Lecture Notes

KNOWLEDGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SALEM
(An Autonomous Institution)
Unit I
Environment and Biodiversity
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word environment is derived from the French word "Environ" meaning
"Surroundings". Each and everything around us is called as environment.
Every organisms is surrounded by materials and forces which constitute its environment,
from which it must derive its needs. Environment creates favourable conditions for the
existence and development of living organisms.
Example: Cow eats plants for its survival. The plant requires nourishment from the
soil. Nourishment is provided by nitrogenous mater excreted by animal (or) by the dead
bodies of other plants and animals.
Thus for the survival of an animal (or) a plant, (or) a microbe, it requires a supply of
materials and removal of waste products from its environment.
The degradation of the environment has become a serious problem. The pollution of soil,
water and air leads to loss of valuable natural resources.
1.2 DEFINITIONS
1. Environment
Environment is defined as, "the sum of total of all the living and non-living things around us
influencing one another."
2. Environmental Science
Environmental science is the study of the environment, its biotic (ie., biological) and abiotic
(ie., non biological) components and their interrelationship.
3. Environmental Engineering
Environmental engineering is the application of engineering principles to the protection and
enhancement of the quality of the environment and to the enhancement and protection of
public health and welfare.
4. Environmental Studies (or) Environmental Education Environmental studies are the
process of educating the people for preserving quality environment.
1.3 TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT

Environment can be divided into two categories
1. Natural environment
2. Man made environment
GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 1

1. Natural environment
Natural environment is characterized by natural components. All biotic (living) and
abiotic components (non-living) are created through a natural process. Creation of these
biotic and abiotic components do not require any human support.
Examples
Soil, water, air, trees, radiations, noise, etc..
2. Man-made environment
Man is the most powerful environmental agent. He modifies the environment using
modern technologies, according to his needs to a great extent. Thus the man-made
environment is created by man.
Examples House, road, schools, railway lines, parks, etc.
(1.4) COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The environment consists of the following three important components.
1. Abiotic (or) Non-living components.
2. Biotic (or) Living components.
3. Energy components.
1.4.1 Abiotic (or) Non - Living
Components (or) Physical Components The non-living components of the
environment are called abiotic components.
Example Air, water, soil and minerals.
These abiotic components enter the body of living organisms directly (or) indirectly,
take part in metabolic activities and then return to the environment.
Abiotic components are sub divided into three categories
1. Atmosphere
2. Lithosphere
3. Hydrosphere
1. Atmosphere - The cover of air, that envelopes the earth is known as the atmosphere. The
atmosphere extends upto 500 kms from the earth surface. The atmosphere is essential for all
living organisms. It comprises 78% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen and 1% of other gases.

About 78% of the gases in the Earth’s atmosphere are nitrogen, 21% are oxygen, 0.9 % are
argon, and 0.1 % are other gases. The remaining 0.1 per cent of gases includes trace amounts
of neon, water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide, and methane.
Structure of atmosphere
Atmosphere consists of following five concentric layers
1. Troposphere: The lowest layer, extending from the Earth's surface up to about 8-20
kilometers (5-12 miles). This is where weather occurs and where most of the Earth's mass of
air is located.
2. Stratosphere: The layer above the troposphere, extending from about 20 kilometers (12 miles)
to about 50 kilometers (31 miles). The ozone layer, which protects the Earth from harmful
ultraviolet radiation, is located in the stratosphere.
3. Mesosphere: The layer above the stratosphere, extending from about 50 kilometers (31 miles)
to about 85 kilometers (53 miles). This is where meteors burn up upon entering the Earth's
atmosphere.
4. Thermosphere: The layer above the mesosphere, extending from about 85 kilometers (53
miles) to about 600 kilometers (370 miles). This is where the Northern and Southern lights
occur.
5. Exosphere: The outermost layer, extending from about 600 kilometers (370 miles) to the edge
of space. This is where satellites orbit the Earth.
(a) Troposphere (0-18 kms): It is the lower portion of the atmosphere and extends from 0-18
kms. It contains 75% of the atmospheric air mass. The temperature of troposphere changes
from 15°C to 56°C and the chemical constituents are O2, CO2, N2 and water (clouds).
(b) Stratosphere (18 - 50 kms): It lies above the troposphere and extends from 18 - 50 kms.
The temperature of which changes from -2°C to -56°C and the main chemical constituent is
ozone.
(c) Mesosphere (50 85 kms): It lies above the stratosphere and extends from 50 - 85 kms. The
temperature of which drops to about 95°C. The main chemical constituents are N2, O2, O2
and NO*.
(d) Thermosphere (or) Ionosphere (85 500 kms): It lies above the mesosphere and extends
upto 500 kms above the earth surface. The temperature of which raises upto 1200°C. It
contains the charged particles like O2, 0, NO* etc.,

(e) Exosphere: It is the upper most layer of the atmosphere and extends upto 1600 km. The
temperature of which is very high due to direct solar radiation. The chemical constituents are
only H₂ and He.
1.6Environmental Sciences and Sustainability

Functions of atmosphere
It maintains the heat balance on the earth by absorbing the IR radiations.
The gaseous constituents play an important role in sustaining life on earth.
Gaseous Constituent Functions
Oxygen supports life of living organisms.
Carbon-dioxide essential for photosynthetic activity of plants.
Nitrogen essential nutrient for plant growth.
2.2. Lithosphere
The soil and rock components of the earth is called lithosphere.
Functions of lithosphere
1. It is a home for human beings and wildlife.
2. It is a storehouse of minerals and organic matters.
3. Hydrosphere
The aqueous envelope of the earth (ie., 75% of the earth surface) is called
hydrosphere. Oceans, lakes, streams, rivers and water vapour constitute hydrosphere. About
97% of earth's water is in oceans, which is too salty and not fit for drinking. Only 3% is
available as fresh water.
Functions of hydrosphere
1. It is used for drinking purpose and also supports the aquatic life.
2. It is also used for irrigation, power production, industries and transport.
1.4.2 Biotic (or) Living Components

The living components of the environment are called biotic components.
Examples
Animals, plants and micro organisms.
Biosphere: The biological environment, where the living organisms live and interact with
physical environment (soil. water and air) is called biosphere.

Functions of biosphere: Plants through photosynthesis produce oxygen in the atmosphere.

Animals inhale oxygen during respiration and give out carbondioxide, which is again utilised
by plants during photosynthesis.
1.4.3 Energy Components

The components of energy flows across biotic and abiotic components, which play an
important role to maintain the life of living organisms.
Examples Solar energy, nuclear energy, geochemical energy, thermo electrical energy.
1.5 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental study is an important tool to educate the people for preserving quality
environment. The main scope of environmental studies include
1. To get an awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its related problems.
2. To motivate the active participation in environmental protection and improvement.
3. To develop skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.
4. To know the necessity of conservation of natural resources.
5. To evaluate environmental programmes interms of social, economic, ecological, and
aesthetic factors.
1.6 IMPORTANCE (or) SIGNIFICANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we consume and the land we live on
are all contaminated by the industrial activities. There is no zero pollution industry. Because
of the lack of self discipline and not worrying about our future generation, the valuable
resources are polluted.
To solve the above problems, the knowledge of environmental studies is very important.
1. By environmental studies, people will understand the concept of "need of development
without destruction of environment".
2. Through environmental studies, people can gain the knowledge of different types of
environment and the effects of different environmental hazards.
3.Environmental studies inform the people about their effective role in protecting the
environment by demanding changes in laws and enforcement systems.

4. Environmental studies have a direct relation to the quality of life we live.

5. Environmental studies develop a concern and respect for the environment.
1.7 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

Increasing population, urbanisation and poverty have generated pressure on the
natural resources and lead to a degradation of the environment. To protect (or) prevent the
environment from the pollution, Supreme Court has ordered and initiated the environmental
awareness to the public through Government and Non-government agencies to take part to
protect our environment.
1.7.1 Importance of Public (or) Community participation

Environmental pollution cannot be removed by the laws alone. The proper
implementation and especially public participation are the important aspects, which should be
given importance and stress. The public participation is useful in law making process and
controlling the pollution activities. Thus the public participation plays a major role in the
effective environmental management.
1.7.2 Types of Public Participation
Public participation in the decision making process can be at any stage and of various forms.
1. Pressure Group: The public "Pressure group" may be formed to influence the government
on one hand and the industries on the other hand.
2. Watch dog: The public can act as "watch dog" to protect the interests of public against
environmental hazardous activities.
3. Advisory council: The public can also act as advisory council and agencies, which is
constituted to keep the environment suitable for living.
4. Enforcing the environmental laws: The services of public can be utilized to enforce the
environmental laws. If necessary the member of public should conduct public interest
litigations.
Thus many countries have accepted the concept of public participation in environmental
management,

1.8 ECOLOGY
All living organisms, whether plant (or) animal (or) human being is surrounded by the
environment, from which it derive its needs for its survival. Each living component interacts
with non-living components for their basic requirements form different ecosystem.
Definition
Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with
their environment. The environment consists of both biotic components (living organisms)
and abiotic components (non-living organisms).
(or)
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
1.9 ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. The term ecosystem is coined from
a Greek word meaning study of home.
Definition
A group of organisms interacting among and with environment is known as ecosystem. Thus,
an themselves ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with one another and
with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
Examples Animals cannot synthesis their food directly but depend on the plants either
directly (or) indirectly.
1.9.1 Biome (Small Ecosystem)
The kind of organisms which can live in a particular ecosystem depends on their
physical and metabolic adoptions to the environment of that place. On earth there are many
sets of ecosystems which are exposed to same climatic conditions and having dominant
species with similar life cycle, climatic adoptions and physical structure. This set of
ecosystem is called a biome.
Thus the biome is a small ecosystem with in an ecosystem.
1.10 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

1.10.1 Natural ecosystem
Natural ecosystems operate themselves under natural conditions. Based on habitat types, it
can be further classified into three types.
1. Terrestrial ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to land and types of vegetation.

Examples Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc.,

2. Aquatic ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub classified into two types based on salt
content.
(1) Fresh water ecosystem.
(a) Running water ecosystems.
Examples Rivers, streams.
(b) Standing water ecosystems.
Examples Pond, lake.
(ii) Marine ecosystem
Examples Seas and sea shores.
1.10.2 Man-made (or) Artificial ecosystems

Artificial ecosystem is operated (or) maintained by man himself.
Examples Croplands, gardens.
1.13 STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The term structure refers to the various components. So the structure of an ecosystem
explains the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.
An ecosystem has two major components
1. Abiotic (non-living) components.
2. Biotic (living) components.
1.11.1 Abiotic (non-living) components

The non-living components (physical and chemical) of an ecosystem collectively
form a community called abiotic components (or) abiotic community.
Examples Climate, soil, water, air, energy, nutrients,etc..
1. Physical components: They include the energy, climate, raw materials and living space that
the biological community needs. They are useful for the growth and maintenance of its
member.
Examples Air, water, soil, sunlight, etc.,
2. Chemical Components: They are the sources of essential nutrients.

Examples (1) Organic substances: Protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc..
(ii) Inorganic substances: All micro (Al, Co, Zn, Cu) and macro elements (C, H. O, P, N, P,
K) and few other elements.
1.11.2 Biotic components
The living organisms (or) living members in an ecosystem collectively form its
community called biotic components (or) biotic community.
The living components are made of many different species. These species are distinguished
on the basis of their nutritional (feeding) relationship. It includes
1. Autotrophic components: The members of autotrophic components are producers, which
autotrops (self-nourishing organisms). They derive energy from sunlight and make organic
compounds from inorganic substances.
2. Heterotrophic components: The members of heterotrophic components and are consumers

decomposers, which are heterotrophs (dependent on others for food). They consume the
autotrophs (producers). The heterotrophs are
(a) Macro consumers: They are herbivores, omnivores (or) carnivores.
(b) Saprotrophs (micro consumers):
They decomposers (bacteria, fungi, etc). are
Members of biotic components of an ecosystem (or) Classification of biotic components

The members of biotic components of an ecosystem are grouped into three groups
based on how do they get their food.
1. Producers (Plants).
2. Consumer (Animals).
3. Decomposers (Micro-organisms).
1. Producers (Autotrophs): Producers synthesize their food themselves through
photosynthesis.
Examples All green plants, trees.
Photosynthesis
The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the leaves of plants, converts CO2 and
H2O in the presence of sunlight into carbohydrates.
6CO2 + 12H2O →→→C6H12O6+602 +6H₂O

This process is called photosynthesis.

2. Consumers (heterotrophs): Consumers organisms, which cannot prepare their own food
and depend directly (or) indirectly on the producers. They cannot make organic compounds,
but can transform one form of organic compounds into other form of organic compounds.
Examples
(D) Plant eating species
Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.,
(i) Animals eating species Fish, lions, tiger, etc.,
Types of consumers
Consumers are of the following types.
(1) Primary consumers (Herbivores) (plant eaters)
Primary consumers are also called herbivores, they directly depend on the plants for their
food. So they are called plant eaters.
Examples Insects, rat, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.,
(ii) Secondary consumers (primary carnivores) (meat eaters)
Secondary consumers are primary carnivores, they feed on primary consumers. They directly
depend on the herbivores for their food.
Examples Frog, cat, snakes, foxes, etc... (ii) Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores) (Meal
eaters)
Tertiary consumers are secondary carnivores, they feed on secondary consumers. They
directly depend on the primary carnivores for their food.
3. Decomposers: Decomposers are those organisms which feed on dead organisms plants and
animals and decompose them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic
nutrients are released. These inorganic nutrients together with other organic substances are
then utilized by the producers for the synthesis of their own food.
Examples Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi.
Meanings
(i) Herbivores: Animals that eat only plants are called herbivores. (vegetarian)
(ii) Carnivores: Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores. (non-vegetarian)
(iii) Omnivores: Animals that eat both animals and plants. (Vegetarian and non-vegetarian).

1.12 FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

To understand clearly the nature of ecosystem, its functioning should be thoroughly
understood. The function of an ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of nutrients.
1.12.1 Types of Functions
Functions of an ecosystem are of three types.
1. Primary function (or) primary production
The primary function of all manufacture of starch (photosynthesis). ecosystems
2. Secondary function (or) secondary production is the secondary function of all ecosystem is
distributing energy in the form of food to all consumers (or) the energy stored by the
consumer.
3. Tertiary Function
All living systems die at a particular stage. These dead systems are decomposed to initiate the
third function of ecosystems namely "cycling".
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following terms.
(a) Energy and material flow.
(b) Food chains.
(c) Food webs.
(d) Food pyramids.
1.13 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEMS

Energy is the most essential requirement for all living organisms. Solar energy is the
only source to our planet earth. Solar energy is transformed to chemical energy in
photosynthesis by the plants (called as primary producers). Though a lot of sunlight falls on
the green plants, only 1% of it is utilized for photosynthesis. This is the most essential step to
provide energy for all other living organisms in the ecosystem.
Some amount of chemical energy is used by the plants for their growth and the remaining is
transferred to consumers by the process of eating
Thus the energy enters the ecosystem through photosynthesis and passes through the different
tropic levels (feeding levels).
1.13.1 Energy flow through atmosphere to an ecosystem
Sun is the ultimate source of energy, its radiations travel through the space in the form
of waves and reaches the earth's atmosphere. The atmosphere absorbs 50% of the radiations
and allow the remaining’s to reach the earth Of the solar radiations, reached the earth's

surface, some of which is absorbed by organisms (primary producers) to produce organic

matter through photosynthesis.
Photosynthetic equation
CO₂+ 2H2O > CH2O +02+H2O carbon dioxide water sunlight carbohydrate oxygen water
The plants (producers) are used by herbivores and herbivores are used by carnivores as their
food. In this way energy is transferred from one organism to another and so on. The
conversion of solar energy is governed by law of thermodynamics.
1. Ist law of thermodynamics It states that, "energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
it can be converted from one form to another."
Illustration: Energy for an ecosystem comes from the sun.
It is absorbed by plants, wherein it is converted into stored chemical energy.
i.e., Solar energy in converted into chemical energy.
Solar energy → Chemical energy (plants)
2. IInd law of thermodynamics It states that, "whenever energy is transformed, there is a
loss of energy through the release of heat."
Illustration: This occurs when energy is transferred between tropic levels. There will be a loss
of energy (about 80-90%) in the form of heat as it moves from one tropic level to another
tropic level. The loss of energy takes place through respiration, running, hunting etc.,
Respiration equation
CH2O + 02, carbohydrate oxygen CO₂ + H2O
carbondioxide water
The net production of biomass is only about 0.5% of the total incident radiation (3000
kcal/m²/day) and 1.0% of energy absorbed and the remaining gets wasted.
1.14 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

In an area one community may be replaced by another community (or) by a series of
communities. Thus the progressive replacement of one community by another till the
development of stable community in a particular area is called ecological succession.
1.14.1 Stages of ecological succession
1. Pioneer community: The first group of organism, which establish their community in the
area is called 'Pioneer' community.
2. Seres (or) Seral stage: The various developmental stages of a community is called 'seres'.

Community. It is the group of plants (or) animals living in an area.

1.14.2 Types of ecological succession
Ecologists recognize two types of ecological succession, based on the conditions
present at the beginning of the process.
1. Primary succession: It involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities on a
lifeless ground.
(a) Hydrarch (or) Hydrosere: Establishment starts in a watery area like pond and lake.
(b) Xerarch (or) Xerosere: Establishment starts in a dry area like, desert and rock.
2. Secondary succession: It involves the establishment of biotic communities in an area,

where some type of biotic community is already present.
1.14.3 Process of Ecological Succession

The process of ecological succession can be explained in the following steps.
1. Nudation It is the development of a bare area without any life form.
2. Invasion It is the establishment of one (or) more species on a bare area through migration
followed by establishment.
(a) Migration: Migration of seeds is brought about by wind, water (or) birds.
Environment Biodiversity
(b) Establishment: The seeds then germinate and grow on the land and establishes
their ploneer communities.
3. Competition As the number of individual species grows, there is a competition with the
same species and between different species for space, water and nutrients.
4. Reaction The living organisms, take water, nutrients and grow and modify the environment
is known as reaction. This modification becomes unsuitable for the existing species and
favour some new species, which replace the existing species. This leads to seral communities.
5. Stabilizations It leads to stable community, which is in equilibrium with the
1.15 BIODIVERSITY
Bio means 'life' and diversity means 'variety', hence, biodiversity refers wide variety of life on
the earth. Our planet-earth (biosphere) contains more than 20 million species of organisms.
But, of which only 1.4 million species have been identified so far. These species differ widely
from one another. This variation in living organisms s called biodiversity.

Diversification in the species is influenced by various physical and climatic factors, resulting
in the production f new sub-species. The species which are unable to adjust with the new
environment gradually become extinct.
Definition Biodiversity is defined as, "the variety and variability among all groups of living
organisms and the ecosystem in which they occur."
1.16 CLASSIFICATION (OR) LEVELS (OR) TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is generally classified into three types
1. Genetic diversity..
2. Species diversity.
3. Community (or) Ecosystem diversity.
1.16.1. Genetic diversity

Genera: A species with different genetic characteristics is known as sub-species (or) "genera".
Genetic diversity is the diversity within species i.e., variation of genes within the species
Within individual species, there are number of varieties, which are slightly different from one
another. These differences are due to differences in the combination of genes. Genes are the
basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to other.
Examples
1. Rice varieties: All rice varieties belong to the species "oryzasativa". But there are
thousands of rice varieties. which show variation at the genetic level differ in their size,
shape, colour and nutrient content.
2. Teak wood varieties: There are number of teak wood varieties found available.
Examples Indian teak, burma teak, malasian teak etc.
1.16.2 Species diversity

Species: A discrete group of organisms of the same kind is known as species.
Species diversity is the diversity between different species. The sum of varieties of all the
living organisms at the species level is known as species diversity. The biotic component is
composed of a large number of species of plants, animals and micro organisms, which
interact with each other and with the abiotic component of the environment.

Example
1. Total number of living species in the earth are about more than 20 million. But, of which
only about 1.5 million living organisms are found and given scientific names.
2. Plant species: Apple, mango, grapes, wheat, rice, etc.,
3. Animal species: Lion, tiger, elephant, deer, etc.,
1.16.3 Community (or) Ecosystem diversity

Community It is a set of biotic components (plants, animals and micro organisms) interacting
with one another and with abiotic components (soil, air, water, etc).
The diversity at the ecological (or) habitat level is known as ecosystem diversity. A large
region with different ecosystems can be considered as ecosystem diversity.
Example River ecosystem.The river which include the fish, aquatic insects, mussels and
variety of plants that have adapted.
Thus, the ecosystem diversity is the aggregate of different environmental types in a region. It
explains the interaction between living organisms and physical environment in an ecosystem.
1.17 VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

Biosphere is a life supporting system to the human beings. It is the combination of
different organisms. Each organisms in the biosphere has its own significance Biodiversity is
vital for healthy biosphere. Biodiversity is must for the stability and proper functioning of the
biosphere. We get benefits from other organisms in number of ways. Sometimes we realize
the real value of the organism only after it is lost in this earth.
CLASSIFICATION AND IMPORTANCE OF VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

Various uses of biodiversity are classified as follows
1.17.1 Consumptive use value These are direct use values, where the biodiversity products
are harvested and consumed directly. Examples Food, drug, fuel, etc.,
1. Food
A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food. Nearly 80 - 90% of
our food crops have been domesticated only from the tropical wild plants A large number of
wild animals are also consumed as food
Examples (a) Ceropegia bulbosa: in central India and Western Ghats.
(b) Codonopisis: in Himalayan region. (c) Cicer microphyllum: in Kashmir

(d) Insects: molluscs, spiders, and wild herbivores are consumed by many tribal and non-
tribal communities in India.
2. Drugs
Around 70% of modern medicines are derived from plant and plant extracts. 20,000 plant
species are believed to be used medicinally, particularly in the traditional system of Unani,
Ayurveda and Sidha.
Examples (i) Germany alone uses more than 2,500 Species of plants for medicinal purposes
in Homeopathy and other systems of medicines.
(ii) India uses 3000 Species of plants in Ayurveda, Homeopathy and Unani system of
medicines.
(iii) According to research about 85% of global community use plants for primary health
care.
(iv) According to latest medical scienes, bee-sting venom is used for treating arthritis.
(v) Life saving drugs like quinine (Malaria), reserpine (hypertension), pencillin (antibiotic)
and morphine (pain kill) are all of plant origin.
(vi) The peepal tree leaves, trunk and roots are used as effective medicines for curing disease
like fever, cough, stomach and skin diseases.
(vii) About 30 medicines have been prepared from neem tree which have been proved to be
very effective for stomach oilments, eye irritations, skin eruptions and diabetics.
(viii) Maxican yarn has been proved as a versatile boon to produce birth control in human
beings.
1.17.2 Productive use values
Biodiversity products have obtained a commercial value. These products are marketed and
sold. These products may be derived from the animals and plants.
1.17.3 Social Values
Social value of the biodiversity refers to the manner in which the bio-resources are used to
the society. These values are associated with the social life, religion and spiritual aspects of
the people.
Examples
1. Holy plants: Many plants are considered as the holy plants in our country.
Examples Tulsi, peepal, lotus, bael, etc.
The leaves, fruits of these plants are used in worship.

2. Holy animals: Many animals are also considered as holy animals in our country.
Examples Cow, snake, bull, peacock, rat, etc.,
1.17.4 Ethical values (or) Existence value

It involves ethical issues like "all life must be preserved."
In India and in other countries biodiversity is considered to have great value on religious and
cultural basis.
Our rich heritage teaches us to worship plants animals, rivers and mountains. The ethical
value means that a species may (or) may not be used, but its existence in nature gives us
pleasure.
Examples
1. The river Ganga is considered as holy river.
2. Vembu, Tulsi, Vengai are same of the trees, worshipped by the Tamilians.
3. We are not deriving anything directly from Kangaroo, Zebra (or) Giraffe, but we feel that
these should exist in nature.
Thus, there is an ethical value (or) existence value attached to each species.
1.17.5 Aesthetic value
The beautiful nature of plants and animals insist us to protect the biodiversity. The most
important aesthetic value of biodiversity is eco-tourism.
Examples
1. Eco-tourism: People from far place spend a lot of time and money to visit the beautiful
areas, where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity. This type of tourism is known
as eco-tourism.
2. The pleasant music of wild birds, colour of butterfly, colour of flowers, colour of peacocks
are very important for their aesthetic value.
1.17.6 Option values
The option values are the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be
known. The optional values of biodiversity suggests that any species may be proved to be a
valuable species after someday.
Examples
The growing biotechnology field is searching a species for causing the diseases of cancer and
AIDS plants and herbs play a very important role in our indian economic growth. 2.

1.18 INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

India is one among the 12 mega-diversity countries in the world. It has 89,450 animal species
accounting for 7.31% of the global faunal species and 47,000 plant species which accounts
for 10.8% of the world floral species. The loss of biodiversity (or) endemim is about 33%.
1.18.1 Endemism (or) Endemic species

The species which are confined to a particular area are called endemic species. Our country
has a rich endemic flora and fauna. About 33% of the flowring plants, 53% of fresh water
fishes, 60% amphibians, 36% reptiles and 10% mammalian are endemic species.
1. Plant diversity
Nearly 5000 flowering plants and 166 crop plant species have their origin in India.
2. Marine diversity
More than 340 coral species of the world are found here. Several species of mangrove plants
and seagrasses are also found in our country.
3. Agro-biodiversity
There are 167 crop species and wild relatives. India is considered to be the centre of origin of
30,000 to 50,000 varieties of rice, mango, turmeric, ginger, sugarcane, etc.
4. Animal biodiversity
There are 75,000 animal species including 5,000 insects. India is a home to about nearly
2,00,000 living organisms.
1.18.2 'RED' Data book (or) Red list

Red book is a catalogue of taxa facing risk of extinction. The purpose of preparation of red
list is to
(i) provide awareness to the degree of threat to biodiversity.
(ii) provide global index on already decline of biodiversity.
(iii) identification of species at high risk of extinction.
(iv) help in conservation action.
(v) information about international agreements. India's biodiversity is threatened due to
habitat destruction. degradation, fragmentation exploitation of resources. And Over

According to 'RED' Data book 44 plant species are critically endangered, 54 endangered and
143 are vulnerable (exposed to damage).
India ranks 2nd interms of the number of threatened mammals and 6th threatened birds.
among the countries with the most
Examples
Pitcher plant has become endemic in Eastern Himalayas.
Taxus wallichina has come under red dad category due to its over exploitation.
1.19 HOT-SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

The most remarkable and threatened areas, many them have been reduced to less than 10% of
their original of vegetation. These areas are called hotspots of biodiversity.
The hot spots are the geographic areas which possess high endemic species.
At the global level, these are the areas of high conservation priority, if these species lost, they
can never be replaced (or) regenerated.
1.19.1 Criteria for recognising hot spots
The richness of the endemic species is the primary criterion for recognising hot spots.
The hot spots should have a significant percentageof specialised species.
The site is under threat.
It should contain important gene pools of plants of potentially useful plants.
1.19.2 Reason for rich biodiversity in the tropics
The followings are the reasons for the rich biodiversity in the tropics.
1. The tropics have a more stable climate.
2. Warm temperatures and high humidity in the tropical areas provide favorable conditions.
No single species can dominate and thus there is an opportunity for many species to coexist.
Among plants, rate of out-crossing appear to be higher in tropics.
1.19.3 Area of hot spot

These hot spots covering less than 2% of the world's land are found to contain 50,000
endemic species. According to myersetal (2000), an area is designated as a hot spot when it
contains atleast 0.5% of the endemic plant species.

About 40% of terrestial plants and 25% of vertebrate species are endemic and are
found in these hot spots. These are the areas of high diversity, endemism and are also
threatened by many human activities.
1.37 HOT SPOTS OF BIODEVERSITY IN INDIA
1. Eastern Himalayas
2. Western Ghats
Indo Burma region.
SriLanka region.
1.20.1 Eastern Himalayas
Geographically these area comprises Nepal, Bhutan and neighboring states of Northern India.
There are 35,000 plant species found in the Himalayas, of which 30% are endemic.
The Eastern Himalayas are also rich in wild plants of economic value. Examples Rice,
banana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute and sugarcane.
The taxol yielding plant is also sparsely distributed in the region.
(a) 63% mammals are from Eastern Himalayas, and
(b) 60% of the Indian Birds are from North East.
(c) Huge wealth of fungi, insects, mammals, birds have been found in this region.
1.20.2 Western ghats

The area comprises Maharastra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerela. Nearly 1500 endemic,
dicotyledone plant species are found from Western ghats. 62% amphibians and 50% lizards
are endemic in western Ghats. It is reported that only 6.8% of the original forests are existing
today while the rest has been deforested (or) degraded.
Some common plants: Ternstroemia Japonica. Rhododendron and Hypericum.
Some common animals: Blue bird, lizard, hawk.
1.21 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Any disturbance in an natural ecosystem tend to reduce its biodiversity. The waste
generated due to increase in human population and industrialisation, spoils the environment
and leads to more diversity in biological species. Any change in the system leads to a major
imbalance and threatens the normal ecological cycle.

CAUSES FOR LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY (OR) VARIOUS THREATS TO INDIAN

BIODIVERSITY
1.21.1 Habitat loss
The loss of populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by habitat loss. Habitat loss
threatened a wide range of animals and plants.
Factors influencing Habitat loss

1. Deforestation: The loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities. Forests and
grasslands have been cleared for conversion into agricultural lands, (or) settlement areas (or)
developmental project. The forest and grasslands are the natural homes of thousands of
species, which disintegrate due to loss of their natural habitat.
2. Destruction of wetlands: The wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are destroyed due to
draining, filling and pollution, which causes huge biodiversity loss.
3. Habitat fragmentation: Sometimes the habitat is divided into small and scattered patches.
This phenomenon is known as habitat fragmentation. Due to this many wild animals and
songbirds are vanishing.
4, Raw material: For the production of hybrid seeds, the wild plants are used as raw
materials. As a result, many plant species become extinct.
5. Production of drugs: Many Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plant for the production
of drugs. Therefore several medicinal plant species are on the verge of extinction.
6. Illegal trade: Illegal trade on wild life also reduces the bio-diversity and leads to habitat
loss.
7. Developmental activities: Construction of massive dams in the forest areas, discharge
industrial effluents which kill the birds and other aquatic organisms,
1.21.2 Poaching (over harvesting) of wildlife
Poaching means killing of animals (or) commercial hunting. It leads to loss of animal
biodiversity.
1. Subsistence poaching: Killing animals to provide enough food for their survival is called
subsistence poaching.
2. Commercial poaching: Hunting and killing animals to sell their products is called
commercial poaching.
Factors Influencing Poaching

1. Human population: Increased human population in our country has led to pressure on
forest resources, which ultimately causes degradation of wildlife habitats.
2. Commercial activities: Though international ban on trading the products of endangered
species, smuggling of wildlife products continues. Since the trading of such wildlife products
is highly profit, poaching makes the poachers to just hunt these prohibital wildlife and
smuggle it to other countries.
Wild life products: Furs, horns, tasks, live specimens. herbal products.
Wealth of wildlife:
The developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa have richest source of biodiversity.
Importers of wild life: The rich countries in Europe and North America, Japan, Taiwan, Hong
Kong are the major importer of wildlife products (or) wildlife itself.
Examples
1. Male gorilla: In Rwanda and Zaire, it is hunted for its body parts, head and hands.
2. Blue morpho butterfly: In Brazil, it is poached for making attractive trays and other
objects.
3. Snowy large egret: In U.S, it is poached for its white plumes, so as to keep it in ladies hats.
lubricating oils..
4. Blubber: It is used to prepare lamp oils and
5. Baleen: It is used to prepare combs and other similar
6. Elephant feet: It is used to make Ash trays.
7. Elephant: It is killed for ivory.
8. Bengal tigers: Its fur sell is more than $1,00,000 in the foreign market.
9. Bush meat: It is an important source of protein for many local people in west and central
Africa.
10. Dynamite fishing: It is "high-tech fishing", which have exhausted the ocean marine life.
11. Seahorses, Star turtles: These valuable species are also illegally sold into the foreign
market for want of money.
Remedy measures
1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stopped
immediately.
2. We should not purchase furcoat, purse (or) bag (or) items made of crocodile skin (or)
python skin. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened. 3.

1.21.3 Man - wildlife conflicts

Man wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger
to the man. Under such condition it is very difficult for the forest department to compromise
the affected villagers and to gain the villagers support for wildlife conservation.
Examples for man- wildlife conflicts
1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, 195 humans were killed in the last 5 years by elephants. In
retaliation, the villagers have killed 98 elephants and badly injured 30 elephants.
2. In the border of Kote - Chamarajanagar, Mysore, several elephants was killed because of
the massive damage done by the elephants to the farmer's cotton and sugarcane crops.
3. The agonized villagers sometimes hide explosives in the sugarcane fields, which explode
when the elephants enter into their fields.
4. It has been reported that a man - 16 Nepalese people and one 4 - years old child inside
eating tiger killed the Royal Chitwan National Park, Kathmandu. Now the park has became a
zone of terror for the locals
5. Very recently, two men were killed by leopards in Powai, Mumbai.
6. A total of 14 persons were killed during 19 attacks by the leopards in Sanjay Gandhi
National Park Mumbai.
Factors influencing (or causes) man- animal conflicts
1. Shrinking of forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest and attack the fields
and humans.
2. Human encroachment into the forest area induces a conflict between man and the wildlife.
3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man. Usually the female wildlife attacks the
human if she feels that her newborn cubs are in danger.
4. Earlier, forest departments used to cultivate sugarcane paddy, coconut trees, in the
sanctuaries. When the favourite food of elephants (i.e., bamboo leaves) were not available,
they feed them to the elephants. But, now due to lack of such practices the wild animals move
out of the forest for searching food.
5. Often the villagers put electric wiring around their crop fields. The elephants get injured,
suffer in pain and start violence.
6. The cash compensation paid by the government for the damage caused by the wild
animals, is not enough. Therefore the agonized farmers revengeful and kill the wild animals.
Examples A farmer, in Mysore, gets a compensation of

Rs.400/- per quintal, but the market price is

Rs.2400/- per quintal. Garbage near human settlements (or) food crops near
7. forest areas attracts wild animals.
Remedial measures (or) Conservation of biodiversity 1. Adequate crop and cattle
compensation schemes must be started.
Solar powered fencing must be provided along with electric current proof trenches to prevent
the animals from entering into the fields. 3. Cropping pattern should be changed near the
forest borders. 4. Adequate food, and water should be made available for the wild animals
within forest zones.
5. The development and constructional work in and around forest region must be stopped.
1.22 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

According to International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) the species are classified into various types.
1. Extinct species: A species is said to be extinct, when it is no longer found in the world.
2. Endangered species: A species is said to be endangered, when its number has been reduced
to a critical level. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of
extinction.
3. Vulnerable species: A species is said to be vulnerable when its population is facing
continuous decline due to habitat destruction (or) over exploitation. Such a species is still
abundant.
4. Rare species: A species is said to be rare, when it is localized within restricted area (or)
they are thinly scattered over a more extensive area. Such species are not endangered (or)
vulnerable.
1.22.1 Endangered Species of India

A species is said to be endangered, when its number has been reduced to a critical
level. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
In India 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. About 100
mammals and 150 birds are estimated to be endangered species. But India's biodiversity is
threatened due to habitat destruction, degradation and over exploitation of resources.

RED data book: RED data book contains the list of endangered species of plants and
animals. The RED - data gives the warning signal for those species which are endangered and
if not protected they become extinct in near future.
Factors affecting Endangered species
1. Pollution: Humans dispose their waste products on nature. So, the land, river, and air get
polluted severely. These pollutants enter our environment and travel through the food chain
and accumulate in the tissues of the living things, finally it leads to death.
2. Over exploitation: Over exploitation of the natural resources and poaching of wild animals
also leads to extinct of wild animals.
3. Climate change: Climate change is brought about by the accumulation of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere. Climate change threatens organisms and ecosystems, which cannot
accommodate the change of environmental conditions.
Remedial measures
International treaties on Endangered Species (ITES)
Several international treaties and conventions help to protect endangered wild species. One of
the most reaching treaty is, "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 1975"
(CITES). This treaty is now signed by 160 countries.
1. This treaty lists some 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live
specimens (or) wildlife products, because they are in danger of extinction.
2. The treaty also restricts international trade of 2900 other species, because they are
endangered.
Draw backs of this treats
1. The bad news of this treaty is that the effect of this treaty is limited because enforcement is
difficult and convicted violators often pay only small fines.
2. Also, member countries can exempt themselves from protecting any listed species.
1.22.2 Endemic Species
The species, which are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. In
India of 47,000 species 7000 plants are endemic. Nearly 62% of our endemic species are
found available in Himalayas and Western Ghats.
1. Fauna
Animals present in a particular region (or) period.
Examples for endemic fauna species
Sapria himalayana, Ovaria lurida, Nepenthes

khasiana, Pedicularis Parroter, etc.,

Out of 81,000 species of animals in our country a large number is endemic. The
Western Ghats are particularly rich in (a) amphibians (frogs, toads, etc.,) and (b) reptiles
(lizards, crocodiles, etc.,). About 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western
Ghats.
2. Flora
Plants present in a particular region (or) period. It also refers to friendly bacteria which helps
to protect the human body against invasion by pathogens.
Examples for endemic flora species Monitor lizards (varanus), reticulated python, Indian
salamander and viviparous toad (Nectophhryne). Endemic species in India
Factors affecting endemic species

There are number of factors, which affect amphibians (frogs) at various points in their life
cycle.
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation, because of the draining and filling of inland wetlands.
2. Pollution also play an important role.
Examples
1. Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are very sensitive to many pollutants especially pesticides.
2. Overhunting of frog legs in Asia and France.
3. Populations of same can also be reduced by introduction of non-active predators and
competitors (like fish) and disease producing organism.
1.23 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is one of the important tool for sustainable development. The enormous
value of biodiversity due to their commercial, medical, genetic, aesthetic and ecological
importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity.
Conservation
Conservation is defined as, the management of biosphere so that it will yield the
greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the
needs of future generation.
1.23.1 Factors affecting biodiversity
Biodiversity is generally disturbed by human activities such as construction of dams
in forest areas, release of industrial wastes, using pesticides and insecticides in the crop
fields, urbanisation, etc.

2. Poaching of wild animals, over exploitation of natural resources, degradation of habitats,

affect biodiversity.
3. The marine ecosystems are also disturbed due to oil spills and discharge of effluents.
4. The climatic factors like global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain also affect the
biodiversity.
1.23.2 Advantages (or) need of biodiversity conservation
1. It provides immediate benefits to the society such as recreation and tourism.
2. Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials can be derived from plants and
animals.
3. It also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals.
4. Ensures the sustainable utilization life supporting systems on earth.
5. It leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supporting systems.
6. Since the biodiversity loss results in ecological and environmental deterioration, it is
essential to conserve the biodiversity.
1.24 TYPES (OR) STRATEGY OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
There are two types of biodiersity conservation.
1. In-situ conservation (within habitat)
2. Ex-situ conservation (outside habitat)
1.24.1 In-situ conservation

In-situ conservation involves protection of fauna and flora within its natural habitat, where
the species normally occurs is called in situ conservation.
The natural habitats (or) ecosystems maintained under in-situ conservation are called
"protected areas".
Important In-situ conservation

National parks, Biosphere, reserves, sanctuaries, Gene sanctuary etc.,
Methods of In-situ conservation Around 4% of the total geographical area of the country is
used for in-situ conservation. The following methods are presently used for in-situ
conservation. It is the best method for the long term protection of biodiversity.
In-Situ conservation Numbers available
Biosphere reserves - 7

National parks - 80
Wildlife sanctuaries - 420
Botanical gardens - 120
1. Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere reserves cover large area, more than 5000 sq. km. It is used to protect species for
long time.
1. It gives long-term survival of evolving ecosystem.
2. It protects endangered species.
3. It protects maximum number of species and communities.
4. It serves as site of recreation and tourism.
5. It is also useful for educational and research purposes.
6. It remains and functions as an open system and changes in land use are not allowed.
Restriction: No tourism and explosive activities are permitted in the biosphere reserves.
2. National park
A national park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its
environment. It is usually a small reserves covering an area of about 100 to 500 sq. kms.
Within the biosphere reserves, one (or) more national parks are also exists.
Role of a national park

1. It is used for enjoyment through tourism, without affecting the environment.
2. It is used to protect, propagate and develop the wildlife restrictions
3. All private rights and forestry activities prohibited within a national park.
3. Wildlife Sanctuaries
A wildlife sanctuary is an area, which is reserved for the conservation of animals only. At
present, there are 492 wildlife sanctuaries in our country.
Examples Project Tiger: Gir Lion project; Crocodile Breeding project: Project Elephant, etc.,
Advantages (or) merits of In-situ Conservation
1. It is very cheap and convenient method.
2. The species gets adjusted to the natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires.
Disadvantages (or) limitations of In-situ Conservation

1. A large surface area of the earth is required to preserve the biodiversity.
2. Maintenance of the habitats is not proper, due to shortage of staff and pollution.

1.24.2 Ex-situ conservation

Ex-situ conservation involves protection of fauna and flora outside the natural habitats.
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and the wild
relatives of crops.
Role of Ex-situ conservation
1. It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species under
controlled conditions.
2. It identifies those species which are at more risk of extinction.
3. It prefers the species, which are more important to man in near future among the
endangered species.
Important Ex-situ conservation
Botanical gardens, seed banks, microbial culture collections, tissue and cell cultures,
museums, zoological gardens.
1.57 Methods of Ex-situ Conservation
The following important gene bank (or) Seed bank facilities are used in Ex-situ conservation.
(i) Nationl Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)
It is located in New Delhi. It uses cryo preservation techniques to preserve agricultural and
horticultural crops. Cryo preservation technique: It involves the preservation of seeds, pollen
of some important agricultural and horticultural crops by using liquid nitrogen at a
temperature as low as 196°C. Varieties of rice, pearl millet, Brassica, turnip, radish, tomato,
onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco, etc., have been preserved successfully in liquid nitrogen for
several years.
(ii) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) It is located at Karnal, Haryana.
It preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.
(iii) National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) It develops the facility
for conservation of varieties of crop plants (or) trees by tissue culture. This facility has been
created within the NBPGR.
Advantages (or) merits of Ex-situ Conservation
1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention.

2. In captive breeding, animals are assured food, water, shelter and also security and hence
longer life span.
3. It is carried out in cases of endangered species, which donot have any chances of survival,
in the world.
Disadvantages (or) limitations of Ex-situ Conservation
1. It is expensive method.
2. The freedom of wildlife is lost.
3. The animals cannot survive in natural environment.
4. It can be adopted only for few selected species.

Unit - II
Environmental Pollution
(2.1)INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution may be defined as, "the unfavourable alteration of our
surroundings". It changes the quality of air, water and land which interferes with the health of
humans and other life on earth. Pollution are of different kinds depending on the nature of
pollutant generated from different sources.
Examples
Industry, automobiles, thermal power plants, farming, nuclear reactors, generate different
types of pollutants causing pollution to air, water bodies and land.
2.1.1 Types of Pollutants
1. Biodegradable pollutants: Biodegradable pollutants decompose rapidly by natural
processes.
2. Non-degradable pollutants: Non-degradable pollutants do not decompose (or) decompose
slowly in the environment.
The slowly decomposed materials are more dangerous because it is more difficult to remove
them.
2.1.2 Classification of Pollution

The different kinds of pollution that affects the environment are,
1. Air Pollution
2. Water Pollution
3. Soil Pollution and
4. Noise Pollution
2.2 AIR POLLUTION

Definition Air pollution may be defined as, "the presence of one (or) more contaminants like
dust, smoke, mist and odour in the atmosphere which are injurious to human beings, plants
and animals."
The rapid industrialization, fast urbanization, rapid growth in population, drastic
increase in vehicles on the roads and other activities of human beings have disturbed the
balance of natural atmosphere.

Composition of Atmospheric Air

During several billion years of chemical and biological evolution, the composition of
the earth's atmosphere has varied. Today, about 99% of the volume of air we inhale consists
of two gases: Nitrogen and Oxygen.
Constituents
Nitrogen - 78
Oxygen - 21
Argon (Ar) - < 1
CO2 - 0.037
Water vapour - Remaining
O3, He, NH3 – Trace amount Remaining
2.2.1 Sources of Air Pollution

The sources of air pollution are of two types
1. Natural sources
Examples - Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, biological decay, pollen grains, marshes,
radioactive materials etc.
These pollutants are caused by the natural sources.
2. Man-made (anthropogenic) activities
Examples Thermal power plants, vehicular emissions. fossil fuel burning, agricultural
activities etc.,
2.2.2 Classification of Air Pollutants
Depending upon the form (origin) of pollutants present in the environment, they are classified
as
(i) Primary air pollutants.
(ii) Secondary air pollutants.
1. Primary air pollutants
Primary air pollutants are those emitted directly in the atmosphere in harmful form.
Examples CO, NO, SO2, etc.,
Indoor Air Pollutants
Indoor air pollutants are primary air pollutants. The most important indoor air pollutant is
radon gas.

Sources (causes) of indoor air pollutants

1. Radon is emitted from the building materials like gas bricks, concrete, tiles, etc., which are
derived from soil containing radium.
2. It is also present in natural gas and ground water and is emitted indoors while using them.
3. Burning of fuels in the kitchen, cigarette smoke, liberates the pollutants like CO, SO2,
formaldehyde, BAP (benzo-(a) pyrene).
2. Secondary air pollutants

Some of the primary air pollutants may react with one another (or) with the basic components
of air to form new pollutants. They are called as secondary air pollutants.
Example
Moist
NO/NO2 ---------> (HNO/NO3) etc.,
2.2.3 Common air pollutants sources (causes) and their effects

According to the World Health Organization (WHO). more than 1.1 billion people
live in urban areas where outdoor air is unhealthy to breathe. Some of the common air
pollutants are described below.
1. Carbon monoxide (CO)
Description
It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous to air-breathing animals. It is formed during
the incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels.
2C+02 -----------> 2CO
Human Sources (causes)
Cigarette smoking, incomplete burning of fossil fuels. About 77% comes from motor
vehicle exhaust.
Health Effects
Reacts with heamoglobin in red blood cells and reduces the ability of blood to bring
oxygen to body cells and tissues, which causes headaches and anemia. At high levels it
causes coma, irreversible brain cell damage and death.
Environmental Effects
It increases the globe temperature.

2. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Description It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that gives photochemical smog. In the
atmosphere it can be converted into nitric acid (HNO3).
NO₂+ Moisture -------> HNO3
Fossil fuel burning in motor vehicles (49%) and power industrial plants (49%).
Health Effects
Lung irritation and damage.
Acid deposition of HNO3 can damage trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes, HNO3 can
corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings, statues and monuments. NO2 can damage
fabrics.
3. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Description It is a colourless and irritating gas. It is formed mostly from the combustion of
sulphur containing fossil fuels such as coal and oil. In the atmosphere it can be converted to
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) which is a major component of acid deposition.
Coal burning in power plants (88%) and industrial processes (10%).
Health Effects
Breathing problems for healthy people.
Reduce visibility, acid deposition of H2SO4 can damage trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.
4. Suspended particulate matter (SPM)

Description It includes variety of particles and droplets (aerosols). They can be suspended in
atmosphere for short periods to long periods.
Burning coal in power and industrial plants (40%). burning diesel and other fuels in vehicles
(17%). agriculture, unpaved roads, construction etc.
Health Effects Nose and throat irritation, lung damage, bronchitis, asthma, reproductive
problems and cancer.

Reduces visibility, acid deposition and H2SO4 droplets can damage trees, soils and aquatic
life in lakes.
5. Ozone (03)
Description Highly reactive irritating gas with an unpleasant odour that forms in the
troposphere. It is a major component of photochemical smog.
Chemical reaction with volatile organic compounds (emitted mostly by cars and industries)
and nitrogen oxides.
Environmental Effect
Moderates the climate.
6. Photochemical smog
Description The brownish smoke like appearance that frequently forms on clear, sunny days
over large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.
Sources (causes)
It is mainly due to chemical reactions among nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbon by sunlight.
Health Effects
Breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat irritation, heart diseases, reduces resistance
to colds and pneumonia.
Ozone can damage plants and trees. Smog can reduce visibility.
7. Lead (Pb)
Description Solid toxic metal and its compounds, emitted into the atmosphere as particulate
matter.
Human Sources (causes) Paint, smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture, storage
batteries, leaded petrol.
Health Effects
Accumulates in the body, brain and other nervous system damage and mental retardation
(especially in children); digestive and other health problems, some lead-containing chemicals
cause cancer in test animals.
Environmental Effect
Can harm wild life.

8. Hydrocarbons (aromatic and aliphatic)

Description Hydrocarbons especially lower hydrocarbons accumulated due to the decay of
vegetable matter.
Human sources (causes)
Agriculture, decay of plants, burning of wet logs.
Health Effects
Carcinogenic.
Environmental effect
It produces an oily film on the surface and do not as such causes a serious problem until they
react to form secondary pollutants. Ethylene causes plant damage even at low concentrations.
9. Chromium (Cr)
Description It is a solid toxic metal, emitted into the atmosphere as particulate matter.
Paint, smelters, chromium manufacture, chromium plating.
Health effects
Perforation of nasal septum, chrome holes, gastro intestinal ulcer, central nervous system
disease and cancer.
2.2.4 Control (or) Preventive Measures of air pollution

The atmosphere has several built-in self-cleaning processes such dispersion,
gravitational settling, as flocculation, absorption, rain washout and so on, to cleanse the
atmosphere. In terms of a long range control of air pollution, control of contaminants at their
source is a more desirable and effective method through preventive (or) control technologies.
1. Source control - Since we know the substances that causes air pollution, the first approach
to its control will be through source reduction. Some actions that can be taken in this regard
are as follows:
1. Use only unleaded petrol.
2. Use petroleum products and other fuels that have low sulphur and ash content.
3. Reduce the number of private vehicles on the road by developing an efficient public-
transport system and encouraging people to walk (or) use cycles.

4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and places where children play are not located on
busy streets.
5. Plant trees along busy streets because they remove particulates and carbon monoxide, and
absorb noise.
6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city centre preferably
downwind of the city.
7. Use catalytic converters to help control the emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons.
II. Control measures in industrial centers

1. The emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every industry.
2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipments in the design of the plant layout must be
made mandatory.
3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for the pollutants should be carried out to know
the emission levels.
Equipments used to control air pollution

Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.
(i) To ensure sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate
temperature so that the combustion is complete, eliminating much of the smoke consisting of
partly burnt ashes and dust.
(ii) To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-static
precipitators, reducing particulate pollutants. The four are commonly used control methods
for removing particulates from the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants. All
these methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed of safely. The wet scrubber
can also reduce sulphurdioxide emissions.
(iii) Chemical treatment to deal with factory fumes. The disposal of the collected air
pollutants is equally important for successful control of air pollution.
2.3 WATER POLLUTION

Definition Water pollution may be defined as, "the alteration in physical, chemical and
biological characteristics water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life."
The pollutants include sewage, industrial chemicals and effluents, oil and other wastes.
Besides, chemicals from the air dissolved in rain water, and fertilizers, pesticides and
herbicides leached from the land also pollute water.
2.3.1 Types, effects and sources (causes) of water pollution
Water pollution is any chemical, biological (or) physical change in water quality that has a
harmful effect on living organisms (or) makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
1. Infectious Agents
Example Bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms.
Human and animals wastes.
Effects Variety of diseases.
2. Oxygen Demanding Wastes (Dissolved oxygen)

Example
Organic wastes such as animal manure and plant debris that can be decomposed by aerobic
(oxygen-requiring) bacteria.
This degradation consumes dissolved oxygen in water. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount
of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of water at a particular pressure and temperature.
The saturated point of DO varies from 8-15 mg/lit.
Sewage, animal feedlots, paper mills, and food processing facilities.
Effects
Large populations of bacteria decomposing these wastes can degrade water quality by
depleting water of dissolved oxygen. This causes fish and other forms of aquatic life to die.
3. Inorganic Chemicals
Example Water soluble inorganic chemicals.
(i) acids,
(ii) compounds of toxic metals such as lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and selenium (Se) and
(iii) salts such as NaCl in ocean water and fluorides (F-) found in some soils.
Human Sources (causes) - Surface runoff, industrial effluents and household cleansers.

Effects
(i) Can make fresh water unusable for drinking (or) irrigation.
(ii) Causes skin cancers and neck damage.
(iii) Damage the nervous system, liver and kidneys.
(iv) Harm fish and other aquatic life.
(v) Lower crop yields.
(vi) Accelerates corrosion of metals exposed to such water.
4. Organic Chemicals
Examples
Oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents.
Industrial effluents, household cleansers, surface runoff from farms
Effects
(i) Can threaten human health by causing nervous system damage and some cancers.
(ii) Harm fish and wild life.
5. Plant Nutrients
Examples Water-soluble compounds containing nitrate (NO3), phosphate (PO) and
ammonium (NH) ions.
Human Sources (causes) - Sewage, manure, and runoff of agricultural and urban fertilizers.
Effects
(1) Can cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, which die, decay, deplete
dissolved oxygen in water and kill the fish.
(ii) Drinking water with excessive levels of nitrates lower the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood and can kill urban children and infants.
6. Sediment
Examples Soil, silt, etc.,
Human Sources (causes) Land erosion.
Effects
i) Can reduce photosynthesis and cloud water.
ii) Disrupt aquatic food webs.
iii) Carry pesticides, bacteria, and other harmful substances.
iv) Settle out and destroy feeding and spawning rounds of fish.
(v) Clog and fill lakes, artificial reservoirs, stream channels and harbours.

7. Radioactive Materials
Examples Radioactive isotopes of iodine, radon, uranium, cesium, and thorium.
Nuclear power plants, mining and processing of uranium and other ores, nuclear weapons
production and natural sources.
Effects
Genetic mutations, birth defects, and certain cancers.
8. Heat (Thermal Pollution)
Example Excessive heat
Water cooling of electric power plants and some types of industrial plants. Almost half of all
water withdrawn in United States each year is for cooling electric power plants.
Effects
(i) Lowers dissolved oxygen levels and makes aquatic organisms more vulnerable to disease,
parasites and toxic chemicals.
(ii) When a power plant first opens (or) shuts down for repair, fish and other organisms
adapted to a particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt change in water
temperature known as thermal shock.
9. Point and Non-point Sources of Water Pollution
(i) Point Sources
Point sources are discharged pollutants at specific locations through pipes, ditches (or) sewers
into bodies of surface water.
Examples Includes factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and oil
tankers.
(ii) Non-point sources
They are usually large land areas (or) air sheds that pollute water by runoff, subsurface flow
(or) deposition from the atmosphere. Location of which cannot be easily identified.
Examples Include acid deposition and runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands,
livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban street, lawn, golf courses and parking lots.
2.3.2 Characteristics (or) Testing of river water (waste water)

1. Dissolved oxygen (DO) Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a
given quantity of water at a particular pressure and temperature.

Significance of DO
(i) DO is vital for the support of fish and other aquatic life in river water.
(ii) It determines whether the biological changes are brought about by aerobic (or) anaerobic
micro-organisms.
(iii) DO determinations serve as the means of control of river pollution.
(iv) A minimum level of DO (4 mg/lit) must be maintained in rivers so as to support the
aquatic life in a healthy condition. Thus, it is necessary to ensure that the treated water must
have atleast 4 mg/lit of DO before its disposal into river.
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) BOD is the amount of oxygen required for the
biological decomposition of organic matter present in the water.
Significance of BOD
(i) It is an important indication of the amount of organic matter present in the river water.
(ii) Since complete oxidation occurs in indefinite period, the reaction period is taken as 5
days at 20°C. For all practical purposes, it is written as BOD5.
(iii) The rate of oxidation and demand depends on the amount and type of organic matter
present in river water.
3. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) COD is the amount of oxygen required for chemical
oxidation of organic matter using some oxidising agent like K2Cr2O, and KMnO4
Significance of COD
(1) It is carried out to determine the pollutional strength of river water.
(ii) It is rapid process and takes only 3 hours.
2.3.3 Control (or) Preventive measures (methods) of water pollution

1. The administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of State (or) Central
Government.
2. Scientific techniques are necessary to be adopted for the environmental control of
catchment areas of rivers, ponds (or) streams.
3. The industrial plants should be based on recycling operations, because it will not only stop
the discharge of industrial wastes into natural water sources but by products can be extracted
from the wastes.
4. Plants, trees and forests control pollution and they acts as natural air conditioners.

5. Forests in and around big cities and industrial establishments are capable of reducing the
sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants to a greater extent from the atmosphere. Hence the
national goal should be "Conservation of Forests" and campaign should be "Plant more
trees". The global destruction of forests should be discouraged (or) atleast minimized and
afforestation should be encouraged because no one on this earth will escape from the adverse
effects of a balding earth.
6. It is not advisable to discharge any type of waste, either treated, partially treated (or)
untreated, into streams, rivers, lakes, ponds and reservoirs. The industries are expected to
develop close-loop water supply schemes and domestic sewage may be used for irrigation.
7. Highly qualified and experienced persons should be consulted from time to time for
effective control of water pollution.
8. Public awareness regarding adverse effects of water pollution is a must. So there should be
propaganda for water pollution control on radios, TVs etc.,
9. Suitable laws, standards and practices should be framed to regulate the discharge of
undesirable flow of water in water bodies and such regulations should be modified from time
to time in order to accommodate the changing requirements and technological advancements.
10. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.
11. The possible reuse (or) recycle of treated sewage effluents and industrial wastes should be
emphasized and encouraged.
Waste Water (or) Sewage Treatment

Objectives of waste water treatment
The main objectives of waste water treatment are
(i) To convert harmful compounds into harmless
(ii) To eliminate the offensive smell.
(iii) To remove the solid content of the sewage.
(iv) To destroy the disease producing microorganisms.
Treatment process
The sewage (or) waste water treatment process involves the following steps.
Preliminary Treatment

In this treatment, coarse solids and suspended impurities are removed by passing the waste
water through bar and mesh screens.
Primary treatment (or) Settling process
In this treatment, greater proportion of the suspended inorganic and organic solids are
removed from the liquid sewage by settling. In order to facilitate quick settling coagulants
like alum, ferrous sulphate are added. These produce large gelatinous precipitates, which
entrap finely divided organic matter and settle rapidly.
Ill. Secondary (or) Biological treatment
In this treatment, biodegradable organic impurities are removed by aerobic bacteria. It
removes upto 90% of the oxygen demanding wastes. This is done by trickling filter (or)
activated sludge process.
(a) Trickling filter process
It is a circular tank and is filled with either coarse (or) crushed rock. Sewage is sprayed over
this bed by means of slowly rotating arms
When sewage starts percolating downwards microorganisms present in the sewage grow on
the surface of filtering media using organic material of the sewage as food. After completion
of aerobic oxidation the treated sewage is taken to the settling tank and the sludge is
removed. This process removes about 80-85% of BOD
(b) Activated sludge process
Activated sludge is biologically active sewage and it has a large number of aerobic bacteria’s,
which can easily oxidise the organic impurities.
The sewage effluent from primary treatment is mixed with the required amount of activated
sludge. Then the mixture is aerated in the aeration tank. Under these condition, organic
impurities of the sewage get oxidised rapidly by the microorganisms.
After aeration, the sewage is taken to the sedimentation tank. Sludges settle down in this tank,
called activated sludge, a portion of which is used for seeding fresh batch of the sewage. This
process removes about 90-95% of BOD.
IV. Tertiary treatment

After the secondary treatment, the sewage effluent has a lower BOD (25 ppm), which
can be removed by the tertiary treatment process.
In the tertiary treatment, the effluent is introduced into a flocculation tank, where lime is
added to remove phosphates. From the flocculation tank the effluent is led to ammonia

stripping tower, where pH is maintained to 11 and the NH is converted to gaseous NH3. Then
the effluent is allowed to pass through activated charcoal column, where minute organic
wastes are adsorbed by charcoal. Finally the effluent water is treated with disinfectant
(chlorine).
V. Disposal of sludge
This is the last stage in the sewage treatment. Sludge formed from different steps can be
disposed by
(i) dumping into low-lying areas.
(ii) burning of sludge (incineration),
(iii) dumping into the sea,
(iv) using it as low grade fertilizers.
Specifications for Drinking Water

(i) Water should be clear and odourless.
(ii) It should be cool.
(iii) It should be pleasant to taste.
(iv) Turbidity of the water should not exceed 10 ppm.
(v) pH of the water should be in the range of 7.0 - 8.5.
(vi) Chloride and sulphate contents should be less than 250 ppm.
(vii) Total hardness of the water should be less than 500 ppm.
(viii) Total dissolved solids should be less than 500 ppm. (ix) Fluoride content of the water
should be less than 1.5 ppm.
(x) The water must be free from disease-producing bacteria.
(xi) Water should be free from objectionable dissolved gases like H,S.
(xii) Water should be free from objectionable minerals such as lead, chromium, manganese
and arsenic salts.
2.3.6 Water Quality Standards

Water used for drinking should have certain quality. The following table 2.2
summarises several quality criteria and their standards for drinking water.
Significance of the parameters

1. Chlorides: Although chlorides are not considered as harmful as such, their concentrations
over 250 mg/lit impart peculiar taste to water, which is unacceptable for drinking purposes.
2. Sulphates: When sulphates are present in excess amount in drinking water, they may
produce a cathartic effect on the people consuming such water.
3. Nitrates: Excessive concentrations of nitrates are undesirable especially for infants. The
maximum contaminant level for nitrate is 10 mg/lit.
4. Fluorides: Optimum fluoride concentrations prescribed in drinking water is in the range of
0.7 to 1.2 mg/lit. Low concentration of fluoride in drinking water causes dental problem in
children. Excessive concentration causes fluorosis (discoloration and chipping of teeth).
5. Arsenic: Arsenic is a toxic heavy metal even a very small dose can result in severe
poisoning. Only 0.05 mg/lit has been recommended for arsenic in drinking water.
(2.4) SOIL POLLUTION

Definition
Soil pollution is defined as, "the contamination of soil by human and natural activities which
may cause harmful effects on living beings."
Types, effects and sources (causes) of soil pollution sources
Soil pollution mainly results from the following
1. Industrial wastes.
2. Urban wastes.
3. Agricultural practices.
4. Radioactive pollutants.
5. Biological agents.
1. Industrial wastes
Disposal of industrial wastes is the major problem for soil pollution.
Sources
The industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from the various origins such as pulp
and paper mills, chemical industries, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textiles. steel,
distilleries, fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral mining industries, drugs, glass, cement,
petroleum and engineering industries etc.,
Effect
These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil.

As a result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil (or) water and
disturb the biochemical process and finally lead to serious effects on living organisms.
2. Urban wastes
Urban wastes comprises both commercial and domestic wastes consisting of dried
sludge of sewage. All the urban solid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse.
Constituents of urban refuse
This refuse contains garbage and rubbish materials like plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres,
paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel residues, leaves, containers, abandoned vehicles and
other discarded manufactured products. Urban domestic wastes though disposed off
separately from the industrial wastes, can still be dangerous. This is so because they cannot
be easily degraded.
3. Agricultural practices
Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a large extent. Today with the
advancing agro-technology, huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, weedicides
are added to increase the crop yield. Apart from these farm wastes, manure, slurry, debris, soil
erosion containing mostly inorganic chemicals are reported to cause soil pollution.
4. Radioactive pollutants
Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear dust and radioactive wastes
(produced by nuclear testing laboratories and industries) penetrate the soil and accumulate
there by creating land pollution.
Examples
1. Radio nuclides of radium, thorium, uranium, isotopes of potassium (K-40) and carbon (C-
14) are very common in soil, rock, water and air.
2. Explosion of hydrogen weapons and radiations induce neutron, proton reactions by which
nitrogen (N-15) produces C-14. This Cl4 participates in the carbon metabolism of plants
which is then introduced into animals and man. cosmic
3. Radioactive waste contains several radio nuclides such as Strontium-90, Iodine-129,
Cesium-137 and isotopes of iron which are most injurious. Sr-90 gets deposited in bones and
tissues instead of calcium.

4. Nuclear reactor produces waste containing Ruthenium-106, Iodine-131, Barium-140 and

Lanthanum-140, Cesium-144 along with the primary nuclides Sr-90 and Cs-137 has a half
life of 30 years while Sr-90 has 28 years. Rain water carries Sr-90 and Cs-137 to be deposited
on the soil where they are held firmly with the soil particles by electrostatic forces. All these
radio nuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma radiations.
5. Biological agents
Soil gets large quantities of human, animal and bird's excreta which constitute the major
source of land pollution by biological agents.
Examples
1. Heavy application of manures and digested sludges could cause serious damage to plants
within a few years. Because the sludges are containing more live viruses and viable intestinal
worms.
2. In addition to these excreta, faulty sanitation, municipal garbage, waste water and wrong
methods of agricultural practices also induce heavy soil pollution.
6. Distillery
Very high COD, low pH, high organic matter, high suspended and dissolved solids containing
nitrogen, high potassium.
7. Organic chemical industry
Toxic compounds, phenols, high acidity, alkalinity.
Control (or) Preventives measures of soil pollution

The pressure on intensification of farm activities increases for two reasons.
1. Population growth.
2. Decrease of the available farm land due to urbanization.
1. Control of Soil erosion
Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices.
Example
(a) Trees may be planted on barren slopes.
(b) Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting cultivation.
(c) Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.

Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes would also help
to arrest soil erosion in the long term. Maintaining soil productivity is vital and essential for
sustainable agriculture.
2. Proper dumping of unwanted materials Excess of waste products by man and animals
cause chronic disposal problem. Open dumping is most commonly practiced method.
Recently controlled tipping is followed for solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained then
can be used for housing (or) sports field.
3. Production of natural fertilizers
Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides should be avoided. Biopesticides should
be used in place of toxic chemical pesticides.
Example Organic wastes contained in animals dung can be used for preparing compost
manure 9 and rather than throwing them wastefully polluting the soil.
4. Proper Hygienic condition
People should be trained regarding the sanitary habits.
Example Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.
5. Public Awareness
Informal and formal public awareness programs should be imparted to educate people on
health hazards by environmental pollution.
Example Mass media, educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.
6. Recycling and Reuse of wastes

To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper. plastics, metals, glasses, organics,
petroleum products and industrial effluents etc., should be recycled and reused.
Example
Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste treatment method
should be adopted.
7. Ban on Toxic Chemicals
Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT, BHC etc., which are fatal to
plants and animals
Nuclear explosions and the improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.
NOISE POLLUTION
Definition

Noise pollution is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant (or) disagreeable sound that causes
discomfort for all living beings."
Unit of Noise (Decibel)
The sound intensity is measured in decibel (dB), which is one tenth of the longest unit Bel.
One dB is equal to the faintest sound, a human ear can hear.
Noise level
Normal conversation sound ranges from 35 dB to 60 dB. Impairment of hearing takes place
due to exposure to noise of 80 dB (or) more. Noise above 140 dB becomes painful.
2.5.1 Types and sources (causes) of noise

It has been found that environmental noise is doubling every 10 years. Generally noise is
described as.
1. Industrial noise.
2. Transport noise.
3. Neighbourhood noise.
1. Industrial Noise
Highly intense sound (or) noise pollution is caused by many machines. There exists a long
list of sources of noise pollution including different machines of numerous factories,
industries and mills. Industrial noise, particularly
Environmental Sciences and Sustainability from mechanical saws and pneumatic drill is
unbearable and is a nuisance to public.
Recently, it has been observed by the Institute of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai that
enormously increasing industrial pollution has damaged the hearing of about 20% workers.
Example In the steel industry, the workers near the heavy industrial blowers are exposed to
112dB for eight hours and suffer from the occupational pollution.
2. Transport Noise
The main noise, comes from transport. It mainly includes road traffic noise, rail traffic noise
and air craft noise. The number of road vehicles like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles,
buses, trucks and particularly the diesel engine vehicles have increased enormously in recent
years.

That is why, this form of pollution is gaining importance, especially in large and overcrowded
towns and cities. According to experts, the noise level in most of the residential areas in
metropolitan cities is already hovering on the border line because of vehicular noise
pollution.
A survey conducted in metropolitan cities has shown that noise level in Delhi, Bombay and
Calcutta is as high as 90dB. Inhabitants of cities are subjected to this most annoying form of
transport noise which gradually deafen them.
3. Neighbourhood Noise
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and community. Common
noise makers are musical instruments, TV, VCR, radios, transistors telephones, and
loudspeakers etc., Ever since the industrial revolution, noise in environment has been
doubling every ten years.
Effects of Noise Pollution

1. Noise Pollution affects human health, comfort and efficiency. It causes contraction of
blood vessels, makes the skin pale, leads to excessive secretion of adrenalin hormone into
blood stream which is responsible for high blood pressure. Blaring sounds have known to
cause mental distress, heart attacks neurological problems, birth defects and abortion.
2. It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous breakdown, tension etc.,
3. These adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which in
turn increase the rate of heart beat, contraction of blood vessels, and dilation of pupil of eye.
4. It affects health efficiency and behaviour. It may cause damage to heart, brain, kidneys,
liver and may also produce emotional disturbances.
5. The most immediate and acute effect of noise is the impairment of hearing which
diminishes by the damage of some part of auditory system. When exposed to very loud and
sudden noise acute damage occurs to the ear drum. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain
frequency pattern will lead to chronic damage to the hair cells in the inner ear.
6. In addition to serious loss of hearing due to excessive noise, impulsive noise also causes
psychological and pathological disorders.
7. Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardio vascular systems and
semicircular canals of the internal ear. The rate of heart beat may also be affected. It may
decrease (or) increase depending on the type of noise.

8. Brain is also affected by loud and sudden noise as that of jet and aeroplane noise etc.
People are subjected to Psychiatric illness.
9. Recently it has been reported that blood is also thickened by excessive noises.
10. It is quite surprising that our optical system is also a prey for noise pollution. Pupillary
dilation, impairment of night vision and decrease in the rate of colour perception are some of
its severe effects.
Control (or) Preventive measures of noise pollution

1. Source Control
This may include source modification such as acoustic treatment to machine surface, design
changes, limiting the operational timings and so on.
2. Transmission Path Intervention
This may include containing the source inside a sound insulating enclosure, construction of a
noise barrier (or) provision of sound absorbing materials along the path.
3. Receptor control
This includes protection of the receiver by altering the work schedule (or) provision of
personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery. The measure
may include dissipation and deflection methods.
4. Oiling
Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machines.
5. Planting trees around houses can also act as effective noise barriers.
6. Different types of absorptive materials can be used to control interior noise.
Other Preventive measures

Noise can be reduced by prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic, ban on honking of
horns in certain areas and creation of silent zones near schools and hospitals and redesigning
of buildings to make them noise proof. Other measures can involve reduction of traffic
density in residential areas and giving preferences to mass public transport system.

Unit - III
Renewable Sources of Energy
ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION
Energy management - Energy management is planning and operation of energy
production and energy consumption units as well as energy distribution and storage.
For the paste decades, energy generation has been shifted to alternative energy
sources like renewable energy forms such as solar, wind and biomass energy, etc., instead of
the conventional fossil fuel sources. Apart from the growth in the energy sector, there has
been an equivalent increase in business and organizations, which has brought tremendous
competition in the market in terms of increasing standards and reducing global warming,
carbon foot print and greenhouse gas emissions.
Energy management introduced in an organization, can effectively manage how much
energy they produce and how to controls and monitor. A large amount of energy and money
can be saved by employing energy management principles. It can also help companies by not
only improving productivity but also the quality that they offer using energy efficiency
techniques and better materials and manufacturing processes.
Objectives (or) Aims of energy management

(i) Resource conservation.
(ii) Climate protection.
(iii) Cost savings / minimize waste.
(iv) Minimize environmental effects.
The ultimate aim (or) objectives of this process is not only to save the cost but also to achieve
complete environmental sustainability.
Principles of energy management

1. It controls the costs of the energy function and not Btu of energy.
2. The second principle is to control energy functions as a product cost.
3. The third principle is to control and meter only the main functions, which accounts for only
20% functions which make up 80% of the costs.
4. The last principle states that the major effort of an energy management program should be
put into installing controls and achieving results.

Steps involved in the process of energy management

The following 5 steps are important in the process
Step 1: Collecting and analyzing continuous data.
Step 2: Identify optimizations in equipment schedules, set points and flow rates to improve
energy efficiency of energy management.
Step 3: Calculate return on investment. Units of energy saved can be metered and calculated
just like units of energy delivered.
Step 4: Execute energy optimization solutions.
Step 5: Repeat step 2 to continue optimizing energy efficiency.
3.1.2 Energy conservation

Energy conservation is the practice of using less energy inorder to lower the lower the costs
and reduce environmental impact.
This can be achieved either by using
(i) energy more efficiently (using less energy for a constant service),
(ii) by reducing the amount of service used (by driving less).
Objectives (or) Aims of energy conservation

Energy conservation is the key element. The main objectives are
(i) To reduce overall energy demand.
(ii) To lower energy cost,
(iii) To reduce energy consumption,
(iv) To lower the overall greenhouse gas emission.
Principle (or) Law of conservation of energy

The principle of energy of conservation states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed but it can be transformed from one type to another.
According to this the total energy of an isolated system remains constant.
Importance of energy conservation
Energy conservation is very important because of the following reasons.
1. It reduces our usage of non-renewable energy resources (like fossil fuels).
2. It also helps you to save money on energy costs including utility bills and other energy
bills.

3. It also cuts down on expanding development, where natural resource extraction is

impacting natural areas.
4. When we conserve energy more efficiently, we directly reduce the amount of greenhouse
gas emissions entering the earth's atmosphere.
5. It insists us to replace the energy, used, with an alternate energy source.
15 ways to conserve energy (or) conservation

1. Adjust your day-to-day behaviors
Example: Switch off lights (or) appliances when you do not need them.
2. Replace your light bulbs
Traditional incandescent light bulbs consume more amount of electricity and must be
replaced by energy efficient alternatives like CFL and LED bulbs.
3. Use smart power strips "Phantom loads" (or) the electricity used by electronics, when they
are turned off (or) stand by mode are the major source of energy waste. Smart power strips,
eliminate this problem, when they are not in use.
4. Install a programmable (or) smart thermostat It automatically turn-off (or) reduce heating
and cooling during the time when you are asleep (or) away.
5. Purchase energy efficient appliances These will consume less energy during use.
6. Reduce your water heating expenses
Efficient water heaters can be 8% to 300% more energy efficient than a conventional storage
water heater.
7. Install energy efficient windows To prevent heat loss through your windows,
(i) you can replace single-pane windows with double-pane windows,
(ii) gas filled windows with "low-e" coatings can be fixed.
8. Upgrade your HVAC system
Most energy efficient way to upgrade your home's HVAC system is installing air source heat
pump. In order to heat and cool your home a heat pump transfers heat from one place to
another.
9. Weatherize your home
Air leaks into your home are windows, doors and vents. To prevent these leaks, care must be
taken in such a way that no cracks (or) opening between the walls and windows is present.
10. Insulate your home

Insulation retains heat during the winter and keeping heat out of your home during the
summer.
11. Wash your clothes in cold water.
12. Replacing dirty air filters regularly can reduce energy consumption upto 15%.
13. As microwave is more energy efficient, microwave oven can be used instead of ordinary
stove.
14. Using natural light, like sun, we can reduce the energy consumption.
15. Dress appropriately for the weather inside and outside.
NEW ENERGY SOURCES

Need Fossil fuels and nuclear energy are the important resources used to meet most of our
energy needs today.
These are expected to be widely used in the near future.
However, fossil and nuclear energy resources are non-renewable and will someday be
exhausted, while their continued uses possess environmental risks related to air pollution,
global climate change, land use and waste disposal.
These issues have stimulated the search for new energy sources for producing and using
energy.
Different types of new energy sources

New energy sources (or) Renewable energy resources that are being developed include
(i) Hydrogen energy.
(ii) Ocean thermal energy conversion.
(iii) Tidal and wave energy.
(iv) Geothermal energy.
(v) Solar energy.
(vi) Wind energy.
(vii) Bio-mass energy.
(viii) Artificial Intelligence (AI).
(ix) Photovoltaics (PV).
(x) Distributed energy storage systems (DESS).
(xi) Grid integration.
(xii) Space technologies.

(xiii) Norwegian Crystals.

(xiv) Algal bio-fuels.
(xv) Body heat.
(xvi) Dance flowers.
Hydrogen
The fuel that has potential of being widely used in the future is hydrogen gas (H). Like
natural gas hydrogen can be burned to heat buildings, cook food and produce electricity in
power plants.
Hydrogen possess high calorific value. It is non-polluting, because the combustion product is
water.
2H2+O2 ------> 2H2O+ 150 kJ
H2 gas can be compressed in a fuel tank and used to power cars and buses.
Sources of hydrogen
(i) Plentiful hydrogen is available from water (HO). Water can be split into gaseous H2 and
O2 by an electrolysis process.
(ii) Hydrogen can also be produced from natural gas and biomass resources.
(iii) Ethanol reacts with high-temperature steam to produce hydrogen.
(iv) Biomass is converted into sugar-rich feed stocks that can be fermented to produce
hydrogen.
(v) Microbes such as green algae, consume water in the presence of sun light and produce
hydrogen as a by-product.
Hydrogen fuel cell
Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells. The electrons in hydrogen atoms generate electricity in
the fuel cell. The combination of H, and O, creates water and heat from the reaction. The heat
may be used to produce electricity.
At anode, hydrogen is split into protons and electrons. The electrons moves to cathode and
generates electricity.
Electrical power plants can be built using large banks of fuel cells, but small groups of cells
provide electricity for individual home and commercial buildings.
Complications

(i) Difficulties in storing enough hydrogen for motor vehicles to run long distances.
(ii) Infrastructure to refuel these vehicles.
(iii) Highly inflammable and explosive in nature.
(iv) Safe handling is required.
2. Ocean thermal energy (OTE)

There is often large temperature difference between the surface level and deeper level of the
tropical oceans.
This temperature difference can be utilized to generate electricity. The energy available due to
the difference in temperature of water is called ocean thermal energy.
Condition
The temperature difference should be of 20°C (or) more is required between surface water
and deeper water.
Significance of OTE
(a) OTE is continuous, renewable pollution free.
(b) The use of cold deep water, as the chiller fluid in air-conditioning, has also been
proposed.
(c) Electric power generated by OTE can be used to produce hydrogen.
3. Tidal energy (or) Tital power

Tidal energy is a renewable energy powered by the natural rise and fall of ocean tides and
currents.
Significance of tidal energy
(i) Tidal power plants do not require large areas of valuable lands as they are on the bays (or)
estuaries.
(ii) As the sea water is inexhaustible, it is completely independent of the uncertainty of
precipitation (rainfall).
(iii) It is pollution-free energy source, as it does not use any fuel and also does not produce
any wastes.
4. Geo-thermal energy

The heat produced deep in the Earth's core is called Geothermal energy. The energy
harnessed from the high temperature present inside the earth can be used to produce
electricity.
Significance of geothermal energy
(i) The power generation level is higher for geothermal than for solar and wind energies.
(ii) Geothermal power plants can be brought on line more quickly than most other energy
sources,
(iii) GTE is effectively and efficiently used for direct uses such as hot water bath, resorts,
aquaculture, and greenhouses.
5. Solar energy
Solar energy is derived by capturing radiant energy from sunlight and converting it
into heat, electricity (or) hot water.
Significance of solar energy
(i) Solar cells are noise and pollution free.
(ii) Solar water heaters, cookers, require neither fuel nor attention while cooking food.
(iii) Solar cells can be used in remote and isolated areas, forests, hilly regions.
6. Wind energy
Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the force of wind is called wind energy.
The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed. The wind energy is harnessed by
making use of wind mills.
Significance of wind energy
(i) The generation period of wind energy is low and power generation starts from
comissioning. (ii) It is recommended to broaden the nation's energy options for new energy
sources. (iii) It is made available easily in many off-shore, on-shore and remote areas.
7. Bio-mass energy
Biomass is the organic matter, produced by plants (or) animals, used as sources of energy.
Most of the biomass is burned directly for heating, cooling and industrial purposes.
Examples Wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes, etc.,
Significance of bio-mass energy

The cost of obtaining bio-energy through bio-gas plant is less than the cost of obtaining
energy from fossil fuels.
Biomass consumes more CO2 than is released during combustion of biomass.
It provides a stored form of energy and in many cases in a form suitable for vehicle
propulsion.
Artificial intelligence (AI) in the energy sector
Artificial intelligence (AI) is used to forecast demand and manage the distribution of
resources, to ensure that power is available at the time and place it's needed with a minimum
of waste. AI plays an essential role in the world's transition to clean energy. Artificial
intelligence is particularly important in the renewable energy industry. where it often can't be
stored for long periods of time and has to be used close to the time and location where it is
generated.
9. Photo Voltaics (PV)

Solar companies are integrating PV systems to minimize the need for additional land usage.
As a result, integrated PV, floatovoltaics and agrivoltaics are logical shift in trends. Now thin
film PV cells are being developed
to make solar panels flexible, cost-effective, light weigh and environment friendly.
10. Distributed energy storage systems (DESS) A distributed energy storage system
(DESS) is a packaged solution that stores energy for use at a later time, The system is
provided with two main components.
(i) DC charged batteries and (ii) Bi-directional inverter.
It's major role is to prevent power fluctuation and power quality problems.
11. Grid integration

Grid integration is the practice of developing efficient ways to deliver variable renewable
energy to the grid.
12. Space technologies
Space-based energy technologies like
(i) harvesting hydrogen from the moon to power fuel cell on earth,

(ii) orbiting solar rays that absorb around-the-clock direct sunlight and send the energy back
down to stations on the ground via radio (or) microwaves, are being developed as the new
energy technology.
13. Norwegian crystals

(i) Low carbon mono crystalline silicon ingots is a type of crystal, used for high performance
photovoltaic devices.
(i) Gallium-doped ingots, that Increases the lifetime of the solar cells. Through this,
Norwegian crystals controls the carbon footprint of solar panel components at ultra low
levels.
14. Algal bio-fuels

Algae is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels. It offers huge commercial potential. Like fossil
fuel, algae fuel releases CO2 when burnt. But unlike fossil fuel, the CO, released by algae
fuel is removed from the atmosphere via.. photosynthesis as the algae (or) plant grew.
The impact of algal bio-fuels on the atmosphere is much lower. Algal fuel production
has a minimal impact on land and water resources. It can be produced using seawater (or)
even grey waste water.
15. Body heat
The body heat, liberated by humans in the crowded area like central station, market
place, is channelled through the station's vent system. Then it is used to warm up water in
underground tanks and pumped through the heating system.
16. Dance floors
The kinetic energy of the dance floor is converted to electricity that lights up the dance floor
itself. Pavegen, a london based company is demonstrating this with its development of the
energy harvesting "smart street".
3.3APPLICATIONS OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

Hydrogen is a reagent, used in many industries, including chemicals, textile fiber
manufacturing, glass, electronics and metallurgy. It is also used as a fuel for rocket launchers.
In electronics, hydrogen is used as a carrier gas, for the manufacture of electronic
components.
Hydrogen is used in industries for many applications

Examples
(i) It combines with nitrogen ammonia, a base for fertilizers.
(ii) It is a good reagent for textile fibers like to produce nylon, polyurethane foam.
Hydrogen is used in metallurgy for heat treatment process to produce mechanical parts (or) to
alter their properties.
Hydrogen is used during fuel refining to remove this sulphur via a process of
desulphurization.
Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW) is a type of arc welding which utilizes a hydrogen
environment.
A mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen is used to prevent oxidation in flat glass production.
As an efficient reducing and etching agent, hydrogen is used to create semiconductors, LEDs,
displays.
Hydrogen gas is used as a therapeutic gas for a number of different diseases.
Hydrogen fuel cell

Hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as a fuel in an electrochemical process that
combines H2 and O2 to produce electrical energy with water and heat as the only by-product.
Two main applications of fuel cells are,
(1) Stationary power sources.
(a) These are used to power office buildings, data centres, grocery stores telecommunication
towers. and off-grid
(b) It is used as a part of uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system, where continuous
uptime is critical.
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVS)
(a) The heat produced by the hydrogen fuel cell can be used for space and water heating (or)
industrial process.
(b) Hydrogen fuel cells power clean trucks, fork lifts, etc., is being considered for
(c) Hydrogen power transportation applications including hydrogen fuel cell buses.
(d) Hydrogen fuel cell trains have now appeared. (e) Hydrogen offers versatile options for
mobile power generation. Some of the hydrogen fuel cells were developed by NASA to
provide electricity for rockets and shuttles in space.
(f) Hydrogen fuel cells have found a number of marine applications (used in boats and
submarines).

3.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cells

Advantages
Hydrogen is readily available.
It does not produce harmful emissions.
It is environmentally friendly.
It can be used as fuel in rocket.
It is energy efficient and more powerful than fossil fuels.
It is renewable.
It reduces carbon foot prints.
Charging times is fast.
It does not make noise and visual pollution. 10. It can be used for long time.
Disadvantages
1. It is expensive.
2. It is difficult to store.
3. It is highly inflammable.
4. Infra-structure.
5. Regulatory issues.
(3.4) APPLICATIONS OF OCEAN ENERGY

RESOURCES Tidal energy (or) tidal power is a form of ocean energy that is harnessed by
converting tide energy into useful forms of power. Tidal energy is obtained from the rise and
fall of tides. Tidal barrages and dams are constructed across a narrow opening to the sea.
Water rushes into the dam when the sea level rises which moves the blade of the turbines
which helps in the generation of electricity.
Below are some important applications of energy.
1. Ocean waves Potential energy associated with ocean waves can be harnessed using
modular technologies.
2. Temperature gradients Difference in thermal energy between sea surface and deep water
can be harnessed by Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) process.
3. Salinity gradient At the mouth of rivers, where fresh water mixes with salt water, energy
associated with the salinity gradient can be harnessed using pressure retarded reverse osmosis
process and associated conversion technologies.

4. Ocean wave energy convertors These are the technology used to trap the mechanical
energy of the wave to convert it to electrical power.
5. Oscillating bodies Oscillating waves uses hydraulic motors electrical generators as a power
take-off system. (or)
6. Overtopping wave energy convertors The overtopping wave energy convertors (or)
terminators, using the low head hydraulic turbines, converts the potential energy formed by
the height of accumulated water over the wave surface to electrical power.
7. Ocean thermal energy (OTE) The temperature difference, between the surface level and
deeper level of the tropical oceans, can be utilized to generate electricity.
3.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of ocean energy

Advantages (or) Benefits
(i) Ocean energy is cheaper and efficient.
(ii) It is environment-friendly.
iii) The source of ocean energy is inexhaustible
(iv) Operational and maintenance costs are low.
(v) Tidal energy sources can last for decades.
(vi) It protects coastal floodings due to the stability of rock armor.
Disadvantages (or) limitations

(i) Construction of tidal power plant is expensive and requires high capital investment.
(ii) Maintenance and equipment repairing is a challenge.
(iii) Negative influence on marine life forms.
(iv) Storage capacity is required.
(v) Environmental problems like habitat change arises.
3.5 APPLICATIONS OF TIDAL ENERGY

CONVERSION
Electricity can be generated from the tidal energy.
Tidal energy is used in grining mills for the mechanical crushing of grains.
Tidal energy is used to rotate a turbine.
Tidal energy is used to store energy in a hydroelectric dam, acting as large energy storage.
Tidal barrages and reservoirs can be modified to store energy.

Tidal barrages are capable of preventing damages tothe coast during high storms.
Tidal barrages also help to create easy transport between the two arms of an estuary (or) a
bay.
3.5.1 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages (or) Merits
1.It is environment friendly.
2. It is cheaper and efficient.
3.Low operating and maintenance costs.
4 The source of energy is inexhaustible.
5. Protects coastal flooding.
6.Tidal energy sources can last for decades.
7. Power output is highly predictable.
Disadvantages
1. Construction of tidal power plants is expensive and requires high capital investment.
2. Equipment repairing and maintenance is difficult.
3. Environment problems, like habitat change, arises.
4. Storage capacity is required.
5. Negative influence on marine life forms.
6.Location limited.
(3.6) GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT (GTE)

3.6.1 Definitions
1. Geothermal Power It is the electrical power generated from geothermal energy.
2. Geothermal Energy
It is the heat produced deep in the earth's core.
3.6.2 Origin
Geothermal energy is the thermal energy found in the earth's crust which originates
from the formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials. The high
temperature and pressure in earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to
behave plasmically. This results in parts of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter
than the surrounding rock. Temperatures at the core mantle boundary can reach over 400°C.

3.6.3 Concept
Geothermal technology extracts the heat found withi the subsurface of the earth,
which can be used directly for heating and cooling (or) converting it to electricity.
The steam comes from the reservoirs of hot water, found a few miles (or) more below
the earth's surface, rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity.
3.6.4 Power plants of GTE

Geothermal power plant uses hydrothermal resources that have both water (hydro)
and heat (thermal). Geothermal power plants requires high temperature (300°F to 700°F)
hydrothermal resources that come from either dry steam wells (or) from hot water wells.
Generally we use these resources by drilling wells into the earth and then piping
steam (or) hot water to the surface. The hot water (or) steam rotates a turbine that generates
electricity. The depth of the geothermal wells is as much as 2 miles.
Types of geothermal power plants

There are three basic types of geothermal power
1. Dry steam power plant It uses steam directly from a geothermal reservoir to drive
generator's turbines.
2. Flash steam power plant It takes high-pressure hot water from deep inside the earth and
converts it into steam to drive generator's turbine.
When the steam cools, it condenses to water and is injected back into the ground to be used
again. Mog geothermal power plants are flash steam plants.
3. Binary cycle power plants
It transfers the heat from geothermal hot water to another liquid. The heat causes the second
liquid to convert it into steam, which is used to drive a generator's turbine.
3.6.5 Advantages and disadvantages of GTE
Advantages
1. GTE is environmentally friendly.
2. GTE is a source of renewable energy.
3. It is the sustainable form of energy.
4. The potential of GTE is huge.
5. Energy generated from this resource is reliable.
6. As GTE is natural, no fuel is required.

Disadvantages
1. Location is restricted.
2. As GTE does not release greenhouse gases, there are many other gases released into the
atmosphere (cause side effects).
3. May cause earthquakes.
4. It is expensive resource.
5. Management is required to maintain sustainability.
3.6.6 Applications of GTE

1. GTE is used for space heating and cooling.
2 GTE is used to generate electricity.
3. It is also used for industrial process heat.
4. It is used for desalination of geothermal water and heavy water production.
5. It is also used in the extraction of minerals from geothermal fluids.
6. Geothermal Heat Pumps (GHPs) are used to heat buildings in the winter and cool them in
summer.
7. The direct use of GTE involves the use of heated water from the ground without the need
for any other sources.

Unit - IV
Sustainability and Management
4.1DEVELOPMENT
A true development does not mean a high standard of living with all benefits and an
increase in the GNP (Gross National Product) of few countries. But it brings benefits to all,
not only for the present generation, but also for the future generation.
Definition Development is a process that creates growth progress, positive change in
economic, environmental and social component without damaging the resources of the
environment.
Types of development
1. National development
National development starts from the national planning frame work. These are developments
that would make a significant contributions to overall success (or) its international role.
2. Major development
Some categories falling under "major development" includes fish farms, offices, storage and
distribution centres, housing estates, renewables, waste management (or) disposal facilities,
mineral extraction sites, etc.,
3. Local development
This is the most common form of development and comprises of small scale developments
including house extensions, conversions, small and medium housing industrial development
and small scale renewable developments.
Principles of development
The following 7 principles are the important for the development.
1. Equitable use.
2. Flexibility in use.
3. Simple and intuitive use.
4. Perceptible information.
5. Tolerance for error.
6. Low physical effort.
7. Size and space for approach and use.
Characteristics of development

1. It is a continuous process.
2. It is the result of interaction of individual and environment.
3. It is predictable.
4. It is both quantitative and qualitative.
5. It follows a particular pattern like infancy, childhood, adolescence and maturity.
Steps involved in concept development

There are 5 important steps involved, in the development process.
Step 1: Brain storming to create a pool of potential product (or) service concept.
Step 2: Performing customer research to target your ideal customer.
Step 3: Estimating the market potential for your product (or) service concept.
Step 4: Creating a prototype for your product.
Step 5: Devising a marketing strategy.
4.1.5 Effects of development

1. It increases wealth (or) reduces poverty.
2. It improves standards of living, health, education, infrastructure and technology.
Factors affecting development

Followings are the important economic factor affecting development.
1. Natural resources
Examples Trees, soil, water, minerals, coal, oil, They help countries develop by creating jobs
and increasing their wealth through the sales. etc.,
2. Power and energy resources
Examples Oil, gas, coal and water.
They, being natural, can be mined and sold quickly. They are important for producing power
and energy within the country.
3. Capital accumulation
If a country has more capital, it can creates more job. Low capital countries may have a low
living wage and high unemployment.
4. Technological resources Examples Computers, cell phones, etc., It refers to ability to use
advanced technologies within a country. It increases business capabilities and economic

development of the country. Countries with low technological resources have poor economic
development.
5. Available labour force
Number of skilled labours within the country increases the development.
6. Transportation and communications.
7. Education and training.
Advantages and disadvantages of development

Advantages of development
1. Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees.
2. Increased employee motivation.
3. Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain.
4. Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods.
5. Economic growth increases state capacity and the supply of public goods.
Disadvantages of development.
(i) Population growth.
(ii) Weak governance and rapid urbanization.
(iii) Poverty.
(IV) Pollution like smog, acid rain, greenhouse effect, depletion of ozone layer, sewage and
garbage.
4.2 GDP (GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT)

GDP is the total market value of the goods and services, produced within a country,
during the specified period of time (usually 12 months (or) a year)
It is the broadest financial measurement of a nation's total economic activity.
4.2.1 Types of GDP
1. Normal GDP It is the total value of all goods and service, produced at current market
prices.
2. Real GDP It is the sum of all goods and services produced a constant prices.
3. Actual GDP It is the real-time measurement of all outputs at any interval (or) any given
time.

4.2.2 Significance (or) importance of GDP

(1) It identifies the present state of economy.
(ii) It is used to compare the economics between countries.
(iii) GDP is objective of policy formulation.
(iv) GDP is the root cause.
(v) It gives information about the size of economy and how an economy is performing.
(vi) It is used to determine the development and performance of the economy.
4.2.3 Calculation of GDP

There are three different ways of calculating GDP
(1) The value added approach.
(ii) The income approach (how much is earned * income on resource used to make stuff).
stuff)
(iii) Expenditure approach (how much is spent on Of three, the expenditure approach is
followed.
Expenditure approach
The expenditure approach calculates the GDP by calculating the sum of all the services and
goods produced in an economy.
It is calculated with the following formulae. Private consumption + (Gross private investment
+ GDP Government investment) + Government spending + (Exports Imports)
Y=C+I+G+(X-M)
where, Y Gross Domestic Product.
C= Consumption.
I= Investment.
G= Government spending.
X= Exports.
M = Imports.
4.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of GDP

Advantages of GDP
(i) GDP is a broad indicators of development.
(ii) It is easy to measure growth in percentage.
(iii) It is easy to compare to itself and other countries.

(iv) GDP is easy and cheap to collect.

(v) GDP is calculated from a formula which all countries use therefore it is reliable indicator.
(vi) It is the very good way for government to know whether economic policies have been
successful.
(vii) It can be broken up into GDP per capita which accounts for the population of the country
when it is calculated.
Disadvantages of GDP
(i) It does not include non-market transactions.
(ii) It is narrow indicator that fails to show quality of life, standard of living, happiness,
health care.
(iii) It fails to indicate whether the growth of a nation is sustainable.
(iv) GDP does not account inequality.
(v) It doesn't account for environmental impacts of the economic policies.
(vi) It doesn't include the activity of informal sector (black market).
(vii) Government could adjust the figures to gain power.
(viii) Production process could be immoral.
(ix) It measures the growth in the past are not hugely relevant.
4.3 SUSTAINABILITY
It is defined as "meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs".
4.3.1 Need of sustainability
1. Sustainability is key to preserving our planet.
2. Sustainability helps reduce pollution and resources
3. Conserve economy.
4. Sustainability improves public health.
5. It protects biodiversity.
4.3.2 Concept (or) Approaches (or) Significance of Sustainability
To build up the sustainability development, the following approaches (or) methods are
proposed.
1. Developing appropriate technology: It is the one, which is locally adaptable, eco-friendly,
resource-efficient and culturally suitable. It uses local labours, less resources, and produces
minimum waste.

2. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3-R) approach: It insists optimum use of natural resources, using
it again and again instead of throwing it on the waste land (or) water and recycling the
material into further products. It reduces pressure on our natural resources and reduces waste
generation and pollution.
3. Providing environmental education and awareness: By providing environmental education
and awareness, the thinking and attitude of people towards our earth and the environment can
be changed.
4. Consumption of Renewable Resources: In order to attain sustainability, it is very important
to consume the natural resources in such a way that the consumption should not exceed
regeneration capacity.
4.3.3 Economic and Social Challenges of Sustainability

1. Economic sustainability It refers to the organisation's ability to manage its resources and
responsibly generate profits in the long term.
Examples
I. A company uniliver It has followed a strategy to achieve a balance between sustainability
and the company's economic performance. So, it implemented several measures like
increasing package recycling, promoting the use of recycled materials and responsible
consumption campaigns. awareness
2. A company suez It has reduced its emissions, related to electricity consumption, by 95% by
using renewable energy and conservation of natural habitats.
Economic challenges
(i) High rates of unemployment (or) under employment. (ii) High rates of poverty and low
growth.
(iii) Increasing inequality, with many not being included in the growth process.
(iv) Disruption of major economic activities due to pandemic situation like tourism. non
renewable resources:
(v) Volatile growth dependent on one source.
(vi) Low productivity due to poor human capital development.
(vii) Skills mismatch between skills you have and the jobs you want to create.
(viii) Lack of quality jobs.
(ix) Macroeconomic instability and recurrent balance of payments shocks,

2. Social sustainability It refers to strengthening the cohesion and stability of specific social
groups.
Examples
1. A Company CEMEX It is working to contribute to the social development of communities.
Thus, it offers decent housing through self-building programmes and loans with favourable
access conditions.
2. A Gigante group It contributes funds and resources to a range of social causes like school
materials for collaborators and grants to improve visual health.
Social Challenges Though social impact, social sustainability challenges, issues are not easily
measurable, they are easier to identify. Social sustainability performance challenges include
(i) Human rights.
(ii) Fair labour practices.
(iii) Living conditions.
(iv) Health and safety.
(v) Wellness, diversity and equity.
(vi) Work-life balance.
(vii) Empowerment.
(viii) Community engagement.
4.3.4 Aspects of sustainability

There are 4 aspects of sustainability, of them environmental sustainability is the fundamental
and important aspect.
1.Environmental aspect Environmental aspect acknowledges the need enhance and maintain
the biophysical systems that sustain all the life on earth. It includes the structure and function
of natural ecosystems and the interactions between them and people and calls for
guardianship (or) kaitiakitanga of our environment. to
2. Social aspect Social aspect acknowledges the need for equity (i) within and between
generations, and (ii) within and between ethnic and social groups. It is inclusive of people's
mental and physical well-being and the cohesion of their communities based on a fair
distribution of resources.
3. Cultural aspect Cultural aspect acknowledges the need to nourish and share attitudes and
values that represent diverse world views and the political need for all people to express their

views freely and to participate in decision making. Addressing these needs can build
resilience for the future.
4. Economic aspect Economic aspect acknowledges the interactions of humans with the
natural environment in using resources to create goods and services which add value to their
lives. It acknowledges the resource use and waste disposal must occur within the capacity of
our planet. It encourages a fair trading system that equitably distributes benefits and costs. It
further encourages innovation and creativity in developments that lead to a sustainable future.
Relationship between these aspects

This model shows how our economy is a subset of our society. It also shows that everything
in our economy and everything in our society entirely dependent on our environment.
This relationship means that any impact (or) change to our environment will impact on
society and the economy. Therefore any sustainability related issue must be considered
holistically and interdependence. recognise their
4.4 FROM UNSUSTAINABILITY TO SUSTAINABILITY

4.4,1 Unsustainability
Our ancestors have left a lot of resources for us. They used their resources sensibly and not
for their greed, But we are exploiting limited resources. Instead of it for our needs, we are
exploiting it for our greeds. using
Characteristics of Unsustainability
(i)Unsustainability is one in which we forget our responsibility towards the environment.
(ii) In unsustainability, we degrade the available resources.
(iii) It not at all cares about the needs of future generations.
(vi) Unsystematic planning can lead to damage to natural as well as human-made resources.
(v) Unsustainability leads to extreme degradation of the environment as well as the living
organism.
Causes for unsustainability
(i) Developing countries degradation are responsible for the the rate of increase of
National pollution.
(ii) In this regard, developed countries contribute much more than developing
countries.
(iii) Raising population.

(iv) People should look at environment as not only reserve of man but of all living
organism.
(v) People built so many buildings, roads and dams for a luxurious life-style. We
neglected the needs of animals and destroy their habitats.
(vi) We extract a lot of material from the lithosphere than what we need.
(vii) We create a lot of chemical compounds, which break down in the environment
and becomes problematic.
(viii) (viii) We cut trees at a faster rate than they can grow, which causes global
warming.
(ix) (ix) Purchasing and using polythene bags contribute to growth of pollution.
4.4.2 Characteristics of Sustainability

It reduces emission of greenhouse gases, which will reduce global warming and helps
in preserving the environment.
It uses natural and biodegradable materials for reducing the impact on the
environment.
It emphasis on using renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy.
It follows non-polluting construction practices.
It protects the natural habitats.
It improves the quality of human life.
It minimises the depletion of natural resources.
It teaches us to respect and care for all the life forms. 9. It makes arrangements, so that the
future generations are able to meet their own demands.
4.5 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were 8 international development goals.
To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
To achieve universal primary education.
To promote gender equality and empower women.
To reduce child mortality.
To improve maternal health.
To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases.
To ensure environmental sustainability.

To develop a global partnership for development.
4.6 SUSTAINABILITY PROTOCOLS

Sustainability protocols are sustainability standards and certifications. These are
voluntary guidelines used by producers, manufacturers, traders, retailers and service
providers to demonstrate their commitment to good environmental, social, ethical and food
safety practices.
There are over 400 such standards across the world. The sustainability protocols listed
below are important because they build awareness and policy support, create clear guideline
and goals. They have third-party verification and maintain consistency within a portfolio
while developing Green economy.
Few sustainability protocols
1. LEED
2. WELL
3. Fitwell
4. Living building challenge
5. BREAM
6. Passive house
7. National Green Building Standard
8. Built green
9. Evergreen sustainable development standard (ESDS) (a) Introduction of eco-labels and
standards for organic food and other food products.
(b) Triple bottom line, it includes a set of practices (or) criteria for how a crop should be
sustainably grown (or) a resource should be ethically harvested.
(c) It includes, responsible fishing practices that do not endanger marine biodiversity (or)
respect for human rights and the payment of fair wages on a coffee (or) tea plantation.
(d) Sustainability protocols are accompanied by verification process (certification) to evaluate
that an a enterprise complies with a standard as well as a traceability process for certified
products to be sold along the supply chain, often resulting in consumer-facing label. a
(e) It also focus on capacity building and working with partners and other organizations to
support small holders (or) disadvantages producers to make the social and environmental
improvements needed to meet the standard.

4.7 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Definition - Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
4.7.1 Aim of true sustainable development
It aims at optimum use of natural resources with high degree of sustainability, minimum
wastage, least generation of toxic by-products and maximum productivity. Inter -
generational equity:
1. It states that we should hand over a safe, healthy and resourceful environment to our
future generations. Intra generational equity:
2. It states that the technological development of rich countries should support the
economic growth of the poor countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead
to sustainability.
3. Reducing inequality within and among countries,
4. Making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe resilient and sustainable.
5. Ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns.
6. Taking urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
7. Conserving and sustainability using the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development.
8. Protecting, restoring and promoting the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems.
9. Promoting peaceful societies for sustainable development.
10. Strengthening the means of implementation and revitalizing the global partnership for
sustainable development.
4.7.3 Sustainable development targets

Eradicate extreme poverty for all the people everywhere. Reduce at least by half the
proportion of men,women and children of all ages living in poverty. Implement nationally
appropriate social protection systems and measures for all including floors.
Ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal
rights to economic resources, natural resources and new technology and financial services.
Built the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure to
climate related events and disasters.

Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources from developed

countries to less developed countries. End hunger and ensure access by all people, in
particular the poor people and people in vulnerable situations.
End all forms of malnutrition.Double the agricultural productivity and income of
small scale food producers. Ensure sustainable food production systems and implement
resilient agricultural practices.
Maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed animals.
Increase investment in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and technological
development to enhance agricultural productive capacity. Correct and prevent trade
restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets. Adopt measures to ensure the
proper functioning of food commodity markets
Reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 1,00,000 live births. End
preventable deaths of new borns and children under 5 years of age.
End the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, hepatities, water-borne diseases. 18.
Reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through
prevention and treatment.
Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse like narcotic drug abuse and
harmful use of alcohol.
Halve the number of global death and injuries from road accidents. 21. Ensure
universal access to sexual and reproductive healthcare services like family planning.
Achieve universal health coverage including financial risk protection. 23. Reduce the number
of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water, soil pollution.
4.7.4 Sustainable development indicators
1. Proportion of the population living below the international poverty line by sex, age,
employment status.
2. Proportion of the population living below the national poverty line by sex and age.
3. Proportion of population covered by social protection floors.
4. Proportion of total adult population with secure tenure rights to land with legally
recognized documentation.
5. Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction
strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies. Proportion of total
government spending on essential.services. Prevalence of under nourishment.

4.7.5 Intervention areas of sustainable development goals

Implementation of sustainable development goals are somewhat difficult because of the
following interventions.
1. Climate change.
2. Use of natural resources.
3. Waste production.
4. Water pollution.
5. Deforestation.
6. Over fishing.
7. Poverty.
8. Ocean acidification.
9. Air pollution.
4.8 CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change refers to the long-term shifts in temperatures and weather pattern.
These changes may be natural (through variations in solar cycle) (or) artificial (human
activities like burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gases).
4.8.1 Causes of climate change
Presence of green house gases in the atmosphere increases the global temperature.
1.Depletion of ozone layer also increases the global
2.temperature.
3. Uneven distribution of rainfall.
4. Rotation of earth on its axis.
5. Seasonal changes.
4.8.2 Effect (or) Issues of climate change

1. Even small changes in climatic conditions may disturb agriculture that would lead to
migration of animals including humans.
2. Climate change may upset the hydrological cycle results in floods and droughts in different
regions of the world.
3. Global pattern of winds and ocean currents also geb disturbed by climate.
4.9 CASE STUDIES

4.9.1 Climate change on Chennai, East Coast Road (ECR) and Old Mahabalipuram Road
(OMR)
ECR and OMR are the today's landmark will receive the highest climate impact. Due to
Chennai's land use patterns, population stress and abuse of natural resources climate has
changed drastically in the last few years. Climate induced impacts like drought, floods, heavy
rains and winds are becoming increasingly evident in the city.
On one end of the continuum is summer water crises and on the other end is monsoonal flood
disasters.
Reason for flood in Chennai

Increasing population and building / Land use pattern have changed the natural
hydrology of the city. The water which needs to naturally drain into the sea via, the regions
watershed are now blocked by buildings and artificial man-made structures. These are all
reason for flood in Chennai city.
Remedy
Researchers predicts that Chennai's climate is more unpredictable and aggressive.
Climate change will affect people and the environment. People need to take action to reduce
the emission of green house gases that is the root cause for climate change.
4.9.2 Climate change on Chennai, Ennore

Ennore thermal power station (ETPS), a 660 MW coal-fired thermal power plant in
Ennore at north Chennai, CPCL's oil refinery, Madras Fertilizers Ltd, Tamil Nadu
Petroproducts Ltd and Madras Petrochemical Ltd. These six factories were, operating in
violation of prescribed air pollution norms for nearly 60%, responsible for drastic climate
change.
More than 56 lakh tonnes of coal ash is spread over the river bed with flyash deposits
ranging in depth from 1 ft to 8 ft.
Issues (or) effects
1. Ground-level particulate matter pollution due to emissions, from above said 6 factories at
around Ennore, exceeded the carrying capacity of the area in the vicinity of the plant.
Ground-level SO2 and NO2 pollution exceeded the
2.carrying capacity of the area.

3. In Ennore, children and women are particularly affected and gynecological problems
particularly reported by respondents. were
4. Natural drainage pattern have been considerably altered due to fly ash pond construction
and ash contamination. This will have an impact on local hydrology and flooding.
5. Climate change manifeasts in the form of rising sea levels, increased heat stress, intense
rain events and droughts and ocean desertification due to seas warming
More than 120 million litres of hot waste water is discharged daily, from Ennore power plant,
into the Ocean. Such discharge in an already warming Ocean will create localised marine
deserts.
4.10 CARBON CREDIT

4.10.1
Definition
A carbon credit is a tradable permit (or) certificate that represents the right to emit a set
amount of CO2 (or) 1 tone of CO, (or) the equivalent amount of green house gas.
4.10.2 Concept
Kyoto protocol is an international agreement that aims to manage and reduce carbon dioxide
emissions and green house gases. Kyoto protocol introduced the concept of carbon credits.
According to this, a country should reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere.
(i) A carbon credit is a tradable certificate that allows its holder to emit green house gases.
(ii) One carbon credit is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide.
(iii) Countries need to reduce their emissions by 5.2% compared to the numbers recorded.
(iv) Countries and companies need to be designed to reduce carbon emissions without the
need to buy credits.
4.10.3 Types of carbon credits

There are two types of carbon credits.
1. Voluntary emissions reduction (VER) It is a carbon offset that is exchanged in the over-the-
counter (or) voluntary market for credits.
2 Certified emissions reduction (CER) It relies on emission credits created through a
regulatory frame work with the purpose of off-setting a project's emissions.

4.10.4 How to get carbon credit

Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of a national and international
attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of green house gases (GHGs). One carbon
credit is equal to one ton of CO2 (or) CO₂ equivalent gases.
There are many companies, that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual
customers who are interested in lowering their carbon foot print. Buyers and sellers can also
use an exchange platform to trade, which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits.
4.10.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Carbon Credits
Advantages of Carbon Credit
1. Each carbon credit corresponds to one ton of carbon that was not emitted into the
atmosphere.
2. The company that does not have an alternative reduce its emission finds an
advantage in the purchase of this credit. to
3. The purchase of carbon credits by companies that are environmentally conscious is
favorable for their image.
4. Sometimes the company behaves sustainably, but it cannot stop emitting some
amount of carbon. In this case, the purchase of credit shows how much the company
activities. cares about encouraging sustainable
5.It enables companies to support decarbonization beyond their own carbon footprint.
Disadvantages of Carbon Credit
1. Some institutions and countries can accommodate themselves in the exchange
market to continue emitting their greenhouse gases.
2. Companies do not invest in action to avoid emissions because they are able to buy
unlimited credits.
3. The reduction of 1 ton of carbon that is 1 credit, will never be enough.
4. It is an alternative for emergency needs, not to rest on the fact that the other has
saved.
5. Main focus of carbon credit is to reduce green house gas emissions, but it is not
possible to stop the negative impacts caused by the globle warming.

CARBON FOOTPRINT
Definition It is the total amount of green house gases (including CO, and CH) that are
generated (emitted) by our direct and indirect activities.
Individual carbon footprint - It is the sum total of their direct and indirect carbon emissions
over the course of a year.
4.11.1 Sources of carbon footprint
1. Climate change.
2. Natural process like volcanos.
3. Pollution released by human beings doing human things.
4. Green house gases emitted from human activities.
5 Transportation accounted for about 28% of total country.
6. Electricity generation accounted for about 28%
7. Industrial activities 22%.
8. Heating and cooling in homes and businesses contribute 11%.
4.11.2 Causes of a carbon footprint

The major contributors to carbon footprints are
(i) food: (especially meat (beef))
(ii) consumption
(iii) transportation
(iv) house hold energy
4.11.3 How to lower (control) carbon footprint (or) 15 ways to reduce your carbon
footprint
Lowering individual carbon footprint from 16 tons to 2 tons does not happen over
night. But, by making smal changes in our action we can reduce carbon footprint.
Once you understand where your emission comes from, you can take steps to reduce your
impact.
1. Calculate your carbon footprint.
2. Drive less.
3. Switch to an electric (or) hybrid car.
4. Travel smart
5. Switch to renewable energy. Consider solar panels.

4.12 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Environmental management is a set of practices and processes that enable any
organization, whether private (or) public, to reduce its environmental impacts and increasing
its operating efficiency.
4.12.1 Objective (or) Aim of EM
To mitigate adverse impacts on various
1. Environmental components, identified during the rapid environmental impact assessment
which have been study.
2. To protect environmental resources.
3. To enhance the value of environmental components where possible.
4. To monitoring plan to enable evaluation of the success (or) failure of environmental
management measures.
5. To carry out reorientation of the plan if found necessary criteria for construction of the
project.
6. To implement the protective and enhancement by adopting suitable planning and design
7. To improve the quality of human life.
8. To prevent and solve environmental problems.
9. To establish limits and standards.
10. To warn against threats and identify opportunities.
11. To develop strategy for improving quality of life.
12. To identify new eco-friendly technologies for sustainable development.
13. To protect the environment from the effects of manufacturing byproducts.
14. To protect your business from non-compliance fines and penalties.
4.12.2 Principles of environmental management
There are 7 basic principles, which are some guiding principles of environmental
management. These principles are helpful in environmental decision making.
1. Polluter pays principle (PPP) It states that firms discharge polluting effluent to the
environment. If measures are adopted to reduce pollution the cost should be paid by the
polluters (firms).
2. The user pays principle (UPP) It states that all resource users should pay the cost of the
use of a resource and related services.
3. The precautionary principle (PP) It states that a substance (or) activity, posing a threat to
the environment, is prevented from adversely affecting the environment.

4. Principle of effectiveness and efficiency The efficiency of resource use may be

accomplished by the use of policy instruments that create incentive to minimize wasteful use.
5. The principle of responsibility It is the responsibility of all persons, to use the
environmental resources in an ecological sustainable, economically efficient and socially fair
manner.
6. The principle of participation It is the duty of all the persons to participate in collectively
environmental decision making activities.
7. The principle of proportionality It is based on the concept of balance. A balance is to
maintain between the economic development on the one hand and environmental protection
on the other hand.
4.12.3 Steps involved in environmental The following 5 steps are involved in

environmental management
Step 1: Environmental policy - It is the mission of an organization, which starts with
establishing an environmental policy.
Step 2: Planning - It involves identifying the resources, processes, significant impacts and
pollution prevention opportunities. It also includes objectives and targets for improvement
efforts.
Step 3: Implementation - This step consists of defining the structure, responsibilities and
programs. It also develops and implements standard operating procedures and training.
Step 4: Checking and correction - It includes monitoring and measuring problems
identification and corrective and preventive action implementation.
Step 5 Management review modification
4.12.5 Benefits of Environmental Management
1. Improved environmental performance
2 Enhanced compliance
3. Pollution prevention
4. Resource conservation
5. Attracts new customers/markets
6. Increased efficiency/reduced costs Enhanced employee morale
7. Enhanced image with public, regulators, lenders and investors.

4.13 CASE STUDIES

4.13.1 Electronic waste (E-waste) Recycling, Dell company
Dell company, through its "legacy of good" programme, the technology giant has plan
to cut waste, create more eco-friendly products. It plans to use 50 m pounds of recycled
plastic and other sustainable materials, create 100% recyclable (or) compostable packaging
and recover 2 bn pounds of electronic waste. Dell sourced 45 m kilos of recycled plastic to
make monitors and desktops.
Dell eliminated 20 m pounds of packaging waste and generating more than 18 m in

cost savings. Its intention to reduce packaging waste, replacing non-biodegradable, oil-base
material with organic alternatives such as bamboo and mushrooms.
As a part of its effort to encourage others to see waste as a valuable resource. Finally,
the most appropriate environmental management strategy to control environmental pollution
is cleaner production. So, according to environmental management principles, cleaner
production is a proactive approach where companies take preventive measure to reduce waste
production at source.
4.13.2 Biomedical waste management in Nepal
Due to improper environment techniques, Nepal has many problems with medical
waste. management which impact adversely the environment including human health. Nepal
Health Resource council in collaboration with world health organization (WHO) has
developed national health care waste management guidelines and training Imanuals for
medical professionals, but it has not been functioning well. As a result, many hospitals use
small scale incinerators (or) open burn (or) dump the waste in their premises until the garbage
pickers comes and dispose in the landfill.
Incinerator facilities, if properly implemented, not only reduce final disposal of waste,
but also produce electricity/heat, saving (energy) resources. This situation in Nepal is much
worsen because it was not properly built and there are residents who could directly be
affected by emissions resulted from the smoke around the burning equipment.
4.13.3 Municipal solid waste management in solapur city, Maharashtra, India
Total waste generated in solapur corporation area is 420 MT/day, of which 50% is
biodegradable, 25% is recyclable, 15.3% is green and 9.9% is debris and slit. About 51% of
the total solid waste, collected from entire city, is biodegradable.

The waste is disposed daily to the landfill site located on Tuljapur road and Bhogaon.
The disposal site is open and gives rise to contamination and the treatment process is not
followed. The landfill sites are not well maintained, which create the threat of groundwater
contamination due to leachate percolation. Most of the waste remains lying down in open
causing pollution with the odour and smell unless degrades naturally.
A treatment plant of anaerobic digestion is in progress to extract energy from organic
waste generating the biogas.

Unit - V
Sustainability Practices
5.1 ZERO WASTE
Definition Zero waste is a set of principles, focused on waste prevention, that encourages
redesigning resource life cycles, so that all products are reused.
5.1.1 Goal
1.The material should be reused until the optimum level of consumption is reached.
2. It provides guidelines for continually working towards eliminating waste.
3. To avoid sending trash to landfills, incinerators (or) the ocean.
5.1.2 Concept The conservation of all the resources by means of responsible production,
consumption, reuse and recovery of products, packaging and materials without burning and
with no discharges to land, water (or) air that threaten the environment (or) human health.
Examples of zero waste
(i) one-way recyclable glass bottles.
(ii) one way milk bags.
(iii) one-way aseptic cartons.
(iv) one-way table - top paper board cartons.
5.1.3 Principles of zero waste

Refuse what you don't need: It prevents unwanted items from coming into your home.
Reduce what you do use: It is equal to less waste at the end.
Reuse whatever you can.
Recycle what you can't refuse (or) Regulate of what's left over: Reduce Composting food
scraps, paper pieces and wooden (or) bamboo tooth brushes returns nutrients and fiber back
to the earth.
5.1.4 Steps to achieve zero waste

1.Substitute single use plastic with eco-friendly zero-waste options.
2. Identify the high waste areas of our life-style.
3.Know where to apply the principle of zero waste, if the waste cannot be removed (or)
reduced.

4. Buy zero waste (or) eco-friendly products.

5.Support eco-friendly businesses.
6. Put all your kitchen waste to good use (compositing).Reuse, upcycle and re-purpose. 5.1.5
Advantages and Disadvantages of
7.zero waste

(1) Zero waste reduces our climate impact.
(ii) It conserves resources and minimizes pollution.
(iii) It promotes social equity and builds community.
(iv) It supports a local circular economy and creates jobs, (v) Zero waste needs businesses to
play a key role,
Disadvantages (or) problem of zero waste
(i) Since zero wastes are solids, it is difficult to store
(ii) It is more expensive.
(iii) Zero waste in time-consuming.
(iv) It can cause anxiety. (v) Zero waste can be misleading.
(vi) It can be difficult for a large household.
(vii) Zero waste products are hard to find.
(5.2) R CONCEPT (OR) 3R CONCEPT (REDUCE REUSE AND RECYCLE)

Definition The principle of reducing waste, reusing and recycling resources and products is
often called 3Rs.
1. Reduce Reducing means choosing to use things with care to reduce the amount of waste
generated.
If the usage of raw materials, are reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced.
2. Reuse Reusing involves the repeated use of items (or) parts of items which still have
usable aspects. (a) The refillable containers, which are discarded after use, can be reused.
(b) Rubber rings can be made from the discarded cycle / tubes, which reduces the waste
generation during manufacturing of rubber bands.
3. Recycle resources into new useful products.
Recycling means the use of waste itself as the It involves reprocessing of the discarded
materials

Examples
(i) Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles.
(ii) Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper.
(iii) Preparation of fuel pellets from kitchen waste.
(iv) Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel cans.
The above process saves money, energy, raw materials, and reduces pollution.
5.2.1 Concept of 3R
The concepts of 3R refers to reduce, reuse and recycle, particularly in the topic of
production and consumption. It forces for an increase in the ratio of recyclable materials,
further reusing of raw materials and manufacturing wastes and overall reduction in resources
and energy used.
3R is the order of priority of actions to be taken to
5.2.2 Principle reduce the amount of waste generated and to improve overall waste
management processes and programs.
5.2.3 Importance of 3 Rs
(i) The most effective way to reduce the garbage is reducing the amount of solid waste
produced.
(ii) By reducing waste at the source, the resources like water and energy can be saved.
(iii) Like reducing, reusing avoids creating waste rather than trying to recycle it once it's
already there.
(iv) Operating a well-run recycling program costs less than waste collection and land filling.
(v) Recycling helps families save money because they pay for less disposal costs.
(vi) recycling produces less air and water pollution than manufacturing with new materials.
(vii) By recycling less materials are sent to landfills, which will keep them for future. (viii)
Proper disposal and recycling will prevent water and soil contamination.
5.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of 3 Rs (or) Benefits of 3 Rs

(i) Reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
(ii) Saves energy.
(iii) Helps sustain the environment for future generations.

(iv) Reduces the amount of waste that will need to be recycled (or) sent to landfills and
incinerators. (v) Save money.
(vi) Prevent pollution.
Disadvantages of 3 Rs
1. High upfront capital cost.
2.Recycling sites are always unhygienic, unsafe and unsightly.
3. Products from recycled waste may not be durable. 4. Recycling might not be inexpensive.
5. 3R is more energy consumption and pollution.
6. 3R generates pollutants.. 7. Processing cost is high.
8. Quality of resultant product is low.
5.3 CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Definition Circular economy is a new production and consumption model that ensures
sustainable growth over time. It reduces the consumption of raw materials and recover wastes
by recycling (or) giving it a second life as a new product.
5.3.1 Aim (or) Purpose
Aim of the circular economy is to make the most of the material resources available to
us by applying three basic principles reduce, reuse and recycle.
In this way the life cycle of products is extended, waste is used and a more efficient
and sustainable production model is established over time.
5.3.2 Benefits of circular economy
(i) It protects environment.
(ii) Circular economy benefits the local economy.
(iii) It drives employment growth.
(iv) It promotes resource independence.
5.3.3 Necessary steps (7Rs) to achieve a circular economy
1. Redesign Redesigning process consumes fewer raw materials. Extends their life cycle and
generates less waste.
2. Reduce If we reduce consumption, waste generation and use of raw materials, impact on
the environment gets reduced
3. Reuse reusing the products extends their life cycle.

4. Repair Repairing avoids the use of new raw materials, saves energy and does not generate
environmental waste.
5. Renovate Update old objects, so that they can be reused.
6. Recycle Waste product can be used as raw material to manufacture new products.
7. Recover The products that are going to be discarded, can be used for new uses.
Example for Circular Economy
(i) Manufacturers design products to be reusable.
(ii) Electrical devices are designed in such a way that they are easier to repair. Products and
raw materials are also reused as much as possible.
(5.4) ISO 14000 SERIES
ISO is for an International Organization Standardization. It is composed of
representatives from various national standard organizations. It provides standards and
guidelines for a variety of businesses and purposes and publishes technical reports.
ISO 14000 series
It is a family of standards related to management that exist to help organizations.
Environmental minimize how their operations negatively affect the environment.
(a)environmentally oriented requirements.
(b) comply with applicable laws, regulations and other
(c) continually improve with above.
5.4.1Objective of ISO14000 series
The primary objective of ISO14000 series of standard is to promote effective environmental
management systems in organizations.
5.4.2 List of ISO 14000 Series Standards
It includes a catalogue of over 50 Environmental management and performance
related standards. But some important ISO14000 series standards are listed here.
5.4.3 Core elements of ISO 14000
It contains the following six key elements.
(i) Environmental policy.
(ii) Planning.
(iii) Implementation and operation.
(iv) Checking and corrective action.
(v) Management review.
(vi) Continuous improvement.

5.4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of ISO14000

The following five important benefits of quality management system
(i) It identifies risks and opportunities.
(ii)It prevents problems from reoccurring.
(iii) It boosts your marketing and sales efforts.
(iv) It improves employee performance.
(v) It improves your control over the business.
(vi) It lowers costs like energy bills, tax and insurance bills.
(vii) It helps to reduce waste.
(viii) It helps to minimize the carbon footprint of a company.
(ix) It is recognised internationally.
(ix) It gives immediate notice about the environmental performance of a company.
1. It is extremely costly to implement if not done properly.
2. It requires a lot of administrative work.
3. No improvement in environmental performance.
4. Organizations face a lot of challenges while
5. Implementing this standards.
(5.5) MATERIAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Definition Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a process of evaluating the effects of a
material on the environment over the entire period of its life, thereby increasing resource use
efficiency and decreasing liabilities.
Generally LCA is used to study the environmental impact of a material. LCA is commonly
referred to as a cradle-to-grave analysis.
5.5.1 Stages of a life cycle assessment
The followings are the 5 stages of a life cycle assessment
Step 1: Raw materials (Resources) extraction and processing.
Step 2: Manufacturing
Step 3: Transportation.
Step 4 Distribution.
Step 5: Usage and retail.
Step 6: Waste disposal (end of life).

In the manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material
extraction and through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling (or)
final disposal of the materials.
5.5.2 Benefits (or) Advantages of LCA development.
1.LCA is widely used to support sustainable
2. LCA allows decision makers to compare two products and to select the product that has
lowest impact on the environment. .
3. It is a modelling tool to assess environmental impacts of a product during its entire
lifespan.
4. LCA provides a holistic view on the environmental impacts, to avoid optimizing one
environmental indicator without considering the effects on the other indicators.
5. LCA identifies hotspots in the environmental impact.
6. LCA is purely based on internationally accepted standards.
5.5.3 Disadvantages (or) Limitations
1.LCA assesses the real world in a simplified model.
2. The assumptions, scenaries and scope may vary from one study to the other leading to
different LCA results.
3. Variations in LCA approaches and results may be confusing especially for non-experts.
4. LCA study requires large amount of data. If data collection is poor, the study will not lead
to solid conclusions.
5. It is not easy to communicate the results of a LCA study.
5.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
EIA is defined as a formal process of predicting the environmental consequences of
any development projects. It is used to identify the environmental, social and economic
impacts of the project prior to decision making.
5.6.1 Purpose (or) Alm of EIA
The main purpose of EIA is to determine the potential environmental, social and
health effects of proposed developmental projects.
5.6.2 Objectives of EIA
1. To identify the main issues and problem of the parties.
2. To identify who is the party.
3. To identify what are the problems of the parties.
4. To identify why the problems are arise.

5.6.3 Benefits of EIA

1. Cost and time of the project is reduced.
2. Performance of the project is improved.
3. Waste treatment and cleaning expenses are minimised.
4. Usages of resources are decreased.
5. Biodiversity is maintained.
6. Human health is improved.
7. It helps in preventing natural calamities like earthquake, cyclone, etc.,
5.6.4 Process of EIA (or) Key Elements of EIA
The key elements used in the process of EIA are
1. Scoping
2. Screening
3. Identifying and evaluating alternatives
4. Mitigating measures dealing with uncertainty
5. Issuing environmental statements
1. Scoping It is used to identify the key issues of the concern in the planning process at an
early stage. It is also used to aid site selection and identify any possible alternatives.
2. Screening It is used to decide whether an EIA is required (or) not based on the information
collected.
3. Identifying and evaluating alternatives It involves knowing alternative sites and
alternative
techniques and their impacts.
4. Mitigating measures dealing with uncertainty It reviews the action taken to prevent (or)
minimize the adverse effects of a project.
5. Environmental statements This is the final stage of the EIA process. It reports the
findings of the EIA.
5.7 SUSTAINABLE HABITAT

Sustainable habitat means the maintenance of our natural home. A sustainable habitat
is an ecosystem that produces food and shelter for people and other organisms without
resource depletion ie., no external waste is produced.

5.7.1 Features (or) Characteristics of sustainable habitat

(i) Proper waste management.
(ii) Affordable housing.
(iii) Waste water treatment and facility of recycling waste water.
(iv) Green transportation using green fuel like biodiesel.
5.7.2 Objectives of national mission on sustainable habitat

1. To reduce energy demand by promoting alternative technologies and energy conservation
practices in both residential and commercial areas.
2. Better urban planning like using better disaster management, lesser use of private transport,
more usage of public transport
3. Encourage community involvement and participation of stake holders.
4. Conservation of natural resources such as clean air, water, flora and fauna.
5. Facilitate the growth of small and medium cities. 6. To create sustainable habitats,
engineers and architects should not consider any element as a waste product.
How to maintain sustainable habitat for maintaining our sustainable habitat, we should
(i) Promote energy efficiency.
(ii) Promote the use of eco-friendly fuels.
(iii) Better manage municipal solid waste.
(iv) Promote to public transport.
GREEN BUILDINGS
Definition Green building is an efficient method of construction that produces healthier
buildings, which have less impact on the environment and climate. It requires less cost to
maintain.
Green buildings preserve previous natural resources and improve our quality of life.
5.8.1 Criteria for green building
1. Green builders are encouraged to build on previously developed land rather than
developing new land.
2. It is also important to build near existing infrastructure like bus routes, market, libraries.
3. The building site should be smaller because there is less environmental foot print.
4. Sites must be sustainably landscaped and don't suffer from soil erosion (or) light pollution.

5. Water reduction is built in by design using low-flow toilets, grey water systems.
6. Green buildings are constructed using clean energy like geothermal, solar, wind energies.
7. Green builders reduce material usage wherever possible. Mainly they use natural,
renewable sources.
8. Selecting low emitting materials and products not only improves human health but also
protect the overall environment.
5.8.2 Features of green building

(1) Efficient use of energy, water and other resources, Use of renewable energy such as solar
energy.
(ii) Pollution and waste reduction measures ie., reuse and recycling.
(ii) Good indoor environmental air quality.
(iv) A design that enables adaptation to a environment.
(v) Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable.
(vi) Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design, construction and operation.
(viii) Construction of the environment in design construction and operation.
Thus, any building can be a green building whether it is a home, an office, a school, a
hospital, a community centre provided it includes features listed above.
5.8.3 Principles of green building

The five principles of green building are
(i) Livable communities.
(ii) Energy efficiency.
(iii) Indoor air quality.
(iv) Resource conservation.
(v) Water conservation.
5.8.4 Components of green building

Seven important components of green buildings are Aluminium weather resistant
insulated access panel. It helps regulate in door temperature and prevent moisture and pest
from entering.
Energy efficient windows.
Green roof.

Solar power.
Water conservation.
Recycling.
Landscaping.
5.8.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of green building

Advantages of green buildings
1. Green buildings are energy efficient.
2. Higher fraction of eco-friendly materials.
3. Water efficient devices.
4. Reduction in waste.
5. Less air pollution.
6. Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
7. Protection of our natural resources.
8. Indoor air quality is improved.
9. Use of recycled metal and other construction materials.
10. Emphasis on renewable energies.
11. Day lighting is utilized as best as possible.
12. Use of renewable plant materials.
13. Higher market value.
14. Rainwater collection and use of compost bins. Overall health improvements.
Disadvantages of green building

1. High initial costs.
2. Energy supply may depend on weather condition.
3. Technology problems are more.
4. Maintenance may be difficult.
5. Indoor air temperature may greatly vary over time.
6. Experienced green construction workers may be rare.
7. Green construction is not suitable for all locations Availability of green construction
materials.
8. Funding problems for green buildings.

5.9 GREEN MATERIALS

Green materials also called eco-friendly materials, building construction materials that
have low impact on the environment. Due to the properties of non-toxic, organic and
recycling, green materials are widely used in various industrial applications.
Examples Naturally occurring materials like wood ceramics, glass, clay, sand, stone.
5.9.1 Criteria for green materials

Following criteria can be used to identify the green materials.
(i) Local availability of materials.
(ii) Embodied energy of materials.
(iii) % of recycled (or) waste materials used.
(iv) Rapidly renewable materials.
(y) Contribution in energy efficiency of building.
(vi) Recyclability of materials.
(vii) Durability.
(viii) Environmental impact.
5.9.2 Characteristics of green materials

Common characteristics of green materials are Green materials are energy efficient
products, it uses
1. less energy to do the same task.
2. It lowers energy cost and lessen pollution.
3. Green materials are mostly renewable, can be regenerated again and again.
Example Bamboo grows quickly while pine grows more slowly, but both are renewable.
4. Green materials are recyclable (or) made from recycled material. So, they save energy and
reduce waste.
5. Green materials are non-toxic, they do not emit odors, irritants (or) hazardous compounds
that affect human health.
6. They are durable and no need to upgrade (or) repair. They preserve resources and energy.
They are cost-effective.
7. They can be locally sourced, so transport cost can be reduced.

5.9.3 Important green building materials

Green building is construction that primarily uses natural materials and renewable
resources. These structures look really cool. It is low maintenance and durable.
1. Stone:
2. Cob: (mud mixture of natural ingredients like soil. sand, straw and lime). It is cheap
and energy efficient.
3. Bamboo It is durable and light weight.
4. Cork: (Cork canes from oak trees). ) It is a very good thermal insulator and mold
resistant
5. Adobe brick: (brick made of clay and straw), Natural noise protection and posses
unique design (can be easily cut and transformed).
6. Straw bale Easily renewable and cheap.
7. Cord wood Affordable (cheap and easy construction), thermal efficiency.
Earth bags (or) sand bags
8. Locally sourced and provide natural insulation.
9. Mycelium (or) mushroom roots Strong and light weight.
5.9.4 Examples of green materials

(i) Bamboo floorings.
(ii) LED lightings.
(iii) Reclaimed wood.
(iv) Energy efficient appliances.
(v) High-efficiency glass windows.
(vi) Solar panels.
(vii) Recycled steel.
(viii) Cork.
(ix) Precast concrete slabs.
(x) Low VOC paint.
5.10 ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Definition Energy efficiency is the use of less energy to perform the same task (or)
produce the same result. Energy efficient homes and buildings use less energy to heat, cool
and run appliances and electronics.

5.10.1 Methods of achieving energy efficiency sale

Energy efficiency can be achieved by the following methods.
(i) Alternative waste treatment.
(ii) (ii) Avoided emissions from diverting legacy waste from landfill for process
engineered fuel manufacture.
(iii) Avoided emissions from diverting legacy waste from landfill through a
composting alternative waste technology.
(iv) Capture and combustion of landfill gas.
5.10.3 Advantages (or) Benefits of energy

1. Using energy more efficiently is one of the fastest,
2. Increased energy efficiency can lower greenhouse gas emissions and other
pollutants.
3. Energy efficiency also decreases water use.
4. It can lower individual utility bills, create jobs and help stabilize electricity prices.
5. It provides long-term benefits by lowering overall electricity demand, thus reducing
the need to invest in new electricity generation and transmission infrastructure.
6. Energy efficient construction is environmentally. friendly as it does not emit
harmful carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Example Energy-efficient LED light bulbs are able to produce the same amount of light
as incandescent light bulbs by using 75 to 80% less electricity.
5.10.4 Disadvantages (or) limitations of energy efficiency

1. Energy efficient construction is the high cost of enforcing ie., addition cost is
required to build and plan such buildings.
2. Building materials are not always available.
3. Although energy efficient construction is environmentally friendly, it produces less
carbon emissions and has slight unfavorable effects on the human health.
4. Indoor air is 3 to 7 times more polluted than outdoor air.

5.11 SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

Sustainable transport refers to any means of transportation that is "green" and has low
impact on the environment.
Examples
1. walking
2. cycling
3. transit
4. carpooling
5. car sharing
6. green vehicles
Sustainable transport can carry people for more efficiently than cars. Electric cars
pollute less and reduce individual carbon foot prints.
6.11.1 Importance of sustainable transport

Sustainable transport contributes to reduction in damaging CO₂ emission and
therefore to a reduction in atmospheric pollution and improved air quality in cities.
The aim of this type of transport is to reduce the negative impacts on the environment.
5.11.2 Key elements of sustainable transport

1. Fuel economy The better fuel economy gets the lower emissions go By improving fuel
economy we can get the same mileage while generating fewer emissions. It is achieved by
(i) making engines more efficient.
(ii) vehicles lighter and bodies more aerodynamic.
2. Occupancy The cheapest and simplest way to lower the carbon intensity of a vehicle is to
stick more people in the vehicle.
Example - Local bus has emissions 7 times higher than the school bus. The main
difference is that the school bus has very high occupancy.
Electrification Electrification is the most important pathway to low carbon transport.
Pedal power Bicycles reduces the carbon emissions.
Urbanization It is a huge opportunity for lowering both distance travelled per person
and the carbon intensity of that travel.

5.11.3 How to Promote sustainable transport

Followings are steps for promoting sustainable transport.
Enhancing public transportation:
It is not only less polluting means of transportation, but also promoting HSE (Health, safety
and
environment) policy. Encouraging car pooling:
It reduces the volume of CO2, emitted per inhabitant.
Encouraging bicycle use: It is reliable and non-polluting means of transportation,
Teleworking
It reduces employee travel and therefore their carbon foot print
Environmental Sciences and Sustainability proving the porking experience. It can be done
effectively with the help of a parking management software.
5.11.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of sustainable transport
Advantages (or) benefits
1. It creates job.
2. Provides safer transportation.
3. Emits less pollution.
4. Promotes health (sustainable emissions and air pollution) transit reduces
5. It saves energy.
6. Saves money.
7. Decreases congestion:
8.When people choose sustainable transportation, over driving themselves.
1. Modifications to handling and transport facilities.
2. The initial purchase of reusable containers.
3. Additional costs of the tracking system e.g., software packages, reading equipments,
electronic chips barcode labelling, detector's etc.,
5.12 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Sustainable energy is the energy which meets the needs of present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It should be
encouraged as it does not cause any harm to the environment and is available widely at free
of cost.

5.12.1 Sources of sustainable energy

Followings are the sustainable enery sources as they are stable and available in plenty.
1. Wind energy.
2. Solar energy.
3. Ocean energy.
4. Hydro power.
5. Geothermal energy.
5.12.2 Advantages and disadvantages of sustainable energy
1. Improves public health Burning of fossil fuels produces serious public health issues like
neurological damage, cancer, heart attacks, breathing problems and premature death.
However these problems can be eliminated by using sustainable energy Sources, which emit
no air (or) water pollutants.
2. Creates local Jobs Since most of the sustainable energy infrastructure is built locally (or) in
the same country, it helps jobs and improves the economy.
3. Decrease your carbon footprint Sustainable energy like wind and solar energy creates zero
carbon emissions.
4. Cost saving As it is easily available they are much cost-effective than traditional energy
resources, such as power plants more
5. Energy security It helps to conserve the planet's natural resources and reduce the pollution.
1. Sustainable energy sources are not available round the clock.
2. The efficiency of sustainable energy technologies is low.
3. The initial cost of sustainable energy is high.
4. Sustainable energy sites require a lot of space.
5. Sustainable energy devices need recycling.
5.13 NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES (OR) RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Non-conventional sources are natural resources which can be regenerated
continuously and are inexhaustible. They can be used again and again in an endless manner.
Examples Wood, solar energy, hydropower, tidal energy, etc.,

Wind energy
Merits of Non-conventional energy resources
1. Unlimited supply.
2. Provides energy security.
3. Fits into sustainable development concept.
4. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
5. Decentralized energy production.
513.1 Solar energy
The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy.
The nuclear fusion reactions occurring inside the sun release enormous amount of
energy in the form of heat and light. Several techniques are available for collecting,
converting and using solar energy.
Methods of Harvesting Solar Energy
Some important solar energy harvesting devices are given below.
Solar cells (or) photovoltaic cells (or) PV cells Solar cells consists of a p-type
semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with
P). They are in close contact with each other. When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-
type semiconductor, the electrons from the valence band get promoted to the conduction band
and cross the p-n junction into n-type semiconductor.
1. There by potential difference between two layers is created, which
causes flow of electrons (ie., an electric current).
2. Uses Used in calculators, electronic watches, street lights, water pumps
to run radios and TVs.
3. Solar Battery
4. When a large number of solar cells are connected in series it form a
solar battery. Solar battery produce more electricity which is enough to
run water pump, to run street-light, etc., They are used in remote areas
where
conventional electricity supply is a problem.
Solar heat collectors Solar heat collectors consist of natural materials like stones,
bricks (or) materials like glass, which can absorb heat during the day time and release it
slowly at night.

It is generally used in cold places, where houses are kept in hot condition using solar
heat collectors.
Solar water heater It consists of an insulated box inside of which is painted with black
paint. It is also provided with a glass lid to receive and store solar heat. Inside the box it has
black painted copper coil, through which cold water is allowed to flow in, which gets heated
up and flows out into a storage tank. From the storage tank water is then supplied through
pipes.
Wind energy
Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the force of the wind is called wind
energy. The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed. The wind energy is
harnessed by making use of wind mills.
1. Wind mills
The strike of blowing wind on the blades of the wind mill makes it rotating
continuously. The rotational motion of the blade drives a number of machines like water
pump, flour mills and electric generators.
2. Wind farms
When a large number of wind mills are installed and joined together in a definite
pattern it forms a wind farm. The wind farms, produce a large amount of electricity.
5.13.3Ocean energy
Ocean can also be used for generating energy in the following ways.
1. Tidal energy (or) Tital power Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces
of sun and moon, contain enormous amount of energy.
2. The high tide' and 'low tide' refer to the rise and fall of water in the
oceans. The tidal energy can be harnessed constructing a tidal barrage.
by
(a) During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage and
rotates the turbine, which inturn produces electricity by rotating the generators.
(b) During low tide, when the sea level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir is
allowed to flow into the sea and again rotates the turbine.

2. Ocean thermal energy (OTE)

There is often large temperature difference between the surface level and deeper level
of the tropical oceans. This temperature difference can be utilized to generate electricity. The
energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is called ocean thermal energy.
Condition
The temperature difference should be of 20°C (or) more is required between surface
water and deeper water.
Process
The warm surface water of ocean is used to boil a low boiling liquid like ammonia.
The high vapour pressure of the liquid, formed by boiling, is then used to turn the turbine of
the generator and generates electricity. The cold water from the deeper ocean is pumped to
cool and condense the vapour into liquid.
3. Geo-thermal energy
Temperature of the earth increases at a rate of 20-75°C per km, when we move down
the earth surface High temperature and high pressure steam fields exist below the earth's
surface in many places. The energy harnessed from the high temperature present inside the
earth is called geothermal energy. Natural geysers In some places, the hot water (or) steam
comes out of the ground through cracks naturally in the form of natural geysers.
1. Artificial geysers In some places, we can artificially drill a hole up to the hot region and by
sending a pipe in it, we can make the hot water (or) steam to rush out through the pipe with
very high pressure. Thus, the hot water (or) steam coming out from the natural (or) artificial
geysers is allowed to rotate the turbine of a generator to produce electricity.
5.13.4 Biomass energy
Biomass is the organic matter, produced by plants (or) animals, used as sources of energy.
Most of the biomass is burned directly for heating, cooling and industrial purposes.
Examples: Wood, crop residues, seeds. cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes, etc., Biomass
energies are of any one of the following types.
Biogas is a mixture of gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc.. It
contains about 65% of methane gas as a major constituent.
Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of animal dung (or) plant wastes in
the presence of water
Biofuels are the fuels, obtained by the fermentation of biomass.
Ethanol, methanol.

Example
Ethanol: Ethanol can be produced from the sugarcane. Its calorific value is less when
compared to petrol, and produces much less heat than petrol.
Methanol Methanol can be easily obtained from ethanol (or) sugar-containing plants.
Its calorific value is also too low when compared to gasoline and diesel.
Tival Gasohol is a mixture of ethanol + gasoline. In India trial is being carried out to
use Gasohol in cars and buses.
Hydrogen Fuel Hydrogen can be produced by thermal dissociation (or) photolysis
(or) electrolysis of water. It possess high calorific value. It is non -polluting, because the
combustion product is water.
5.14 ENERGY CYCLES

Energy cycle, is the interactions between energy sources within the Earth's
environment. These interactions are very complex and even small changes in them can lead to
significant changes in long-term climate behavior.
Soil moisture is an important factor in the absorption and reflection of the sun's
energy by the earth's surface.
5.14.1 Carbon cycle
Carbon cycle is the movement of carbon (or) carbon compounds continuously from
the atmosphere to the earth and then back into the atmosphere.
(Or)
Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged among the
biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of the earth.
Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form of carbon dioxide, Carbon enters the
atmosphere through natural process such as respiration and industrial applications such as
burning of fossil fuels
Source
1. During respiration, plants and animals liberates CO2 in the atmosphere.
2. Combustion of fuels also release CO
3. Volcanic eruptions also release CO

Various steps involved in carbon cycle Carbon cycle involves the following
Step 1: Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants by the processes
photosynthesi which involves the absorption of CO₂ by plants to produce carbohydrates
(producen)
CO₂+H₂O+ energy ___> (CH,O)n + 0,
Step 1I: These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bioaccumulated into
their bodies (consumers).
Stop III: These animals and plants eventually die and decomposers eat the dead organism and
return the carbon from their body back the atmosphere (decomposers)
(CH₂O)+0₂->CO₂+H₂O+ energy
Step IV: Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually become
foss fuels.
Step V : These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pump more carbon
back into the atmosphere.
Sources (or) Causes of carbon emissions
1. Natural sources of CO₂ emission.
2. It includes
(a) Decomposition of matter.
(b) Ocean release.
(c) Respiration.
(d) Most animals, which exhale CO2 as a waste product.
(e) Carbonate rocks.
2. Human sources of CO2 emission
It includes (i) Burning of fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and oil.
(ii) Deforestation.
(iii) Industrial activities like cement manufacture, oil refineries and leather
industries. (iv) Transportation sector generates largest amount of CO₂ in the
atmosphere.
Harmful effects of carbon emissions
1. Carbon emission, nothing but emission house gas, affects the planet significantly. of green
It causes global warming and affects climate change.
2. Reduction of carbon emission.

There are many ways to reduce green house gas emissions like
1. energy efficiency.
2. fuel switching.
3. combined heat and power.
4. use of renewable energy.
5. more efficient use.
6. recycling of materials.
7. plant more trees.
8. reduce air travel.
9. driving more efficient.
5.15.2 Carbon sequestration
It is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbondioxide. It is one method
of reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Goal of carbon sequestration is to reduce
global climate change.
25% of our carbon emissions have been captured by earth's forests, farms and
grassland. Scientists and land managers are working to keep landscapes vegetated and soil
hydrated for plants to grow and sequester carbon.
30% of the carbon dioxide, we emit from burning fossil fuels, is absorbed by the
upper layer of the ocean.
45% of carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere the rest in sequestered naturally by the
environment.
Concept (or) Aim of carbon sequestration
The concept of carbon sequestration is to stabilize carbon in solid and dissolved forms
so that it doesn't cause the atmosphere to warm. The process shows tremendous promise for
reducing the human "carbon foot print".
Modes (or) Types of bon sequestration
There are three main types of carbon sequestration.
• It is the storage of CO2 in vegetation like grassland, forests, soils and oceans.
Centrgical carbon sequestration
• It is the process of storing CO₂ in underground geologic formations (or) rocks.
• Typically, CO2 is captured from an industrial sources like steel (or) cement
production, power plant and injected into the porous rocks for long-term storage.

Example Graphene production

The use of CO2 as a raw material to produce graphene (a technological material).
Graphene is used to create screens for smart phones and other technical devices. Graphene
production is an example of how CO2 can be used as a resource and a solution in reducing
emissions from atmosphere.
5.16 GREEN ENGINEERING

Green engineering is the design, commercialization and use of processes and products
that minimizes pollution, promotes sustainability and promotes human health without
affecting environment.
5.16.2 Examples for green engineering
1. Biodegradable cups and straws.
2. Enhanced industrial emission filters.
3.Waste water treatment.
4. Radiant floors (heat homes efficiently by installing warming tubes under a floor).
5. Plant-based cooling (an alternate cooling solution using plants and trees installed around
(or) on a building).
5.16.3 Goal of green engineering

1. Decrease in the amount of pollution that is generated by a construction.
2. Minimization of human population exposure to potential hazards (reducing toxicity).
3. Improved uses of matter and energy throughout the life cycle of the product.
4. Maintaining economic efficiency and viability.
5. Reduces waste and our carbon footprint.
6. Reduces energy and water consumption.
7. Improves business efficiency by lowering costs while improving the product design and
creating new jobs
5.17 SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION

Urbanization is the movement of human population from rural areas to urban areas for
the want of better education, communication, health, employment, etc. without affecting the
environment and needs of future generations.

5.17.1 Rules to develop a sustainable urbanization

1. Sustainable transportation.
2. Sustainable urban development.
3. Climate change mitigation and landscape architecture
4.Resilient design (regarding natural hazards).
5. Applying ecological design.
6. Improving water efficiency.
7. Increasing energy efficiency.
8. By following the above rules, urbanization can be made into sustainable.
5.17.2 Pillars of sustainable urbanization

Sustainability is based on three functional areas ie., social. environmental and
financial/economical. These functional areas are interconnected and must be considered
together. The place where these all meet and are balanced is the goal of sustainability.
The goal of urban sustainability is to prevent resource availability issues for existing
(or) future generations. It also minimizes an urban area's impact on its ecosystem.
5.17.3 Advantages and disadvantages of sustainable urbanization

Advantages
1. Urbanization creates convenience.
2. Urban economies can be better than rural ones.
3. Provides better education.
4. Get better housing.
5. Provides better social life.
6. Provides better healthcare services.
7. More security and police availability.
8. More entertainment options.
9. More tourist attractions.
10. More places to shop in urban areas.
Disadvantages
1. Overcrowding in urban areas.
2. Buying a house might be a challenge.
3. Decline in rural area.

4. Too much crime occurs in urban area.

5. Unemployment problem is more.
6. Cost of living is higher.
7. No privacy.
8. Pollution problem is more.
5.55 SOCIO-ECONOMICAL CHANGE ON SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION

Urbanization has many adverse effects on the structure of society because, (i) gigantic
concentrations of people compete for limited resources.
(i) Rapid housing construction leads to overcrowding.
(ii) Slums, which experience major problems such as poverty, poor sanitation,
unemployment.
(iii) It leads to higher crime rates and pollution.
(iv) It also leads to increased levels of inequality and social exclusion.
(v) Environmental degradation is occurring very rapidly causing problems like
land insecurity, excessive air pollution, waste disposal problems.
5.18.1 Technological change on sustainable urbanization
Technological change involves the introduction of something new (or) a new idea,
method (or) device. Technological innovations, as part of technological change, allow
organisations to test new ideas at speeds and prices that were newer anticipated a decade ago.
1. Technological innovation has changed the overall effectiveness and benevolence
over time and with regard to sustainability.
2 Upgrading of industrial structure sustainable urbanization.
3. Technological change and sustainability are closely related to each other.
4. Both factors form the innovation in order to improve the effectiveness of
environmental and development and economic progress. Social
5. The combination of digital technology in the business model will establish and
empower a city to be more sustainable.

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KNOWLEDGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SALEM

(An Autonomous Institution)

1.3 TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 1

(1.4) COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 2

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 3

1.6Environmental Sciences and Sustainability

1.4.2 Biotic (or) Living Components

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 4

Functions of biosphere: Plants through photosynthesis produce oxygen in the atmosphere.

1.4.3 Energy Components

1.5 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

1.6 IMPORTANCE (or) SIGNIFICANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 5

4. Environmental studies have a direct relation to the quality of life we live.

1.7 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1.7.1 Importance of Public (or) Community participation

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 6

1.10 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 7

Examples Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc.,

1.10.2 Man-made (or) Artificial ecosystems

1.13 STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

1.11.1 Abiotic (non-living) components

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 8

Examples (1) Organic substances: Protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc..

2. Heterotrophic components: The members of heterotrophic components and are consumers

Members of biotic components of an ecosystem (or) Classification of biotic components

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 9

This process is called photosynthesis.

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 10

1.12 FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

1.13 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEMS

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 11

surface, some of which is absorbed by organisms (primary producers) to produce organic

1.14 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 12

Community. It is the group of plants (or) animals living in an area.

2. Secondary succession: It involves the establishment of biotic communities in an area,

1.14.3 Process of Ecological Succession

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 13

1.16 CLASSIFICATION (OR) LEVELS (OR) TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY

1.16.1. Genetic diversity

1.16.2 Species diversity

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 14

1.16.3 Community (or) Ecosystem diversity

1.17 VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

CLASSIFICATION AND IMPORTANCE OF VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 15

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 16

1.17.4 Ethical values (or) Existence value

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 17

1.18 INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

1.18.1 Endemism (or) Endemic species

1.18.2 'RED' Data book (or) Red list

GE3451 –Environmental Sciences and Sustainability 18

1.19 HOT-SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

1.19.3 Area of hot spot