of the scaffold material is perhaps the most important decision to be made. It
must be biocompatible and biodegradable; in addition, it must be able to incorporate any
physical, chemical, or biological cues desired, which in the case of some chemical cues
means that it must have a site available for chemically linking peptides and other molecules.
The scaffold materials chosen for nerve guidance conduits are almost always hydrogels. The
hydrogel may be composed of either biological or synthetic polymers. Both biological and
synthetic polymers have their strengths and weaknesses.

It is important to note that the conduit material can cause inadequate recovery when (1)
degradation and resorption rates do not match the tissue formation rate, (2) the stress-strain
properties do not compare well to those of neural tissue, (3) when degrading swelling occurs,
causing significant deformation, (4) a large inflammatory response is elicited, or (5) the
material has low permeability.

5.POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization is a process through which a large number of monomer molecules react
together to form a polymer. The macromolecules produced from a polymerization may have a
linear or a branched structure. They can also assume the shape of a complex, three-
dimensional network. There exist several categories of polymerization reactions; the most
important ones are step-growth polymerization, chain-growth polymerization (both fall under
the category of addition polymerization), and condensation polymerization.
A polymer is a substance that is made up of very large molecules that are, in turn, made up of
many repeating units called monomers. Polymerization is the process through which these
monomers come together to form the macromolecules that constitute polymers. An
illustration detailing the polymerization of the monomer styrene into the polymer known as
polystyrene is provided below.

Depending on the functional groups present in the reacting monomers, the complexity of the
mechanism of the polymerization reaction may vary. The most simple polymerization
reactions involve the formation of polymers from alkenes via free-radical reaction.
Polyethylene, which is one of the most commercially important polymers, is prepared
through such a polymerization process (the reactant monomer used here is ethylene).
It should be noted that polymerizations involving only one type of monomer are called
photopolymerization, whereas those involving more than one type of monomer are called
copolymerization processes. In simple words, we can describe polymerization as a chemical
process that results in the formation of polymers or the process of creating polymers. When
polymerization occurs, the smaller molecules, which are known as monomers via chemical
reaction, are combined to form larger molecules. A collection of these large molecules form a
polymer. The term polymer, in general, means “large molecules” with higher molecular mass.
They are also referred to as macromolecules.
Polymers are formed by the addition of a network of structural units or monomers, as
mentioned above. The interesting part is that these are reactive molecules and are usually
linked to each other by covalent bonds. These monomers add together to form a long chain to
form a product with specific properties. This whole process of the formation of polymers is
called polymerization. Polythene and Nylon 66 are some examples of polymers.

Mechanism of Polymerization
Generally, polymerization consists of three steps which include initiation, propagation, and
termination. As for the reaction mechanism, the process of polymerization mainly involves
two different methods, the step-growth mechanism and the chain-growth mechanism.

Step Growth Polymerization

In step-growth polymerization, the polymers are formed by the independent reaction between
the functional groups of simple monomer units. In step-growth, each step may consist of a
combination of two polymers having a different or the same length to form a longer-length
molecule.
The reaction is a lengthy process, and the molecular mass is increased at a very slow rate. An
example of step-growth polymerization is condensation polymerization, where a water
molecule is evolved in the reaction when the chain is lengthened.
Condensation Polymerization
In condensation polymerization, the formation of the polymer occurs when there is a loss of
some small molecules as byproducts through the reaction, where molecules are joined
together. The byproducts formed may be water or hydrogen chloride. Polyamide and proteins
are examples of condensation polymers.
Some of the different types of condensation polymerization are given below.
Polyamides
They are synthetic fibres and are called nylons. These polymers have an amide linkage
between them. Condensation polymerization of di-amines with di-carboxylic acid and also of
amino acids and their lactams will create a polyamide.
 Nylon 66: This polymer is prepared under the condition of high pressure and
temperature by the condensation polymerization of hexamethylenediamine with
adipic acid.
 Nylon 6: It is prepared by heating caprolactam with water under high temperatures. It
is used for tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.
Polyesters
When dicarboxylic acids and diols undergo polycondensation, polyesters are formed. They
are prepared by heating a mixture of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol at 460 k by using
zinc acetate antimony trioxide as a catalyst. Dacron or terylene are the best-known examples
of polyesters. And also they are used for glass reinforcing materials in safety helmets.
Phenol-Formaldehyde Polymer
These are the old synthetic polymers obtained by condensation polymerization of phenol with
formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid or base as a catalyst.

Melamine-Formaldehyde Polymer
It is formed by the condensation polymerization of melamine and formaldehyde in certain
conditions. They are used for the manufacture of unbreakable crockery.

Chain-Growth Polymerization
In chain-growth polymerization, the molecules of the monomers are added together to form a
large chain. The monomers added may be the same type or different. Generally, alkenes,
alkadienes and their derivatives are used. In this mode, the lengthening of chains occurs as a
result of the formation of either free radicals or ionic species.
Free Radical Mechanism
Many of the monomers, like alkenes or dienes and their derivatives, are polymerized in the
presence of free radicals. The polymerization of ethene to polythene is by heating or exposing
it to light by using a small amount of benzoyl peroxide initiator. The phenyl free radical
formed by peroxide is added to the ethene double bond and hence forms a new larger free
radical.
It is called a chain initiation step. This newly formed radical will react with another
molecule of ethene to form another new free radical, and so on. This repeated formation of a
new free radical is called chain propagation. Finally, at some stage, the polymerized product
will be formed, and this step is called a chain termination step. The steps are detailed
below.
The three steps followed by a free radical mechanism:
Polymerization Chemical Reaction
When we talk about polymerization chemical reactions, we basically refer to a
polymerization reaction of organic monomers. These monomers are in a solution, which
further consists of particles that will be coated with the formed polymer deposited on the
particle surface. This leads to the formation of a coating layer. The reaction includes either
monomer adsorption polymerization or emulsion polymerization.

Preparation of Polymers
Polyethene
There are two types of polyethylenes, and they are given below:
1. Low-Density Polyethene
This type of polymer is obtained by the polymerization of ethene under the condition of high
pressure of 1000 to 2000 atmospheres at 350 to 520 k temperature in the presence of
dioxygen or peroxide initiator as a catalyst in a very small amount.
It is formed through the free radical addition and H-atom abstraction, having a highly
branched structure. It is chemically inert in nature and tough but flexible. It is a poor
conductor of electricity. LDP is used for the manufacture of toys, squeeze bottles and flexible
pipes.
2. High-Density Polyethene
It is prepared by the polymerization addition of ethene in the presence of a catalyst like
triethyl aluminium and titanium tetrachloride. The process takes place in a hydrocarbon
solvent, in a condition of low pressure of 3 to 4 atmospheres and 343 k temperature.
Like the LDP, it is chemically inert but comparatively tougher and harder. It is used for the
manufacture of buckets, dustbins, pipes, etc.
Polytetrafluoroethylene
It is also known as Teflon and is manufactured by heating tetrafluoroethylene with a free
radical at high pressure. Teflon is chemically inert and less corrosive due to its resistive
property against corrosive agents. It is used for gaskets and non-stick surface-coated utensils.

Polyacrylonitrile
This polymer is formed by the addition polymerization of acrylonitrile in the presence of a
peroxide catalyst. It is used as a substitute for wool in the making of commercial fibres such
as Acrilan.
Anionic Polymerization
It is an addition polymerization that involves the polymerization of monomers that are
initiated with anions. This polymerization will be initiated by the transfer of electrons from
the ion to the monomer.
The initiators used may be weakly nucleophilic if the monomer is highly electrophilic. In the
propagation, the complete consumption of monomer occurs, and this will be faster even at
low temperatures. Generally, vinyl monomers are polymerized by this method. It is very
sensitive to the solvent used in the reaction. This method is used for the production of
synthetic polydiene rubbers, SBR and thermoplastic styrene elastomers.

Classification of Polymerization
Polymers are classified into different categories based on several factors such as source,
structures, mode of polymerization, molecular forces and growth of polymers. Let’s discuss
them in detail below.

Based on Source
Polymers are again divided into three subcategories:
1. Natural polymers: They are found naturally in plants and animals. Resins, starch and
rubber are examples of this.
2. Semi-synthetic polymers: This is a modified version of natural rubber; rubbers are
treated with chemicals to make them semi-synthetic. Cellulose acetate and cellulose
nitrate are examples that come under this subcategory.
3. Synthetic polymers: Polymers which are completely man-made are called synthetic
polymers. Polythene, Nylon 66, and synthetic rubber are the widely used synthetic
polymers.
Based on the Structure of Polymers
There are three different types polymers, based on their structure:
 1. Linear polymers: They consist of a long and straight-chain of monomers. PVC is a
linear polymer
2. Branched polymers: They are linear polymers containing some branches. Low-
density polythene is an example.
3. Network or cross-linked polymer: Polymers having cross-linked bonds with each
other is called cross-linked or network polymer. Generally, they are formed from bi-
functional or tri-functional monomers. Bakelite and melamine are examples of this
type of polymer.
Based on the Mode of Polymerization
Based on the mode of polymerization, they are divided into two subcategories:
1. Addition polymers: Polymers formed by the repeated addition of monomers by
possessing double or triple bonds are called addition polymers. If the addition is of the
same species, they are called homopolymers, and if the addition is of different
monomers, they are called copolymers. Examples are polythene and Buna-s,
respectively.
2. Condensation polymers: These polymers are formed by repeated condensation of tri
or bifunctional monomeric units. In this reaction, the elimination of some small
molecules, like water and hydrogen chloride etc., will take place. Terylene and Nylon
6,6 are examples.
Based on Forces between Molecules
They are again classified into four subgroups.
1. Elastomers: Polymers that are rubber-like solids and have elastic properties. Here,
the polymer bonds are held together by weak intermolecular forces and that allows
these polymers to stretch. The cross-links present in the polymer between the chains
help to retrace the original position after the removal of the applied force. Examples
are Buna-s and Buna-s.
2. Fibres: They are polymers having strong intermolecular forces like hydrogen
bonding. Due to this strong force, molecules are kept closer, that is, they are closely
packed. Because of this property, they are crystalline in nature. Polyamide and
polyesters are examples.
3. Thermoplastic polymers: These are the liner or slightly changed to branched
polymers that can be softened on continuous heating and hardened on cooling. Their
intermolecular force lies in between the fibres and elastomers. Polyvinyls, polystyrene
etc., are examples of thermoplastic polymers.
4. Thermosetting polymers: These polymers come under the category of heavily
branched or cross-linked, which can mould on heating and can’t regain the original
shape. So, these cannot be reused. Bakelite is an example.