1 s2.0 S0924224420305380 Main

Trends in Food Science & Technology 103 (2020) 321–332
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs
A review of recent trends in the development of the microbial safety of

fruits and vegetables
Mahdieh Mostafidi a, Mohammad Reza Sanjabi b, *, Faezeh Shirkhan a,
Maryam Tamaskani Zahedi a
a
PhD Student of Food Sciences and Technology, Nutrition and Food Sciences Research Center, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, IR, Iran
b
Agriculture Research Institute, IROST, Tehran, IR, Iran
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Background: Increasing living standards and improvement of purchase empowerment has led to consume packed
Chemical and bacterial contamination and ready made fruits and vegetables. Also awareness of the health properties of fresh fruits and vegetables in
Organic production preventing many cancers and cardiovascular dysfunction and their high nutritional value lead to increase of this
Microbial safety
demands. From the other side the expansion of urbanization and modern life, and the lack of enough time to
Probiotics
supply personally the necessary daily fruits and vegetables, could be extra reasons for these increasing demands
Packed fruits and vegetables
over the past three decades. But at the same time, the prevalence of food-borne diseases associated with fresh
vegetables and also abuse of fertilizers and pesticides should be noticed properly.
Scope and approach: In this review article, the main ways of contamination of fruits and vegetables with path
ogens has been reviewed. Also the major methods of prevention of contamination in all parts of the food chain,
and using various disinfectants such as chemical and radiation preservatives to reduce microbial load, edible
coatings, bacteriocins, irradiation, Gamma-ray, UV-C, high hydrostatic pressure, Ultrasonic, acid electrolyzed
water, Ozone, Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) and Cold Plasma in the microbial safety of fruits and
vegetables have been stated.
Key findings and conclusions: Since fruits and vegetables are very important in the nutrition and health of in
dividuals, pre- and post-harvest contaminants play a very important role in the safety of fruits and vegetables.
The choose of various methods for having the highest levels of the microbiological safety of fruits and vegetables,
according to initial microbial load, type of fruits and vegetables, size of products and type of infrastructures is
completely different and should be applied cautiously.
1. Introduction that up to one-third of the population of developed countries will be

affected by food-borne diseases each year and this is likely to be wider in
Fruits and vegetables play a key role in the development of the body developing countries. Increasing interest in healthy diets as well as
given their high nutritional value (Mathur, Joshi, & Harwani, 2014), are work-related activities have led to a change in lifestyle and increased
a great resource to help keeping your body healthy (Mritunjay & Kumar, consumption of salads and prepared vegetables, resulting in an increase
2015) and help to prevent diseases such as eye diseases, cancer and in human infections associated with raw fruits and vegetables (Mri
cardiovascular diseases. Food insecurity, malnutrition and life-style tunjay & Kumar, 2015). About 20% of fruits and vegetables are lost
diseases such as obesity, high blood pressure, carcinogenesis, and dia every year due to corruption. Sometimes fresh fruits and vegetables can
betes are among the most important global issues that have increased be associated with bacteria and harmful viruses that are known as
demand for healthy foods, especially fruits and vegetables (Gogo, Opiyo, pathogens. Information on food safety is low in most developing coun
Hassenberg, Ulrichs, & Huyskens-Keil, 2017). Also leads to production tries (Moneim, Ceuppens, Tahan, & Uyttendaele, 2014). Factors related
and consumption of vegetables where they account for 86% of the total to the safety of fruits and vegetables include natural pesticides, con
market share of the world (Mritunjay & Kumar, 2015). It is estimated taminations such as chemical debris, heavy metals and microbial
* Corresponding author. IROST-Sh, Ehsani Rad St., Enqhelab St., Parsa Sq., Ahmadabad Mostoufi Rd, Azadegan Highway, P. O. Box, 33535-111, Tehran,
3313193685, IR, Iran.
E-mail address: msanjabii@gmail.com (M.R. Sanjabi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.07.009
Received 2 April 2019; Received in revised form 10 July 2020; Accepted 12 July 2020
Available online 22 July 2020
0924-2244/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Mostafidi et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 103 (2020) 321–332
contamination of freshly produced products that are highly susceptible create areas for penetration, creation, and growth of corrosive germs.
to fungi. Contamination by pathogenic or corrosive microorganisms is It’s very likely that the small cut or bruises may occur during the
very important, especially for the fruits and vegetables used. post-harvest operation. In that case, microorganisms may gain access
Thus the objective of this review is presenting the main contamina not only to nutrients inside the tissue but also to an acidic environment
tion sources of fruit and vegetables pre-harvest and post-harvest periods with pH value, that may range from 1.6 (lime) to 6.7 (melon and
and explaining the modern and latest technologies and ways of pro watermelon). These conditions then determine the composition of the
ducing, storage and packaging safe and healthy products with lowest or micro ecosystem that will be further developed out of the initial indig
free contamination. enous microbiota (Paramithiotis et al., 2017).
3. Contaminations in fruits and vegetables

2. Sources and routes of contamination of fruits and vegetables
3.1. Chemical contaminations
Possible routes and sources of contamination are high for entering
food. Sources and routes of contamination are different based on type of Chemical contaminants in fruits and raw vegetables may naturally be
products and geographical regions because each farm has a specific added during the production of crops, post harvesting and during the
combination of environmental risk factors such as topography, land-use other process. Some of these chemical hazards and parameters associ
interactions, and the combination of these environmental risk factors on ated with chemical contaminations in fruits and vegetables include
the frequency and transmission of food pathogens, which affect the risk mycotoxins, pesticides, illegal additives and colors, heavy metals, stable
of product contamination. organic pollutants and other compounds (Schaarschmidt, 2016).
Pathogens may transmit in various ways, such as: precipitation of Mycotoxins: Mycotoxins are toxic chemicals produced by certain
oats, through the absorption of contaminated soils and groundwater, the fungi (Tola & Kebede, 2016). They are often pathogenic such as Asper
use of crude fertilizers (or waste) and compost, exposure to contami gillus spp. and Fusarium spp.,also in food contaminants Trichoderma,
nated water (irrigation or flood), transmission of insects, or by fecal Trichothecium and Alternaria are important. Major groups of mycotoxin
contamination produced by animals or wildlife (Alegbeleye, Singleton, in food are Aflatoxin, Ochratoxin, Citrinin, Ergot, Patolin, Fusarium
& Sant’Ana, 2018). Although spoilage bacteria, yeasts, and molds are (Adeyeye, 2016). In recent year Contamination of food and agricultural
predominant on pure fruits and vegetables, the isolation of pathogens, products by different types of toxic molds (fungi) is a serious problem
parasites, and viruses are not infrequent. Contamination can occur (Bhat, Rai, & Karim, 2010). There are various strategies available to
before or after harvest. Pre-harvest resources include soil, feces, irriga prevent the growth of mycotoxigenic fungi that inhibit of mycotoxin
tion water, fungicides, insecticides, dust, insects, compost, wild and biosynthesis. for example pre-harvest (types of resistance, field man
domestic animals, and human handling can contribute to post harvest agement and use of biological and chemical agents), harvest manage
contamination along with harvesting equipment, transport containers, ment, and post-harvest (drying improvement). And also storage
insects, rinse water, ice, transport vehicles and processing equipment conditions, use of natural and chemicals, and radiation applications.
(Olaimat & Holley, 2012). Therefore, fruits and vegetables are exposed Additives and illegal colors: Positive lists have been created to add
to microbial contamination by contact with soil, dust and water, or by materials to food for technical purposes. These lists contain authorized
post-harvest processes, and a shelter for pathogenic microbes (Mritunjay additives that are used in the particular food category and their
& Kumar, 2015). Fig. 1 shows the potential mechanisms by which fruits maximum amount. Worldwide, this CAC is the standard of the Food
and vegetables can be contaminated. Additives (CODEX STAN192-1995), the latest revised in 2015, which
It is most susceptible to the onset of corruption in fruits and vege contains specific information for herbs and spices.
tables, is on ripening and aging. The presence of protective peels acts as Heavy metals: Heavy metals are widely distributed in the environ
a barrier and prevents entrance of the microorganisms into the nutri ment and released through natural activities (for example, volcanic ac
tious inner tissues (Paramithiotis, Drosinos, & Skandamis, 2017). tivity) and humans (namely industry, military and agriculture) into the
External damage, such as the impact, the formation of gaps and holes
Fig. 1. The mechanisms of contamination of fruits and vegetables (Issa-Zacharia et al., 2010).
322
air, water and soil which plants can use them. A large amount of waste, (Mathur et al., 2014). The prevalence of gastrointestinal diseases asso
sewage, chemicals, and energy come into the environment through ciated with fruits and vegetables is low compared to products of animal
multiple sources. Some of these materials contain heavy metals such as origin. However, food-borne diseases associated with fruits and vege
cadmium, lead, and mercury which are toxic to human beings and tables appear to be rising. Therefore, due to the industrialization of cities
wildlife. Heavy metals cause health problems and can cause harmful and the increase in population, the need to consume fruits and vegeta
effects in the body such as kidney failure, nervous system disorders, bles is increasingly felt. Identifying pathogens in this dietary group that
genetic mutations and cancers (Mostafidi, Moslehishad, Piravivanak, & contains fiber and healthy compounds is important. The low pH of many
Pouretedal, 2016; Ziarati, Shirkhan, Mostafidi, & Zahedi, 2018). The fruits limits micro flora to acid-resistant microorganisms. Some prod
contamination of heavy metals in vegetables cannot be underestimated ucts, such as full ripe tomatoes, are in a pH range (3.9–4.5) that inhibit
because these fruits and vegetables are highly nutritious and are mostly or delay the growth of intestinal pathogens such as Shigella and Escher
consumed. Eating heavy metal contaminants significantly reduces some ichia coli O157:H7. Many vegetables, melons and soft fruits with pH of
of the body’s essential nutrients and is most likely to reduce the strength 4/6 or higher are suitable to grow pathogenic bacteria. The growth and
of the body’s defense and immunology. Heavy metals are dangerous survival of human pathogens can be influenced by the presence of
contaminants due to their toxicity even at low concentrations. Heavy post-harvest pathogens such as Botrytis cinerea or Penicillium species. The
metal contamination of agricultural products by repeated application of growth of the fungus, after harvesting in the subfamily tissue, can alter
sewage sludge and industrial effluent can have long-time effects on the pH of the plant tissues and allow growth of pathogenic bacteria.
microorganisms of soil (Ziarati, Mostafidi, Shirkhan, & Zahedi, 2018). Damaged tissues or lesions of plant surfaces produced by fungi or bac
Vegetables absorb the heavy metals and keep them in the edible and teria that cause post-harvest corrosion, can also affect microbial growth
non-edible parts so that when they are sufficiently large, they create due to the presence of nutrients and antimicrobial compounds in the
clinical problems for animals and humans. For example, consuming secretions. Microbial growth in raw fruits and vegetables can be the
contaminated food reduces immunity, malnutrition-related disabilities, result of the formation of biofilms by microorganisms that cause corrupt
and the prevalence of upper gastrointestinal cancers. In 1996, reported and non-corrosive agents. These biofilms can provide a protective
that the soil and vegetables contaminated with Pb and Cd in parts of environment for pathogens and reduce the effectiveness of disinfectants
Romania significantly reduced the life expectancy of humans (9–10 and other preventive agents (Buck, Walcott, & Beuchat, 2003). The
years) in damaged areas (Guerra, Trevizam, Muraoka, Marcante, & microbial population is an important factor in considering the quality of
Canniatti-Brazaca, 2012). In a 2012 study, some of the heavy metals the food product (Mridha et al., 2017). Most microorganisms that are
were studied by Ali et al. in different vegetables (root, stem, leaf, fruit, initially found in full fruits or on vegetable surfaces live in soil. Patho
cereals, and legumes) grown in the four industrial and urban areas of genic organisms are created from the environment in which plants grow,
Saudi Arabia. The results showed that the main density of the studied as well as post-harvest displacements, processing and transport move
metals were above the accepted maximum recommended by the ments. Human pathogens can survive on a large variety of full fruits
FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives and the results indi (Paramithiotis et al., 2017). Fresh fruits and vegetables are associated
cated that atmosphere sediments and vegetable marketing systems play with a wide range of microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeasts, and fungi
important role to increasing the level of heavy metals in vegetables that that cause deterioration. Around 80 to 90 percent of bacteria are more
present potential health risks for local food consumers (Ali & gram-negative than Pseudomonas and Enterobacteriaceae. Lactic acid
Al-Qahtani, 2012). bacteria which are natural flora of fruits and vegetables are associated
Remnants of Poisons and Pesticides: Pesticides are defined as a with corrosive organisms with unpleasant odors. A large number of
substance or a mixture of substances which are used to prevent, elimi yeasts and mushrooms can help the decaying of the fermented products
nate or repel pests. Pesticides are classified as insecticides, herbicides, and help to develop soft decay (Oliveira et al., 2015). Major food-related
fungicides and many other substances. Pesticides are used to maintain pathogens are the family member of the Enterobacteriaceae family,
the quality of fruits and vegetables and prevent disease. While the uti whose presence is related to the weakness of food safety and health. The
lization of these chemical pesticides increases the productivity of the most common human pathogens associated with fresh soil-related
farmer, improper pesticide use poses health risks to consumers, other products are Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum; the
organisms and the environment (Mwanja, Jacobs, Mbewe, & Munyinda, major causes of the diseases associated with excrements are species of
2017). The content of pesticides in different fruits and vegetables de Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, species of Shigella, E. coli
pends not only on the amount of sprayed on them but also on the content O157: H7, parasites of Cryptosporidium species and Cyclospora species,
available in the soil or water applied for irrigation. Minimizing the and the virus of hepatitis A and Norovirus (Paramithiotis et al., 2017).
impact of pesticide residues can be done by the use of specific ways such Mritunjay & Kumar, 2015 stated the food-borne pathogens such as Lis
as the rational use of pesticides, the promotion of organic farming, the teria monocytogenes, Salmonella species, Shigella species, Campylobacter
exploitation of natural and environmental pesticides and the proper species, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum and E. coli O157:
implementation and amendment of pesticide regulations (Grewal, Sin H7 are the main causes of diseases in the past decade (Mritunjay &
gla, Kamboj, & Dua, 2017). Good Agriculture Practices (GAP) in the use Kumar, 2015). The microbial community in highly healthy fruits are
of pesticides can decrease the hazard of pesticide contamination to often fungi of the genus Rhizopus, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Eurotiumand
users. However, farmers need to teach the proper dosage, proper use and Wallemia, the yeast of the genus Debaryomyces, Pichia, Candida, Hanse
proper interval between harvest and pesticide treatment. There is a need niaspora, Zygo saccharomyces, and also gram-negative bacteria such as
to strengthen the regulation and monitoring of pesticides by extension of Pseudomonas and Erwinia (Paramithiotis et al., 2017). Most of the bac
the standards for the end users of pesticides (Mwanja et al., 2017). teria on the surface of plants are usually gram-negative and belong to the
Pseudomonas group. Pathogens that are more involved in the outbreak
3.2. Microbial contaminations of vegetable diseases include Norovirus, Salmonella species, E. coli and
Shigella species (Ssemanda et al., 2017).E. coli, a species of O157: H7, has
Fresh fruit and vegetable are products that are sold to the consumer caused several diseases in food with green leafy vegetables. In the United
as an unprocessed and raw form which may be intact and cut off from States, the outbreak of lettuce associated with foodborne pathogens,
stem or root at harvest time (US Food and Drug Administration, 1998). including E. coli O157: H7 and Shigella, was reported from 1973 to 1997
Leafy vegetables that are consumed raw have known as the important (Mritunjay & Kumar, 2015). The high prevalence of E. coli, O157: H7
carriers of human pathogens, which are the most at risk of contamina was associated with radish in Japan in 1996. The most recent outbreak
tion compared with foods that are cooked. And because of the presence of E. coli in the world is due to the contamination of Fenugreek strains,
of infectious germs on the outer surfaces, it can lead to food poisoning which killed more than 50 people and more than 4000 people
323
hospitalized in 16 countries (Mritunjay & Kumar, 2015). E. coli O157: production areas (Paramithiotis et al., 2017). In 2015, Mritunjay and
H7, is a durable pathogen that can survive long periods of time in the Kumar announced that in the case of insanitary lettuce irrigated with
water, especially at cold temperatures. Compared to other food-borne surface water, inappropriate methods of transportation by humans have
pathogens, E. coli O157: H7 is more resistant to some organic acids also been effective in lettuce contamination (Mritunjay & Kumar, 2015).
and can survive well in food and acid drinks. Studies have shown that it Pre-harvest contamination with E. coli may be due to plant roots as well
can be kept cool and kept alive in acidic foods for weeks (Mritunjay & as frequent use of contaminated water in direct contact with plant
Kumar, 2015). The prevalence of E. coliO157: H7, Salmonella and leaves, because microorganisms have the ability to attack internal tis
L. monocytogenesis associated with salad vegetables with apples, to sues through the lesions or open stomata (Paramithiotis et al., 2017).
matoes, celery, lettuce, radishes, watermelons and oranges (Kwak, Kim, After farmers, vegetable vendors play an important role. How to sell for
& Rhee, 2011; Mritunjay & Kumar, 2015). The microbial contamination sale is influenced by vendors on the microbial burden of vegetables.
of fruits and vegetables can vary from farm to table (Moneim et al., Vendors to keep fresh the vegetables in hot and dry summer, all sprin
2014). Pathogenic bacteria can contaminate fruits and vegetables any kled frequently by using contaminated water from same bucket without
where in the production system. Fruit contamination may occur in a disinfecting or changing the water of bucket, leads cross contamination
variety of ways. The main source of contamination is the environment in in vegetables at sale counters (Mritunjay & Kumar, 2015). The spread of
which the fruits have grown (Paramithiotis et al., 2017), (Table 1). microorganisms occurs during growing, harvesting, displacing, after
Cultivation of trees and plants of fruits and vegetables in areas suscep harvesting, packaging, transporting, storing, processing and selling for
tible to the presence of harmful microbes such as sewage, sludge, animal human consumption (Carletti et al., 2013). Post-harvest microbial con
feces and poisonous weeds can lead to contamination during growth, trol is one of the most important post-harvest operations for controlling
harvesting and storage (Mathur et al., 2014). If the land has previously of food-borne diseases and maintaining the quality of raw fruits and
been used as pasture, it is contaminated with animal stools, the same vegetables in the post-harvest stage. It is important to note that food
result may be obtained if improper use of animal manure in other areas safety at each stage of the post-harvest process should be considered
occurs (Paramithiotis et al., 2017). Irrigation water is known as a major properly. Microbial contamination of the surfaces of food process, such
risk factor for microbial contamination of fruits and vegetables in many as stainless steel, glass, cast iron, polypropylene and formic acid, leads to
food deterioration or disease transmission (Issa-Zacharia, Kamitani,
Table 1 Muhimbula, & Ndabikunze, 2010). Research is focused on decontami
Sources of contamination affecting the quality and safety of microbial agents in nation to reduce the primary microbial barriers and packaging condi
fresh fruits and vegetables. tions that can limit microbial growth (Paramithiotis et al., 2017).
Sources of contamination Reference
Prevention of contamination at all parts of the food chain is preferable to
the use of disinfectants. The elimination of fruits and the loss of quality
Before Irrigation water Buck et al. (2003)
of fresh fruits and vegetables are increased by processing and storage.
harvesting Issa-Zacharia et al.
(2010) Minimal processing containing peeling, frying, cutting, milling or
Moneim et al. (2014) damaging causes cell damage and releases liquid content in lesion areas.
Paramithiotis et al. The contamination of fresh products during the transportation pro
(2016)
cess is a common problem, which is usually ignored by the use of
Decol et al. (2017)
Irrigation quality Rajwar et al. (2016)
appropriate disinfection techniques (Mathur et al., 2014). Complete
Paramithiotis et al. washing with fresh water leads to a reduction in the number of micro
(2017) organisms in the fruit surface and vegetables that prolongs their
Water used for fungicides and Buck et al. (2003) shelf-life. However, only a fraction of pathogenic microorganisms may
insecticides Issa-Zacharia et al.
be eliminated by this simple treatment (Mathur et al., 2014; Mritunjay &
(2010)
Washing water Moneim et al. (2014) Kumar, 2015; Putnik et al., 2017). In 2017, it has been reported that the
Soil Buck et al. (2003) number of germs is significantly reduced by operations such as washing
Issa-Zacharia et al. or trimming and peeling (Ssemanda et al., 2017). Different disinfectants
(2010)
such as chemical and radiation preservatives are available to reduce the
Rajwar et al. (2016)
Paramithiotis et al.
microbial load of fruits. The effect of disinfectants on pollutants depends
(2016) on factors such as using concentration, time of treatment, temperature,
Dust Buck et al. (2003) pH, and sensitivity of target organisms (Rajwar, Srivastava, & Sahgal,
Issa-Zacharia et al. 2016). Rinse with chlorine is usually used during the process (fruit,
(2010)
vegetables, meat, poultry, etc.) to reduce pathogens. Chlorine is the
Organic Fertilizer Rajwar et al. (2016)
Paramithiotis et al. main ingredient used to disinfect fresh products. During seed budding,
(2016) chlorine can be used to prevent the growth of contaminating microor
Hygienic quality of fertilizer Moneim et al. (2014) ganisms in water (Putnik et al., 2017). However; studies have shown
Fertilizers that have not been Buck et al. (2003) that standard chlorine concentration (50–200 ppm) is not effective in
sufficiently composted Issa-Zacharia et al.
Extinction (2010)
reducing the pathogen load on fresh products. In addition, long-term
Insects exposure to chlorine steam causes irritation of the skin and respiratory
Human displacement tract of workers and affects the environment. In addition, trihalo
After Dust Buck et al. (2003) methane can be produced when chlorine is contacted by organic matter
harvesting Washing water Buck et al. (2003)
(Oliveira et al., 2015). Other materials such as organic acids, chlorine
Mritunjay and Kumar
(2015) dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, hypochlorite, sodium bisulfite, sulfur di
Excrement Buck et al. (2003) oxide and ozone can be used as an alternative to eliminating or signif
Harvesting equipment Buck et al. (2003) icantly reducing the bacterial population (Putnik et al., 2017). Chlorine
Containers and vehicles dioxide is an antiseptic that is currently used to control the growth of
Processing equipment
Storage in infected locations Mritunjay and Kumar
germs in the industry and has been considered as a disinfectant for
(2015) vegetables. It was observed that organic acids alone or in combination
Human displacement Buck et al. (2003) with chlorine effectively reduced the number of Yersinia enterocolitica
Mritunjay and Kumar and Listeria monocytogenes in parsley. Disinfectant chemicals are not
(2015)
widely used (with the exception of chlorine) and their impact on food
324
microbial safety is not well defined and should be evaluated for safety. shorter immersion time. The antimicrobial effect of sodium chloride can
improve the quality and improve the shelf life of red apples, and, even
3.2.1. Microbiological trend of fruits and vegetables when combined with the calcium salt, it maintains the strength of the
The prevalence of human infection associated with the consumption cut red apple. The microbial activity of freshly cut apples is minimized
of raw fruits, vegetables, and unpasteurized juices has been increased in by the use of disinfectant sodium chloride combined with calcium
recent years in which some highly infectious (corrosive) bacterial spe chloride and ascorbate calcium and preserves freshly cut red apples
cies, such as Corynebacterium, Streptococcus, and Aureus, were found against microbial contamination. The treatment of freshly cut fruits with
predominantly at the external surface of these products (Mathur et al., calcium salt can reduce microbial growth by reducing the activity of
2014). Salmonella is linked to tomato, seedlings, cantaloupe, apple juice water (Mola et al., 2016). The major microbiological concerns of freshly
and orange juice. E. coli O157: H7 is contagious with lettuce, sprout, and cut products are mostly related to mesophilic and psychotropic micro
apple juice. The contagion of Shigella is linked to lettuce, onion, and organisms, and microbial decay is associated with the growth of mi
parsley, of cholera to strawberries, of parasitic diseases to raspberries, croorganisms that occur in Pre-farm agriculture. Changes in the
basil, and apple juice, hepatitis A virus to lettuce, raspberry and frozen microbial population are expected in packaged fresh-cut products. High
strawberries. Table 2 reveals the pathogen bacteria isolated from a wide humidity conditions inside a package and the presence of a large area of
range of fresh produce. cutting surfaces, which provide a rich source of nutrients, make an
environment that result in the growth of microorganisms. Due to low pH
3.2.2. Microbiological trend in fresh-cut fruits and vegetables values of many fruits, the main types of flora consists of molds and
The production of freshly cut fruits and vegetables began in the yeasts, and Botrytis cinerea and Aspergillusniger as important molds as
1990s and was initially about lettuce, cabbage, carrot and some other well as yeasts such as Candida, Cryptococcus, Fabospora, Kluyveromyces,
vegetables. It then expanded on fruits such as mango, apples, pears and Pichia, Saccharomyces are found. However, the consumption of fresh
red apples (Mola, Uthairatanakij, Srilaong, Aiamla-or, & Jitareerat, fruit is associated with food-borne diseases associated with some path
2016). Minimally processed fruits and vegetables are products that have ogenic bacteria such as Cyclosporacayetanensis in raspberries, Salmonella
undergone cleaning, washing, selection, peeling and cutting, to obtain a spp. in watermelons and Shigella species are accompanied by fruit salad
100% useable product that is packaged and maintained under refriger (Oms-Oliu et al., 2010). The production of fresh and freshly cut fruits
ation (De Oliveira, Leite Júnior, Martins, Martins, & Ramos, 2014). Low can be contaminated with microorganisms and can be a source of edible
processing may result in the development of microbial degradation of pathogens. The degree of contamination is related to environmental
flesh, which microorganisms can grow rapidly there. On the other hand, conditions during the growth and processing of products. Therefore,
during processing, cell walls may change their physical and functional on-farm food safety programs such as Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
properties in terms of physical status, microstructure, macrostructure, and an in-plant food safety program such as Hazard Analysis and Critical
and composition, as well as structure-dependent changes. Minimal Control Point (HACCP) are applied to minimize microbial food safety
processing refers to the use of one or more methods, techniques, or hazards of fresh and fresh-cut produce. However, more intensive and
methods for converting plant or animal foods into ready to eat products extensive research studies are needed to better understand the interac
while maintaining the essential nutritional and organoleptic qualities. tion of field and plant conditions and various treatments in reducing and
Successful use of minimal processing delays the loss of nutrients and regulating spoilage and foodborne pathogens for an effective food safety
undesirable changes in texture, color, flavor, and aroma associated with program (Mahajan et al., 2017). At the moment, detection and identi
ripening or microbial decay (Velderrain-Rodríguez et al., 2019). fication of microbial agents are based on three main methods, including
Sodium chloride is recognized by the US Food and Drug Adminis the conventional culture of microorganisms, immunological tests and
tration (FDA) as a disinfectant for food and freshly cut products. Sodium molecular techniques such as PCR and DNA fingerprinting. Traditional
chloride has been reported as the most potent disinfectant to reduce the techniques employ phenotypic features of microorganisms, such as
total bacteria, yeasts, molds, E. coli and coliforms in freshly cut apple colony morphology and antibody immunological tests, including anti
cultures during storage (Mola et al., 2016). To control the number of body interaction of antigen for the identification of microbial toxins.
germs, a higher concentration of sodium chloride and longer immersion While PCR-based analysis detects genes that are responsible for pro
in sodium chloride are more effective than lower concentrations and ducing microbial toxins in the diet. These modern techniques have
shown a high ability to identify microbial species and related toxins in
food systems with high reliability and precision in a shorter period (ur
Table 2 Rahman et al., 2016, pp. 62–66).
Examples of fresh produce and juice from which pathogenic bacteria have been
isolated (Buck et al., 2003).
4. Methods of increasing the safety of fruits and vegetable
Pathogen Product
Aeromonas alfalfa sprouts, asparagus, broccoli, cauliflower, celery, 4.1. Biochemical and molecular techniques
lettuce, pepper, spinach
Bacillus cereus alfalfa sprouts, cress sprouts, cucumbers, mustard sprouts,
Microorganisms can colonize or contaminate fruits and vegetables at
soybean sprouts
Campylobacter green onions, lettuce, mushroom, potato, parsley, pepper, any time during the production, distribution, processing, packaging or
jejuni spinach preparation of food. Microbial contamination of fruits and vegetables
Clostridium cabbage, mushrooms, pepper can cause spoilage food and human infection (Harding et al., 2017).
botulinum Counting the number of organisms present in food products is important
E. coli O157:H7 alfalfa sprouts, apple juice, cabbage, celery, cilantro,
coriander, cress sprouts, lettuce
as an indicator of the microbial load of the product. The colony forming
Listeria bean sprouts, cabbage, chicory, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, unit (CFU) stands for microbial colonies. So far, countless methods have
monocytogenes mushrooms, potatoes, radish, salad vegetables, tomato been developed for the total number of living cells. Different diagnostic
Salmonella alfalfa sprouts, artichokes, beet leaves, celery, cabbage, systems in microbiology have been used to obtain reliable results in a
cantaloupe, cauliflower, chill, cilantro, eggplant, endive,
short time. Systems such as kits, ELISA, magnetic immunity isolation
fennel, green onions, lettuce, mungbean sprouts, mustard
cress, orange juice, parsley, pepper, salad greens, spinach, (IMS) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), microarrays and biochip
strawberries, tomato, watermelon technologies have been widely used as diagnostic systems (Nemati,
Shigella celery, cantaloupe, lettuce, parsley, scallions Hamidi, Dizaj, Javaherzadeh, & Lotfipour, 2016). Among different
Staphylococcus alfalfa sprouts, carrot, lettuce, onions sprouts, parsley, radish methods of identifying microorganisms, the PRC and real time pcr
Vibrio cholerae cabbage, coconut milk, lettuce
method is very important and it is possible to identify microorganisms
325
such as Listeria monocytogenes as the most important vegetable vegetables.

contaminant, Salmonella Entrica (main human pathogen associated with Maintaining natural antagonists: Microbial antagonists are natu
fresh vegetables and fruits) and Escherichia coli. It should be noted that rally present on the surface of fruits and vegetables and are used for
methods such as cultivation, enrichment, etc., can be used as basic control. In a study conducted by researchers, they found when concen
methods at different stages as needed (Badosa, Chico, Pla, Parés, & trated washings from the surface of citrus fruit were plated out on agar
Montesinos, 2009). Also in among biochemical techniques spectroscopy medium, only bacteria and yeast appeared while after dilution of these
is very common. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) washings, several rot fungi appeared on the agar, suggesting that yeast
become a valuable method for controlling pesticides remaining to and bacteria may be suppressing fungal growth. Thus, it indicates that
ensure food safety. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) is when fruits and vegetables are washed, they are more susceptible to
used to detect pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables (Holmes, decay than those, which are not washed at all (Sharma, Singh, & Singh,
Fletcher, & Reutemann, 2012) Raman spectroscopy has been studied for 2009).
several purposes)such as Polysaccharides distribution, Pesticide detec Organic Farming: Organically produced fruits have a phenolic
tion, Virus detection, Carotenoid & poly acetylene evaluation, Carot content and an antioxidant level higher than inorganic fruits. Organic
enoid evaluation, Quality evaluation, Pathogen detection, Pesticide foods today have a large market share in the food industry. Some re
penetration in leaves, Lycopene & β-carotene evaluation, Quality eval searchers have suggested that the lack of fungicides in organic farming
uation, Freshness assessment, Bacterial detection of seeds(in fruit and may create a favorable environment for the development of pathogenic
vegetable (Qin et al., 2019). Also FTIR Spectroscopy has been used as disorders in organic fruits. The source of fertilizer in organic farming is
one of the most sensitive techniques in fields such as adulteration, also mentioned as a major concern in the microbial safety of organic
content of total sugar, glucose, fructose, sucrose, discrimination of
pectin, hemicellulose, and cellulose, dry matter, soluble solids, acidity,
Table 3
content of sucrose, glucose, fructose, citric, content of aspartic acid, Some edible coatings used in fruits and vegetables.
glutamine, lysine, soluble solids content, acidity, anthocyanin content,
Edible Coating Fruit/ Function Reference
content of glucose, fructose, sucrose, content of uronic acid, content of
Vegetable
xylose, degree of methyl esterification of pectin, content of total
Sodium Blueberries Fiber-enriched (Alvarez, Ponce, &
phenolic, total antioxidant capacity (TEAC, FRAP, DPPH), content of
alginate and treatments keep Moreira, 2018)
sucrose, fructose, glucose, inulin/oligo fructose DP3, DP4, DP5, stability chitosan with refreshing and improve
time, discrimination of pectin, hemicellulose and cellulose, pH, acidity, four different the quality of
soluble solids, content of glucose, fructose, sucrose, vitamin C, phenolic, dietary fibers blueberries.
anthocyanin in the evaluation of fruits and vegetables (Bureau, Cozzo (Oil + starch) Pomegranate Delayed microbial Kore et al., 2017
corruption
lino, & Clark, 2019).
Chitosan Broccoli Reducing microbial
population and
4.2. Novel technologies in fruits and vegetables prolonging storage time
Aloe Vera gel Cherry and Reduced proliferation
grapes of microorganisms
Edible coatings on the safety of fruits and vegetables: All fruits
Aloe Vera gel Apple Reduce the number of
and vegetables contain natural waxy (wax) that keeps the water intact. early germs
When wiping fruit or rubbing with wrapping paper, the protective effect Hydroxy propyl Grapes Improve microbial
of the waxes is eliminated and the amount of respiration of the fruit methyl safety
increases. There is the idea of using edible coatings from the skin of cellulose
Alginate Melon Reduce and inhibit
fruits and vegetables. These are thin layers of nutrients that are resistant microbial growth
to the loss of water, oxygen, and nutrient-soluble materials. Edible Chitosan Edible Strawberry Preventing microbial
coatings improve the internal and external qualities of different prod Coating growth and reducing
ucts, reduce water loss and reduce oxidation, which results in unpleas weight changes
Edible coating Mango Preventing microbial
ant changes in color, taste, and texture.
of mangoes growth
Advantages of using edible coatings for fresh fruits and vegetables Chitosan Small carrot Inhibition of growth of (Mantilla,
include: coliforms and S. aureus Castell-Perez,
Gomes, & Moreira,
1) Improvement of color preservation, acid, sugar, scent and taste of the 2013)
Alginate + Apple Adding isoleucine in (Maya-Meraz et al.,
ingredients Isulosin the coating solution 2014)
2) Maintaining quality during transportation and storage increased the
3) Reducing storage disorders. production of perfume
compounds in coated
samples
Edible coatings have a lot of potentials to carry active ingredients
Chitosan + Broccoli Reduce Corruption and (Alvarez, Ponce, &
such as browning agents, colors, flavors, nutrients and antimicrobial Bioactive Pathogenic Moreira, 2013)
compounds that can increase the life span of the product and reduce the compounds Microorganisms
risk of developing pathogen on the surface of the food (Kore, Tawade, & Alginate + Pineapple Reducing the (Mantilla et al.,
Kabir, 2017). Edible coatings reduce the number of cold-blooded bac pectin + population of aerobic 2013)
transine microorganisms, and
teria, coliforms, yeasts, and molds (Putnik et al., 2017). The use of edible aldehyde yeasts and molds
pectin coatings can control the contamination of products by microor Chitosan + Papaya Coated fruits have (Brasil, Gomes,
ganisms. Recently Chitosan has attracted much attention because of Transine maintained aerobic Puerta-Gomez,
biological and antimicrobial activity. Alginate keeps the quality well aldehyde + growth, psychotropics, Castell-Perez, &
Pectin + yeast, and mold growth Moreira, 2012)
and increases the longevity of food by increasing the barrier of water and
Calcium without affecting cold
prevents microbial contamination. Waxes and other coatings delay the Chloride fruits.
ripening and aging of fresh products that can increase microbial stability Cassava starch Pineapple Weight loss is (Bierhals,
and sustainability. Coatings are considered as friendly environment; + Ascorbic significantly lower than Chiumarelli, &
these coatings are relatively inexpensive and can be easily applied after acid + Citric control samples during Hubinger, 2011)
acid storage
harvesting. Table 3 shows some edible coatings used in fruits and
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fruits. The use of fertilizer in organic farming leads to a large risk of Ozone in the Microbial Safety of Fruits and Vegetables: The term
microbial contamination, especially E. coli, Salmonella, Listeria mono ozone from the Greek word means cooling. In 1997, ozone was intro
cytogenes and Enterobacteraerogenes. To reduce the level of contamina duced as a Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) product by the Food
tion, animal fertilizers should be composted before consumption, which and Drug administration (FDA). Ozone is effective on a wide variety of
reduces the risk of pathogens (Mditshwa, Magwaza, Tesfay, & Mbili, organisms, including gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, spores
2017). and plant cells. Ozone is a potent oxidizer that is effective in controlling
There should be enough expertise in fertilizer management on bacteria, molds and proteases and viruses. Ozone oxidizes the mem
environmental issues and sustainability of agricultural activities. The brane of bacteria and destroys them. (Carletti et al., 2013). The effec
continued use of mineral and chemical fertilizers in horticultural sys tiveness of ozone against microorganisms in food systems is due to
tems raises well-known soil concerns, such as decreased organic matter several factors including ozone depletion, ozone in the environment,
and long-term loss of soil fertility (Sambo & Nicoletto, 2017). various environmental factors such as pH, temperature, humidity and
Fruits and Vegetables as carriers of Probiotic Bacteria: Due to the additives (surfactants, sugars, etc.) and the amount of organic sub
nutrient content of the fruit and the internal tissue structures, probiotics stances around the cells (Carletti et al., 2013; Mritunjay & Kumar,
have the ability to grow fruit in the matrix. Tropical fruits such as ba 2015). The most important advantage of ozone for food processing is
nanas and papaya are good bases for probiotic strains. With minimal that it rapidly decomposes into harmless molecular oxygen (Papachris
processing, melons can be a new proposition as a carrier of probiotic todoulou, Koukounaras, Siomos, Liakou, & Gerasopoulos, 2018). Given
microorganisms. In 2014, De Oliveira et al. reported that melon pro that ozone is short lived in the climate, and as there is no residues in
duction with Lactobacillus rhamnosus enriched at least processing was food, it is safer than other food additives. In the case of sporogenic ba
possible. Melon has the ability to be a carrier of probiotic and is a good cillus with food origin, ozone is more effective than hydrogen peroxide
alternative for vegetarians and people who restrict cholesterol diets and (Carletti et al., 2013). Various studies have been conducted on the use of
lactose intolerance or have an allergies to milk proteins and dairy ozone in vegetables such as lettuce. tomatoes (Aguayo, Escalona, &
products (De Oliveira et al., 2014). Recently non-dairy probiotic prod Artés, 2006), potatoes (Ansorena, Moreira, & Roura, 2014) and peppers
ucts, including food matrices from fruits, vegetables, has a promising (Horvitz & Cantalejo, 2012). Ozone treatment has a beneficial effect on
future. Several studies, for example of cocoa using Bifidobacterium lon increasing the storage life of not cut off fresh fruits and vegetables such
gum and Lactobacillus helveticus in production of chocolate (Possemiers, as broccoli, cucumbers, apples, grapes, oranges, pears, raspberries and
Marzorati, Verstraete, & Wiele, 2010),Pomegranate using L. plantarum, strawberries by reducing the microbial population and ethylene oxida
Lactobacillus delbrueckii in production of juice (Mousavi, Mousavi, tion. Carletti et al. (2013) reported that apple ozone treatment reduced
Razavi, Emam-Djomeh, & Kiani, 2011), Apple using Lactobacillus casei in weight loss and microbial degradation. Also, the number of molds and
production of drink (Ellendersen et al., 2012), Pear using L. acidophilus bacteria in ozone-treated onions decreased significantly during storage,
in production of Juice (Ankolekar, Pinto, Greene, & Shetty, 2012). Yam without altering the chemical composition and sensory quality. Treat
using Lactobacillus acidophilus in production of Fermented yam which ment with ozone reduced the bacterial and fungal population in tomato
can be an examples in the field. Also probiotics has been used for ab but did not affect the color, sugar content, acidity and antioxidant ca
sorption of heavy metals from fruits, fruit juices and etc. in recent years. pacity. Orange treatment in red peppers, strawberries, and shrimp
Fungal Nanotechnology on Microorganisms: Fungal nanotech reduced the microbial population (Carletti et al., 2013). Using 2 ppm of
nology can be defined as the synthesis of Nanoparticles by green fungus, treated water for disinfection of lettuce for 2 min reduces microbial load
which has significant advantages over nano-materials. Nanoparticles and maintains sensory quality during cold storage (Mritunjay & Kumar,
can be synthesized using various organisms, such as fungi and bacteria. 2015). Ozone also changes the color of some fruits and vegetables such
Recently, fungi have been used to produce nanoparticles. In 2016, as peach and carrot, reducing the amount of ascorbic acid in broccoli.
Saglam et al. studied an entophytic fungus, Penicillium species isolated The amount of phenol and flavonoid in pineapple and banana signifi
from turmeric leaf and used as a weapon against Staphylococcus aureus cantly increased during exposure to ozone for more than 20 min and
and E. coli (Saglam et al., 2016). significantly reduced the amount of vitamin C in these fruits. Being
UV-C Rays and Fruits and vegetables: The effect of UV-C rays on unstable and corrosive gas are the ozone constraints and contraindica
increasing the maintenance time of vegetables varies depending on the tions and due to its short life, it should be produced locally because
product (species and variety, complete and intact, or fruits and vege storage is not possible. High concentration of ozone in the air results in
tables with minimal processing), plant surface, initial microbial load and human death, which requires more studies for ozone treatment (Carletti
the method of application (time, duration, and treatment dose). Low et al., 2013).
doses of UV-C can increase the life span, the quality and nutritional Modified Atmosphere Packaging in fruits and vegetables:
health of fruits and vegetables. The ability of these rays to disinfect and Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) is a method for controlling
delay the growth of microbial products in fresh produce without microbial corruption of freshly cut fruits and vegetables, which is used.
affecting the quality is shown. Recent studies have shown that UV-C The deterioration of corruption in freshly cut fruits and vegetables is
treatment can be an effective tool to extend the shelf-life of new prod usually done by MAP, which is generally accompanied by refrigeration
ucts (Gogo et al., 2017). At present, researching on the use of UV-C as a and cold. Non-amount of atmospheric gases inside the pack, due to the
technology for various fruits and vegetables such as lettuce (Du, selection of the film, reduces the amount of respiration of the product
Avena-Bustillos, Breksa, & McHugh, 2014; Kim et al., 2013), broccoli and delays the biochemical processes that lead to corrosion. Packaging
(Lemoine, Civello, Chaves, & Martínez, 2010), peach, apple (Cárcel, films have a selectable permeability for atmospheric gases such as O2,
García-Pérez, Benedito, & Mulet, 2012), melon (Manzocco, Da Pieve, & CO2 and N2, which are often used in MAP. CO2 is an antimicrobial agent
Maifreni, 2011), watermelon (Artés-Hernández, Robles, Gómez, that is suitable for microbial growth in fresh products. The effect of CO2
Tomás-Callejas, & Artés, 2010), pineapple and banana (Alothman, Bhat, as an antimicrobial agent is significantly dependent on the temperature,
& Karim, 2009), pomegranate (López-Rubira, Conesa, Allende, & Artés, type of microorganism, growth phase, water activity and chemical
2005) and mango (González-Aguilar et al., 2007) have been done. The composition of the product. The bacterial load inside the packet can be
number of aerobic mesophilic microorganisms and yeasts are signifi reduced by manipulating the concentration of gases inside the package.
cantly reduced by treatment with UV-C. While the number of mildew On the other hand, microbial growth in MAP is affected by temperature
was not affected. Advantages of treatment with UV-C can be pointed out and storage time, the volume concentration of modified atmospheric
by the lack of complex equipment and therefore, easy to use, inexpen gases, packaging dimensions and product mass (Putnik et al., 2017). One
sive and cost-effective without the presence of chemicals on treated of the most important benefits of Modified Atmosphere Packaging
products (Gogo et al., 2017). (MAP) is the prevention or weakening of fruit aging (ripening) and
327
biochemical and physiological changes. Temperature is an effective one of the most advanced technologies for non-flammable food pro
environmental factor in preventing the ripening of fruit. Both the cesses. Acidic electrolyzed water called “denkaisui” in Japan is a great
ripening and production times of C2H4 increase with increasing tem source of disinfection in the food industry to reduce or eliminate bac
perature. To delay the ripening of fruits, they should be kept as close as terial populations on food products, food processing levels and non-
possible to 0 ◦ C. Reducing O2 concentration below 8% and/or increasing tangential surfaces with food. Japan’s Ministry of Health, Labor and
concentration of CO2 at concentrations higher than 1% will retard the Welfare have approved Acid Electrolyzed Water (AEW) in 2002 as a food
ripening of fruits (Sandhya, 2010). Packaging with the modified atmo additive. Two types of acidic electrolyzed water in the food industry in
sphere of fresh fruits and vegetables increase shelf life. Much work has Japan have been approved as an indirect food additive: highly acidic
been done to evaluate the effect of MAP on the growth of pathogens electrolyzed water and relatively acidic electrolyzed water. Some
associated with fruits and vegetables with minimal processing. The MAP studies have confirmed the severe antimicrobial activity of highly
can maintain food quality, limit microbial growth, increase the acidified electrolyzed water against pathogens in laboratory conditions
longevity of fresh produce and postpone microbial deterioration. on the surface of the fruit and vegetable. There is evidence that acidic
Using bacteriocins in fruits and vegetables: bacteriocins can be electrolyzed water as an antiseptic of meat, vegetable and raw fruits,
added either directly pure or in semi-pure form to protect fruits. Also, cutting boards and dishes can work better than chlorine water solutions.
these antimicrobial peptides are either produced in probiotic cultures or Effect of Irradiation on the Microbial Safety of Fruits and Veg
applied to the fruit surface as an edible coating or in a plastic matrix for etables: Food Irradiation is a durable economical technology for
packaging. Although many bacteriocins have specific properties to be reducing post-harvest lesions, increasing the life span of corrosive goods,
used in preserving fruit products, to this day, bovicin HC5, enterocin improving the health of food and disabling pathogens and food-borne
416K1, bificin C6165 and pediocin have been tested for this type of parasites (Mridha et al., 2017). It also maintains the nutritional com
products against corrosive and pathogenic microorganisms. Among ponents of fresh food and food products. Food irradiation is now legally
these, only Nisin and Pediocins PA-1/AcH are approved that can be used recognized in many countries as a safe and effective way to improve food
as food additives, but their approval in fruit products is limited (Barbosa, safety and has no toxic effects on products that are being treated (Mridha
Mantovani, & Jain, 2017). et al., 2017). Irradiation of up to 1 KGy in the United States has been
The effects of high hydrostatic pressure on the safety of fruits approved for fruits and vegetables to inhibit germination and delay their
and vegetables: High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) is a non-thermal ripening in order to increase shelf life. Gamma ray is one of the safe
technology which works increasingly in the food industry to inactivate alternatives to disinfecting all types of fruits (Mridha et al., 2017). In
a wide range of pathogens of food and harmful food enzymes with 2017, the study showed that a dose of 1.5 KGy of the gamma ray is
minimal impact on the overall quality, nutritional properties, and food effective in postponing the erosion and reducing microbial load without
flavors. The pressure of food products can be considered between 100 affecting the sensory properties of strawberries, resulting in a prolonged
and 800 MPa in the temperature from 0 to 100 ◦ C at a given time taken useful life (Mridha et al., 2017).
up to 20 min. Studies have suggested that the use of pressure in the range Cold Plasma in Increasing the Safety of Fruits and Vegetables:
of 300–600 MPa can effectively prevent the growth of microorganisms Cold plasma is one of the most advanced technologies for inactivating or
and maintain the overall quality of food products (Ali, Yeoh, Forney, & degrading microbes. Produced plasma at ambient temperature as cold
Siddiqui, 2017). In various studies, this technology has been used in plasma at temperatures of 30–60 ◦ C, is mainly used in the food industry.
fruits and vegetables such as mango avocado, apple, tomato (Maitland, The cold plasma technology of bacteria (positive and negative), molds,
Boyer, Eifert, & Williams, 2011), carrot (Spilimbergo, Komes, Vojvodic, yeasts, spores, and viruses has been evaluated. Cold plasma is used as a
Levaj, & Ferrentino, 2013), mushroom, cucumbers and spinach (Guan, substitute for chlorine during the washing of fruits, vegetables, and leafy
Fan, & Yan, 2013). In addition to using this technology in fruits and vegetables from pathogens (Dey et al., 2016). Various studies have
vegetables, its application in water for washing fruits is also examined. shown that cold plasma is able to disable microorganisms on various
In 2007, Dede and colleagues showed that using high hydrostatic pres types of food, packaging materials, and process equipment under at
sure (250 MPa, 35 ◦ C for 15 min) and thermal treatment (80 ◦ C for 1 mospheric conditions (Bevilacqua et al., 2018).
min), could reduce the microbial load of carrot and tomato juice to Yeast antagonist in increasing the safety of fruits and vegeta
undetectable levels. They also observed that high hydrostatic pressure bles: Biological control relies on a variety of mechanisms that can be
does not significantly alter the ascorbic acid content of both juices. achieved by using both simultaneous bio control agents, exposing
Therefore, HHP is recommended not only for industrial use but also for several mechanisms, or by using more than one mixed bio controller that
the safe storage of fresh juices, such as tomatoes and carrots, even at has combined effects (Chen, Chen, & Chou, 2018). Past studies of bio
high storage temperatures (25 ◦ C) it can be used (Dede, Alpas, & control yeast performance indicate the least risk for consumers appli
Bayındırlı, 2007). cations of antagonistic activities of Yeast in foods Include processed food
Effects of Ultrasonic on the Safety of Fruits and Vegetables: The and beverages and unprocessed foods (Muccilli & Restuccia, 2015).
use of ultrasonic is a non-thermal technology that increases the immu Yeast biological control is a promising option for controlling postharvest
nity of microbes and prolongs the shelf-life of the product, especially in diseases of fruits and vegetables (Sugiprihatini & Wiyono, 2012). There
foods that are sensitive to heat, nutrition, sensors, and functional char are plenty studies on yeast antagonists action in fruits and vegetables
acteristics (sonography with high power at low frequency (20–100 kHz) and they used for the control of microbial contaminations at the post
is called “power ultrasound” and is used in food processing to disable harvest phase (Ferraz et al., 2019). Such as apple (Liu et al., 2012),
microorganisms). A major advantage of sonography on other techniques Cherry tomato. Grapefruit (Hershkovitz et al., 2013), Pear, Mango
of the food industry is that sound waves which are generally considered (Bautista-Rosales, Calderon-Santoyo, Servín-Villegas, Ochoa-Álvarez, &
are safe, non-toxic and environmentally friendly. In studies, this tech Ragazzo-Sánchez, 2013), Banana, Orange(Aloui, Licciardello, Khwaldia,
nique is used in cut fruit and vegetables such as pineapple (Yeoh & Ali, Hamdi, & Restuccia, 2015), Peach, Kiwifruit and Chili. There are several
2017), broccoli (Ansorena et al., 2014), celery and grated carrot (Alegria reports of the use of yeast antagonists for the biological control but very
et al., 2009). Ultrasonic technology can also be compatible to refine few of these have reached the stage of commercial and appearance the
water for washing fruits and vegetables. Using ultrasonic techniques, we factors such as plant host, the antagonist, the pathogen, and resident
can improve the diseases caused by the spread of microbial infection in micro flora to be effective for yeast antagonists (Spadaro & Droby,
fruits and vegetables. Of course, this method has limitations that need to 2016). one of the famous examples of commercialized products for yeast
be addressed in future research (Bilek & Turantaş, 2013). antagonistic approaches is Biosave™ (Pseudomonas syringe Van Hall)
Effect of Acidic Electrolyzed Water on the Safety of Fruits and was commercialized for postharvest application on pome and citrus
Vegetables: In recent years, electrolyzed acidic water has been tested as fruit, as well as cherries, potatoes and sweet potatoes by Jet Harvest
328
Solutions Company from USA. has led to the scrutiny of food waste, especially fruits and vegetables.
Effect of bioactive compound and plant derived on increase They are natural sources of flavoring, colorants, protein, dietary fiber,
safety of fruit and vegetable: Food processing and some preservation antimicrobials and anti-oxidants, which can be used as natural food
methods, including heating, may change the nutrients and organoleptic additives.
properties. In recent years around the world, microbial resistance Functional foods: Fruit and vegetable have good bioactive com
properties of current compounds have increased. Therefore, alternative pound. Recent trends have shown that bioactive molecules are inter
compounds should be investigated and developed (Hintz, Matthews, & esting sources for the development of many functional foods because
Di, 2015). Natural plant extracts and bioactive compounds are good they play an important role in improving health and minimizing disease
examples to protect food from contamination. Fruits and vegetables risks. Bioactive compounds are naturally present in foods, or they can be
have been shown to have numerous health benefits, closely related to added to regular foods to produce new functional foods. These bioactive
their high content in vitamins and other bioactive compound with molecules can be obtained either by extracting natural resources or by
antioxidant properties (Carbonell-Capella et al., 2014). Some of the ef using chemical and biotechnological compounds (Morais et al., 2018).
fects of plant derived compounds are control of mycotoxin, control Drying: New techniques in drying have been introduced to reduce
fungal spoilage (da Cruz et al., 2013), antimicrobial (Upadhyay, Upad energy and costs. Among the technologies, osmotic dehydration, vac
hyaya, Kollanoor-Johny, & Venkitanarayanan, 2014), antibacterial uum drying, ice drying, super-hot steam drying, heat pump drying and
(Barbieri et al., 2017) and anti-oxidative characters (Prakash, Kedia, spray drying have a great capacity to produce dried products and high
Mishra, & Dubey, 2015). quality powders (Sagar & Kumar, 2010).
Most plant-derived compounds can classified by their chemicals
structure, which also affects their antimicrobial properties (Upadhyay 6. Conclusion
et al., 2014). Today, plant extracts and essential oils have received much
attention for use as a food preservative in food products but industrial Since the need for healthy and quality products, especially fruits and
applications are still limited (Paparella, Serio, Chaves-López, & Maz vegetables, has grown and subsequently pathogens associated with
zarrino, 2013). fruits and vegetables have been developed, it is necessary and possible to
control and reduce the pathogens in fruits and vegetables by using a
5. Functional improvements in fruits and vegetables variety of methods. Various methods used for the microbial safety of
fruits and vegetables depend on the initial microbial load, the type of
Edible coating: Edible coatings are used to increase the shelf life of fruit and vegetable, and their volumes. There should be sufficient
fruits and vegetables. Fresh fruits and vegetables are highly deterio expertise in fertilizer management to avoid issues caused by inappro
rating, and nearly 50% of fresh produce deteriorates during produce. priate use of fertilizers such as soil fertility loss. Organic fertilizers and
Edible coatings have a very important role to play in this situation. sewage sludge must be treated in such a way that the level of their mi
Edible coatings are used on fresh and cut fruits and vegetables (Raghav, croorganisms does not contaminate fresh fruits and vegetables and
Agarwal, & Saini, 2016). Edible coatings from renewable sources such as consumers. Also, people involved with the fruit and vegetable chain
lipids, polysaccharides and proteins can act as barriers to water vapor, distribution must be aware of their illnesses, so that the transmission of
gases and other minerals that increases quality and shelf life in fruit and the disease to fruits and vegetables is not done. Training of the farmers,
vegetable. Also in fruits and vegetables can be provided by film and regarding the risk of using contaminated water and untreated fertilizer
edible coatings with delayed ripening and weight loss(Zuhal, Yavuz, & at production, is needed. To reduce the potential contamination of fresh
Kerse, 2018)In this base, studies have focused on edible composition and fruits and vegetables, some advice has been provided to growers,
its effect on fruits and vegetables. One of the most important advantages packers, and carriers for the purpose of farming and good production to
of film and edible coatings is that several active ingredients can be prevent or minimize the microbial risks of food safety in fresh fruits and
incorporated into the polymer matrix and consumed with food, thereby vegetables. Some of the issues that must be observed to ensure the safety
enhancing immunity or even nutritional and sensory properties. But in of fruits and raw and cut vegetables are: workers’ hygiene and health,
some cases, edible coatings were not successful. The success of edible educating health and wellness issues (e.g., training on how to properly
coatings for fresh produce depends entirely on the composition of the wash hands), principles and procedures for disinfection, pest control,
internal gas composition. Quality criteria for edible film-coated fruits training of rules and responsibilities, structure of production unit and
and vegetables should be carefully specified and quality parameters equipment (the contact surfaces of food should be smooth, non-
monitored during storage period. (Dhall, 2016). absorbent, impervious and should be such that it can be easily cleaned
Nutraceutical: Fruits and vegetables have nutrients, carbohydrates, and preserved from chemical, physical and microbial contamination),
proteins, vitamins, minerals and essential amino acids, so can be helpful Equipment layout should be such that the input material is never mixed
in treating various diseases. Since they are different composition and or not in contact with the final product. It is better to use input materials,
have a wide range of nutrients/phytochemicals, they are important for process materials, and final products in separate sectors to prevent cross-
health and can be used as Nutraceutical (Dolkar, Bakshi, Wali, Sharma, contamination, including production and process control, packaging,
& Shah, 2017). In vegetables, Phytochemicals are widely described as transportation and storage.
phytoestrogens, terpenoids, carotenoids, limonoids, phytosterols, glu In the context of addressing the microbiological risks of fresh fruits
cosinolates, polyphenols, flavonoids, isoflavonoids and anthocyanidins. and vegetables, there are five major risks associated with primary pro
They have a significant impact on the health care system and may duction which are recently approved by the European Commission.
provide medical health benefits, including the prevention or treatment These are including environmental and wildlife factors, the use of fer
of diseases and physiological disorders (Singh, 2015). tilizers and pesticides, irrigation water, hygiene of workers and equip
Natural Food additives: In response to consumer demand for nat ment and contact levels (Allende, Truchado, Lindqvist, & Jacxsens,
ural additives, interest in natural antimicrobials has expanded in recent 2018). Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to these. It is a perfect
years. Over the past two decades, natural preservatives have been welcomes by producers and consumers for functional and organic fruit
studied for practical applications. It has been shown that these sub and vegetables by use of Bio control and microbial metabolites products
stances inactivate microorganisms and their enzymes without having which is a good opportunity for researchers to investigate application of
any significant negative effects on their organic or nutrient properties. different probiotics and their metabolites and other bio control products
Some studies have reported that natural antimicrobial agents may offer as a new approaches for control of diseases, removing heavy metals and
unique benefits for food processing in addition to improving shelf life increasing shelf life of the final products.
and food safety (Tiwari et al., 2009). The importance of using additives
329
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 103 (2020) 321–332

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trends in Food Science & Technology

A review of recent trends in the development of the microbial safety of

1. Introduction that up to one-third of the population of developed countries will be

3. Contaminations in fruits and vegetables

such as Listeria monocytogenes as the most important vegetable vegetables.

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