DOSE LIMIT

INTRODUCTION

1. What is Radiation?

 Radiation is energy that travels through space at the speed of light. It can exist as
particles (alpha, beta, neutrons) or waves (X-rays, gamma rays).

 Unlike everyday matter, radiation is invisible and cannot be directly sensed by our
bodies.

2. How Does Radiation Interact with Biological Matter?

 Living organisms are made up of atoms and molecules. When radiation interacts with
these atoms, it can cause them to become ionized (loss of an electron) or excited
(higher energy state).

 This interaction can disrupt the normal functioning of cells and lead to various
biological effects.

 The extent of damage depends on the type of radiation, its energy, and the amount
of radiation absorbed by the tissue.

3. Introducing Radiation Dose

 We need a way to quantify the amount of radiation absorbed by living tissue. This is
where the concept of radiation dose comes in.

 Dose refers to the amount of energy deposited by radiation per unit mass of tissue.
The most common unit for dose is the Gray (Gy). One Gray is equal to one Joule of
energy absorbed per kilogram of tissue (Gy = J/kg).

4. Dose vs. Dose Rate

 It's important to distinguish between dose and dose rate.

o Dose tells us the total amount of energy absorbed by the tissue.

o Dose rate tells us how quickly that energy is being absorbed.

An analogy: Imagine pouring water into a bucket. The total amount of water in the bucket
(dose) depends on how much you pour in. The rate at which you pour the water (dose rate)
determines how quickly the bucket fills up.

5. Biological Effects of Radiation Exposure

 The biological effects of radiation exposure depend on several factors, including

the type and amount of radiation absorbed, the duration of exposure, and the
specific tissue or organ irradiated.

 We can categorize these effects into two main groups:

o Acute effects: These occur within a short period (hours to days) after a
high dose of radiation exposure. Examples include skin burns, nausea,
vomiting, and hair loss.

o Chronic effects: These develop over a longer period (months to years) and
can include cancer, genetic mutations, and premature aging.

TYPES OF RADIATION EXPOSURE

1. Categorizing Radiation Exposure:

There are two main ways to categorize radiation exposure:

 Internal vs. External Exposure:

o Internal exposure: Occurs when radioactive material enters the body

through inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through wounds. The radioactive
material continues to emit radiation from within, irradiating surrounding
tissues.

o External exposure: Occurs when a person is exposed to radiation from a

source outside the body. Common sources include X-ray machines, gamma ray
sources used in medical procedures, and radioactive materials in the
environment.

 Deterministic vs. Stochastic Effects:

 o Deterministic effects: These are health effects that have a threshold
dose. If the radiation dose is below the threshold, no effect will occur.
However, exceeding the threshold can lead to a predictable and severe
health consequence, with the severity increasing with dose. Examples include
skin burns, cataracts, and acute radiation syndrome.

o Stochastic effects: These are health effects that have no known threshold
dose. Any amount of radiation exposure, no matter how small, carries a
probability of causing a health effect, such as cancer or genetic mutations.
The risk of these effects increases with increasing dose.

2. Common Sources of External Exposure:

We encounter various types of external radiation in our daily lives and medical settings.
Here's a breakdown of some common sources:

 X-rays: Used for medical imaging of bones and tissues.

 Gamma rays: Emitted from radioactive materials used in medical procedures (e.g.,
cancer treatment) or industrial applications.

 Beta particles: Emitted from certain radioactive isotopes and can penetrate skin
but are stopped by materials like aluminum.

 Alpha particles: Emitted from some radioactive materials but cannot penetrate the
skin. They are a concern only if ingested or inhaled.

3. Internal Exposure and Radionuclide Properties:

Internal exposure occurs when radioactive material enters the body. The health effects
depend on several factors, including:

 Radionuclide properties: Different radioactive isotopes have varying

characteristics that influence internal exposure.

o Half-life: This determines how long it takes for the activity of the
radionuclide to decrease by half. A longer half-life means the radioactive
material remains in the body for a longer duration, potentially causing
prolonged exposure.
 o Decay mode: The type of radiation emitted during decay (alpha, beta,
gamma) affects how deeply it penetrates tissues and the potential for
damage.

REGULATORY BODIES AND DOSE LIMITS

1. International Radiation Safety Organizations:

 To ensure safe radiation practices worldwide, several international organizations

establish guidelines and recommendations. Two key players are:

o International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP): This

independent scientific organization provides recommendations on radiation
safety principles. Their work forms the basis for radiation protection
regulations adopted by many countries.

o International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): This intergovernmental

organization promotes the safe and peaceful use of nuclear energy. They
develop safety standards based on ICRP recommendations and assist
countries in implementing them.

2. Dose Equivalent and Biological Effects:

 The Gray (Gy) measures the amount of energy deposited in tissue, but different
types of radiation have varying effects on biological systems. To account for this,
we use the concept of dose equivalent (Sv).

 The dose equivalent takes into account the type of radiation and its relative
biological effectiveness (RBE). Radiation with a higher RBE is considered more
damaging for the same amount of absorbed energy.

 The unit for dose equivalent is the Sievert (Sv). One Sievert is equivalent to one
Gray multiplied by the RBE factor for the specific type of radiation (Sv = Gy x
RBE).

3. The ICRP System of Dose Limitation:

The ICRP recommends a system of dose limitation to protect individuals and populations
from the harmful effects of radiation exposure. This system sets recommended dose
limits for different exposure scenarios:
Occupational exposure:

Refers to radiation exposure received by workers in the course of their job (e.g.,
personnel in nuclear power plants, medical professionals using X-rays). ICRP recommends
annual dose limits for occupational exposure to ensure worker safety.

Public exposure:

Refers to radiation exposure received by the general public from various sources,
including natural background radiation, medical procedures, and environmental releases
from nuclear facilities. ICRP sets limits for public exposure to minimize potential health
risks.

Medical exposure:

Refers to radiation exposure received by patients during medical procedures like X-rays,
CT scans, and radiotherapy. ICRP recommends optimizing medical procedures to minimize
radiation dose to patients while achieving necessary diagnostic or therapeutic benefits.

4. ALARA Principle (As Low As Reasonably Achievable):

A fundamental principle in radiation safety is ALARA. This stands for As Low As

Reasonably Achievable. It emphasizes that all reasonable efforts should be made to keep
radiation exposure As Low As possible while still achieving the desired outcome.

In practice, ALARA translates into implementing various safety measures, such as:

 Shielding radiation sources to minimize exposure.

 Optimizing procedures to use the lowest possible dose while achieving diagnostic or
therapeutic goals.

 Increasing distance from the radiation source to reduce exposure.

 Utilizing personal protective equipment (PPE) when necessary.

The ALARA principle ensures a balanced approach, allowing the benefits of radiation
technology to be utilized while minimizing potential risks.
APPLICATIONS OF DOSE LIMITS IN BIOPHYSICS

1. Medical Imaging:

 Dose considerations are crucial in various medical imaging techniques. Balancing

image quality with minimizing radiation exposure to patients is a key objective.

o X-rays: Widely used for bone and tissue imaging. Modern X-ray machines
utilize collimation and other techniques to minimize unnecessary radiation
exposure.

o CT scans: Provide detailed cross-sectional images but involve higher

radiation doses compared to X-rays. Optimizing scan parameters helps
reduce dose while maintaining diagnostic accuracy.

o PET scans: Employ radiopharmaceuticals for functional imaging. Careful

selection of radiopharmaceuticals with short half-lives and optimizing scan
protocols are crucial for minimizing patient dose.

2. Radiotherapy:

 In cancer treatment, radiation therapy utilizes high doses of ionizing radiation to

target and destroy cancer cells. However, these therapeutic doses can also damage
healthy tissues.

 Therapeutic dose: Refers to the specific amount of radiation prescribed to deliver

a lethal dose to cancer cells while minimizing harm to surrounding healthy tissues.

 Dose optimization: Techniques like intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT)

and stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) allow for precise delivery of radiation to the
tumor, minimizing exposure to healthy organs and reducing side effects.

3. Nuclear Medicine:

 Nuclear medicine utilizes radioactive materials called radiopharmaceuticals for

diagnosis and therapy.

 These radiopharmaceuticals localize in specific organs or tissues based on their

biological properties. The emitted radiation is then detected by imaging devices.
  Dose limits are crucial in nuclear medicine as well. Selecting radiopharmaceuticals
with short half-lives and administering the minimum required dosage helps ensure
patient safety while achieving diagnostic or therapeutic goals.

Real-world Example:

 Imagine a doctor is recommending a CT scan for a patient experiencing abdominal

pain.
 The doctor will weigh the benefits of the detailed image information from a CT
scan against the potential risks of radiation exposure.
 Based on the patient's medical history and the specific clinical situation, they may
choose alternative imaging techniques with lower radiation doses if appropriate.
 This exemplifies the importance of applying dose limits in clinical decision-making.

CASE STUDIES AND REAL-WORLD EXAMPLES

1. Case Studies of Historical Radiation Accidents:

 Studying historical radiation accidents helps us understand the importance of dose

limits and radiation safety practices.

 Here are two examples:

o The Goiânia Accident (1987): In Brazil, a scavenged Cesium-137 source led

to widespread contamination, with several individuals receiving high radiation
doses. This accident highlighted the need for stringent safety measures in
handling radioactive materials.

o The Chernobyl Disaster (1986): The explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear

power plant resulted in significant environmental contamination and exposure
of workers and the public. This event emphasized the importance of robust
safety protocols and emergency preparedness in nuclear facilities.

2. Dose Optimization Techniques in Medical Procedures:

 Several techniques are employed in medical imaging and radiotherapy to optimize

dose while achieving desired outcomes.

 Here are some examples:

 o Collimation in X-rays: Limits the X-ray beam to the area of interest,
reducing exposure to surrounding tissues.

o Iterative reconstruction in CT scans: Utilizes advanced algorithms to

reduce radiation dose while maintaining image quality.

o Image-guided radiotherapy (IGRT): Uses real-time imaging to ensure

precise targeting of the tumor during radiation therapy, minimizing dose to
healthy tissues.

3. Real-World Scenarios and Your Role:

 Understanding dose limits is crucial for professionals working with radiation

sources.

 Here are some examples:

o Medical Physicists: Play a vital role in optimizing radiation treatment plans

in radiotherapy, ensuring accurate dose delivery while minimizing patient
exposure.

o Nuclear Medicine Technologists: Administer radiopharmaceuticals to

patients and ensure safe handling of radioactive materials, adhering to dose
limits.

o Radiation Safety Officers: Develop and implement radiation safety

protocols in research labs and healthcare facilities to protect personnel and
the environment.

Discussion Point:

 Imagine you are a researcher working with radioactive materials in your lab. How
would you apply the concept of dose limits and ALARA principle in your daily work
practices?

Effective Dose vs. Absorbed Dose:

 Briefly explain the concept of effective dose (Sv) which considers the type of
radiation and its tissue weighting factors.
 You can mention that effective dose is calculated by multiplying the absorbed dose
(Gy) by the tissue weighting factor (wT) for the exposed tissue and summing these
products for all irradiated tissues. (Effective Dose = Σ(Gy x wT))

 This emphasizes how effective dose takes into account the varying biological
effects of different radiation types.