ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• The Endocrine System
• Controls many body functions
• exerts control by releasing special chemical
substances into the blood called hormones
• Hormones affect other endocrine glands or body
systems
• Derives its name from the fact that various
glands release hormones directly into the
blood, which in turn transports the hormones to
target tissues via ducts
Hormones
• Regulate the chemical composition and volume of
the internal environment ( extracellular fluid).
• Help regulate metabolism and energy balance.
• Help regulate contraction of smooth and cardiac
muscle fibers and secretion by glands.
• Help maintain homeostasis, despite disruptions, such
as infection, trauma, emotional stress, dehydration,
starvation, hemorrhage, and temperature extremes.
•Regulate certain activities of the immune
system.
•Play a role in the smooth, sequential
integration of growth and development.
•Contribute to the basic processes of
reproduction, including gamete production,
fertilization, nourishment of the embryo and
fetus, delivery, and nourishment of the
newborn.
TYPES OF GLANDS
Exocrine Glands - secrete their products into body
ducts, which carry the products into body cavities, or
the outer surface of the body
- sudoriferous glands, sebaceous glands, mucous
glands, and digestive glands.
Endocrine glands – secrete their products (hormones)
into the extracellular space around the secretory cells.
The secretions diffuse into capillaries and are carried
throughout the body by the circulatory system.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal
• Pineal
• Pancreatic
• Gonads (Ovary and Testes)
 • The Endocrine System
• Consists of several glands located in various
parts of the body.
• Pituitary gland: a small gland located on a stalk
hanging from the base of the brain - AKA
• “The Master Gland”
• The primary function is to control other glands.
• Produces many hormones.
• Secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus in the
base of the brain.
• The Pituitary Gland is divided into 2
areas, which differ
• structurally and functionally
• each area has separate types of
hormone production.
• The two segments are:
• Posterior Pituitary:
• produces oxytocin and antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
• Anterior Pituitary:
• produces thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH)
• growth hormone (GH)
• adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
• follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Posterior Pituitary
• Oxytocin (the natural form of Pitocin)
• stimulates gravid uterus
• causes “let down” of milk from the breast.
• ADH (vasopressin) causes the kidney to retain water.
• Anterior Pituitary
• Primarily regulates other endocrine glands
• rarely a factor in endocrinological emergencies
• TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to release its hormones, thus ↑ metabolic
rate
• Anterior Pituitary…
• Growth hormone (GH)
• ↓ glucose usage
• ↑ consumption of fats as an energy source
• ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release its hormones
• FSH & LH stimulates the maturation & release of eggs from the ovary.
• The Thyroid Gland
• lies in the anterior neck just below
the larynx.
• Two lobes on either side of the
trachea are connected by a narrow
band of tissue called the isthmus.
• Sacs inside the gland
contain colloid
• Within the colloid are the thyroid
hormones:
• thyroxine (T4)
• triiodothyronine (T3)
• When stimulated (by TSH or by
cold), these are released into
the circulatory system and ↑ the
metabolic rate.
• “C” cells within the thyroid produce
• Calcitonin, when released, lowers the amount of
calcium in the blood.
• Inadequate levels of thyroid
hormones = hypothyroidism, or Myxedema
• Myxedema symptoms:
• Facial bloating
• weakness
• cold intolerance
• lethargy
• altered mental status
• oily skin and hair
• TX: replacement of thyroid hormone
• Increased thyroid hormone release
causes hyperthyroidism, commonly called Graves’ disease.
• Signs and symptoms:
• insomnia, fatigue
• tachycardia
• hypertension
• heat intolerance
• weight loss
• Long-term hyperthyroidism:
• Exophthalmos
• bulging of the eyeballs (picture Barbara Bush)
• In severe cases - a medical emergency
called thyrotoxicosis can result.
• Parathyroid Glands
• small, pea-shaped glands,
located in the neck near the
thyroid
• Usually, 4 – the number can
vary
• regulate the level of calcium in
the body
• produce parathyroid hormone
- ↑ level of calcium in the
blood
• Hypocalcemia can result if
parathyroids are removed or
destroyed.
 Islets of
Pancreas
Langerhans
• a key gland • specialized
located in the tissues in
folds of the which the
duodenum endocrine
• has both functions of
endocrine and the pancreas
exocrine occurs
functions • include 3
• secretes types of cells:
several key • alpha (α )
digestive • beta (β)
enzymes • delta (∂)
• each secretes
an important
hormone
Alpha (α) cells release glucagon, essential for controlling blood glucose levels.
• When blood glucose levels fall, α cells ↑ the amount of glucagon in the blood.
• The surge of glucagon stimulates the liver to release glucose stores (from
glycogen and additional storage sites).
• Also, glucagon stimulates the liver to manufacture glucose -
• gluconeogenesis.
Beta Cells (β) release insulin (antagonistic to glucagon).
• Insulin ↑ the rate at which various body cells take up glucose. Thus, insulin
lowers the blood glucose level.
• Insulin is rapidly broken down by the liver and must be secreted constantly.
• Delta Cells (∂) produce somatostatin, which inhibits both glucagon and
insulin.
• Adrenal Glands
• 2 small glands sit atop both
kidneys.
• secretes the
hormones norepinephrine and
 epinephrine (closely related
to the sympathetic component
of the autonomic nervous
system).
• accounts for 95% of adrenal
cortex hormone production
• ↑ the level of glucose in the blood
• Released in response to stress,
injury, or serious infection
• Gonads and Ovaries:
• the endocrine glands associated with human reproduction.
• Female ovaries produce eggs
• Male gonads produce sperm
• both have endocrine functions.
• ​Ovaries:
• located in the abdominal cavity adjacent to the uterus.
• Under the control of LH and FSH from the anterior
pituitary they manufacture
• estrogen
• progesterone
• Estrogen and Progesterone have several functions,
including sexual development and preparation of the
uterus for implantation of the egg.
• Testes:
• located in the scrotum
• produce sperm for reproduction
• manufacture testosterone -
• promotes male growth and masculinization
• Controlled by anterior pituitary hormones FSH and
LH.
 Diabetes Mellitus Complications of
• one of the most common Diabetes:
Endocrine Emergencies: diseases in North America. • contributes to heart disease
• ↓ insulin secretion by the • stroke
Beta (β) cells of the islets of • kidney disease
Langerhans in the pancreas. • blindness
• Pathophysiology of Diabetes:
• Glucose Metabolism
• Glucose (dextrose) is a simple sugar required by the body to produce energy.
• Sugars, or carbohydrates, are 1 of 3 major food sources used by the body.
• The other 2 major food sources are
• Proteins
• Fats
• Most sugars in the human diet are complex and must be broken down
into simple sugars: glucose, galactose, and fructose - before use.
• The breakdown of sugars is carried out by enzymes in the
gastrointestinal system.
• As simple sugars, these are absorbed from the GE system into the body.
• More than 95% enter the body as glucose.
• To be converted into energy, glucose must first be transmitted
through the cell membrane. But - the glucose molecule is
large and doesn’t readily diffuse through the cell membrane.
• Glucose must pass into the cell by binding to a special carrier
protein on the cell’s surface.
• Facilitated diffusion - doesn’t use energy. The carrier protein
binds with the glucose and carries it into the cell.
• The rate at which glucose can enter the cell is dependent
upon insulin levels.
• Insulin serves as the messenger - travels via blood to target tissues.
• Combines with specific insulin receptors on the surface of the cell
membrane.