THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Human Body- a collection of glands: exocrine glands and endocrine glands

What is the difference between the endocrine glands and exocrine glands?

Endocrine gland- is a gland whose secretions (called hormones) are collected by

the blood and reach the tissues through the circulation
● They are ductless
● They use the bloodstream
● They secrete hormones

Hormones- released by the thyroid, parathyroid, and other glands, under the general
direction of the “Master” pituitary gland.
- Chemically, hormones are either steroid or steroid-like hormones such as:
- Sex hormones
- Adrenal cortex hormones
- Non-steroid hormones such as
- Amines
- Proteins
- Peptides
- Glycoproteins
Exocrine gland- a gland whose secretions are released externally through ducts(
into the skin, intestinal lumen, mouth, etc.).
● They have ducts
● They deliver their products directly to a specific site

Endocrine Glands Exocrine Glands

● Endocrine glands release ● Exocrine glands release their

hormones directly into the secretions into a duct that
bloodstream carries them out of the body

What are the main endocrine glands of the human body?

● The pineal gland (or pineal body)
● The hypophysis (or pituitary)
● The thyroid gland
● The parathyroids
● The endocrine part of the pancreas
● The adrenal gland
● The gonads (testicles or ovaries)
Pituitary Gland
● Lies at the base of the brain in the sella turcica
● Consists of two distinct portions:
- Anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)
- Posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)
● Known as the “Master” gland since it controls the functions of many other
endocrine glands
● Composed of two lobes: the anterior and posterior lobes
● Both lobes are controlled by the hypothalamus
● The Master Gland
- The primary function is to control other glands
- Produces many hormones
- Secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus at the base of the
brain

The Pituitary Gland is divided into 2 areas, which differ

- Structurally and functionally
- Each area has separate types of hormone production

Anterior Pituitary
- Produces thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Growth hormone (GH)
- Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Prolactin
- Primarily regulates other endocrine glands
- TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to release its hormones, thus ↑ metabolic
rate
- Growth hormone (GH)
- ↓ glucose usage
- ↑ consumption of fats as an energy source
- ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release its hormones
- FSH & LH stimulate maturation and release of eggs from the ovary
Posterior Pituitary
- Produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
- Oxytocin (the natural form of pitocin)
- stimulates gravid uterus
- causes “let down” of milk from the breast
- ADH (vasopressin) causes the kidney to retain water
Thyroid Gland
● The thyroid gland has two lateral lobes and lies just below the larynx
- It produces three hormones:
- T4 (thyroxine)
- T3 (triiodothyronine)
- Calcitonin
The Thyroid Gland
● Lies in the anterior neck just below the larynx
● Two lobes, located on either side of the trachea, connected by a narrow
band of tissue called the isthmus
● Sacs inside the gland contain colloid
● Within the colloid are the thyroid hormones:
- thyroxine(T4)
- Triiodothyronine (T3)
- When stimulated (by TSH or by cold), these are released into the
circulatory system and ↑ the metabolic rate
- “C” cells within the thyroid produce the hormone “calcitonin”
- Calcitonin, when released, lowers the amount of calcium in the
blood
● Inadequate levels of thyroid hormones= hypothyroidism, or Myxedema
- Myxedema
- Facial bloating
- Weakness
- Cold intolerance
- lethargy
- altered mental status
- oily skin and hair
● Increased thyroid hormone release causes hyperthyroidism, commonly
called “Graves’ disease.
Signs and symptoms:
- Insomnia, fatigue
- Tachycardia
- Hypertension
- Heat intolerance
- Weight loss
Long-term hyperthyroidism: exophthalmos; bulging of the eyeballs
STRUCTURE OF THE GLAND

THYROID GLAND DISEASES

Parathyroid Glands
● The parathyroid glands are on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
● There are typically four parathyroid glands
● It secretes one hormone:
- PTH (parathyroid hormone or parathormone)
● Small, pea-shaped glands, located in the neck near the thyroid
● Regulate the level of calcium in the body
● Produce parathyroid hormone - ↑ level of calcium in blood
● Hypocalcemia- can result if parathyroids are removed or destroyed

● The parathyroid gland

produces the parathyroid hormone
● Regulate the amount of
calcium in the blood
● Located on the dorsal surface
of the thyroid gland

STRUCTURE OF THE GLANDS

DISORDERS OF THE PARATHYROID GLANDS

Condition Symptoms Mechanism Cause Treatment

Hyperparathyroidism Fatigue, muscular weakness, Tumor Remove tumor, correct

painful joints, altered mental bone deformities
functions, depression, weight
loss, bone weakening,
increased pth secretion
overstimulates osteoclasts

Hypoparathyroidism Muscle cramps and seizures. Inadvertent Calcium salt injections,

Decreased pth secretion surgical massive doses of vitamin
reduces osteoclasts activity, removal; injury d
diminishing blood calcium ion
concentration
Adrenal Glands
● The adrenal glands are closely associated with the kidneys
● The gland sits like a cap on each kidney
● Hormones are secreted from two different areas of the gland, the adrenal
cortex and the adrenal medulla
● Numerous hormones are secreted by the adrenal glands
● Two small glands that sits atop both kidneys
● The adrenal glands are a pair of glands composed of two sections
- The cortex
- The medulla

● Each has 2 divisions, each with different functions

- The Adrenal Medulla secreted the catecholamine hormones
- Norepinephrine and epinephrine (closely related to the sympathetic
component of the autonomic nervous system

● The Adrenal Cortex secretes 3 classes of hormones, all steroid hormones:

- Glucocorticoids mineralocorticoids

- prolonged ↑ in adrenal cortex hormone results in Cushing’s

Disease
Signs and Symptoms of Cushing’s Disease:
- ↑ in blood sugar levels
- Unusual body fat distribution
- Rapid mood swings

Glucocorticoids:
- account for 95% of adrenal cortex hormone production
- ↑ the level of glucose in the blood
- released in response to stress, injury, or serious infection- like the
hormones from the adrenal medulla

Mineralocorticoids:
- work to regulate the concentration of potassium and sodium in
the body.

- and if there is an ↑ in mineralocorticoids as well

 - a serious electrolyte imbalance will occur due to the ↑ potassium
excretion by the kidney which results in hypokalemia

- Sodium can also be retained by the kidney, resulting in

hyponatremia
- Causes:
- dysrhythmias
- coma
- death
- removal of tumor
The Pancreas
● The pancreas has two major types of secretory tissue
● This is why it is a dual-functioning organ as both an exocrine gland and an
endocrine gland
● Three hormones are secreted from the islet cells/ islets of Langerhans
● Specialized tissues in which the endocrine functions of the pancreas occurs:
● Includes three types of cells:
- Alpha cells secrete glucagon
- Beta cells secrete insulin
- Delta cells secrete somatostatin

ALPHA CELLS

● Alpha (a) cells release glucagon, essential for controlling blood glucose
levels
● When blood glucose levels fall, alpha cells ↑ the amount of glucagon in the
blood
● The surge of glucagon stimulates the liver to release glucose stores (from
glycogen and additional storage sites)
● Also, glucagon stimulates the liver to manufacture glucose-
gluconeogenesis

BETA CELLS
● Beta cells (β) release insulin (antagonistic to glucagon)
● Insulin ↑ the rate at which various body cells take up glucose. Thus, insulin
lowers the blood glucose level.
● Insulin is rapidly broken down by the liver and must be secreted constantly

DELTA CELLS
● Produce somatostatin, which inhibits both glucagon and insulin
HORMONE OF THE PANCREATIC ISLETS
Hormone Action Source of Control

Glucagon Stimulates the liver to break down glycogen Blood glucose

and convert noncarbohydrates into glucose, concentration
stimulates breakdown of fats

Insulin Promotes formation of glycogen from Blood glucose

glucose, inhibits conversion of concentration
noncarbohydrates into glucose, and
enhances movement of glucose through
adipose and muscle cell membranes,
decreasing blood glucose concentration,
promotes transport of amino acids into
cells; enhances synthesis of proteins and
fats

Somatostatin Helps regulate carbohydrates Not determined

OTHER ENDOCRINE GLANDS
● Pineal Gland
- Secretes melatonin

● Thymus Gland
- Secretes thymosins
- Promotes development of certain lymphocytes
- Important in role of immunity

● Reproductive Organs
- Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone
- Testes produce testosterone
- Placenta produces estrogens, progesterone, and gonadotropin

The Gonads
● The gonads are the organs responsible for producing sex cells
● The ovaries in women
● The testes in men
● The endocrine glands associated with human reproduction
● Female ovaries produce eggs
● Male gonads produce sperm
● Both have endocrine functions

Ovaries
● Located in the abdominal cavity adjacent to the uterus
● Under the control of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary they
manufacture
- Estrogen
- Progesterone
Estrogen and Progesterone have several functions, including sexual
development and preparation of the uterus for implantation of the egg

Testes:
● Located in the scrotum
● Produce sperm for reproduction
● Manufacture testosterone
- Promotes male growth and mascunilization
- Controlled by anterior pituitary hormones FSH and LH
STRESS AND ITS EFFECTS
● Survival depends on maintaining homeostasis
● Factors that change the internal environment are potentially life-threatening
● Sensing such dangers direct nerve impulses to the hypothalamus
● This can trigger a loss of homeostasis

LIFESPAN CHANGES
● Endocrine glands decrease in size
● Muscular strength decreases as GH levels decrease
● ADH levels increase due to slower break down in liver and kidneys
● Calcitonin levels decrease; increase risk of osteoporosis
● Insulin resistance may develop
● Changes in melatonin secretion affect the body clock
● Thymosin production declines increasing risk of infections