Introduction To Computer Programming

COURSE NAME:
SDS 2102: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER PROGRAMMING FOR DATA SCIENCE
BIT 2104 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING AND ALGORITHMS / ICS

2102/HCT 0201/DIT 0202 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
COURSE DESCRIPTION
(45 CONTACT HOURS)

Pre-requisites None
Course Purpose
An introduction to programming techniques to understand the concepts and principles of
Procedural programming language, formulate basic problem solving techniques, analyze
problems and implement basic algorithms for their solution. The unit also aims to show ability in
testing and debugging of programs.
Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this course, the student should be able to:
i) Discuss the concepts and principles of procedural programming language
ii) Apply basic problem solving techniques
iii) Analyze problems and implement basic algorithms for their solution.
iv) Demonstrate the ability in testing and debugging programs
Course Description
Computer Programming Overview: Computer, Computer Program, Computer Programming,
Computer Programmer Programming paradigms, Program development cycle. Computer
Programming basics: Programming Environment: Text Editor, Compiler, Interpreter; Computer
Programming basic syntax: Program entry point, functions, comments, whitespaces, semicolons,
program explanation, expression; Data types: C and Python data types; Variables and variable
scope: Local and global, Initializing local and global variables, constant/literal variables,
variables in C and Python; Operators in C and Python: Arithmetic, Comparison/Relational,
Logical Operators; Reserved/Keywords in C and Python. Control Structures in C and Python:
Decision making, Looping Control structures; Numbers and Characters in C and Python; Arrays:
Creating, initializing, accessing array in C, Collections in Python: Lists, Tuples, Sets,
Dictionaries) in python. Data Structures: Defining a Structure, Accessing Structure Members
Strings: Basic string concepts, strings in C and Python; Functions in C and Python: Introduction
to modules and modularity, defining and calling functions, Function Arguments, Call by
Value ,Call by Pointer , Call by Reference, functions in Python. File I/O: Computer files, file
input/output, file operation modes, opening, closing, reading and writing a file, file I/O in
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python. Algorithm: flow charts, pseudo code. Problem solving strategies: top-down and bottom-
up decomposition. Good programming practices: style and conventions. Libraries, testing and
debugging programs. Use languages such as C, Python etc.
Teaching Methodologies
Lectures, practical and tutorial sessions in Computer Laboratory, individual and group
assignments, exercises and project work
Course Assessment
30% Continuous Assessment (Tests 10%, Assignment 10%, Practical 10%)
70% End of Semester Examination.
Course Textbooks
1. Kernighan, B. W (2003). The Practice of Programming Addison-Wesley, ISBN 459- 0677005
2. Xavier C (2008). Introduction to Computers and Basic programming. New Age International
Publishers, ISBN 978-81-224-2123-1
3. Harold Abelson, Gerald Jay Sussman, Julie Sussman (1996). Structure and Interpretation of
Computer Programs (MIT Electrical Engineering and Computer Science) ISBN 978- 567954
Reference Textbooks
1. H.M. Deitel and P.J. Deitel (1994). C: How to Program, 2nd Edition. Prentice Hall, ISBN 341-
7600455
2. Bjarne Stroustrup (2008). Programming: Principles and Practice Using C++ Prentice Hall
ISBN 341-6780027
3. B.Kernighan's .D.M. Ritchie's (1988). C Programming Language, 2nd Edition, ISBN 345-
895840
Course Journals
1. Acta Informatica ISSN 0001-5903
2. Advances in Computational Mathematics ISSN 1019-7168
3. Advances in data Analysis and Classification ISSN1 1862-5347
4. Annals Of software Engineering ISSN 1022-7091
Reference Journals
1. Journal of computer science and Technology ISSN 1000-9000
2. Journal of Science and Technology ISSN 1860-4749
3. Central European Journal Of Computer Science ISSN 1896-1533
4. Cluster computing ISSN 1386-7857
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COURSE OUTLINE
NO Topic
1  Overview
o General Introduction
o History of programming.
o An overview of programming languages.
 Fortran, Algol, Cobol, lisp, Basic, CPL, B, BCPL, C,
C++,
Simula and JAVA
 Types of Programming Languages

 Machine Languages
 Low level (Assembly) Languages
 High level Languages
 Procedural languages
Fortran, Cobol, Basic, Pascal, C.
 Non procedural languages

Object Oriented Programming Languages
Query Languages
Report Generators
Application generators
 Language translators
 Assemblers
 Compilers
 Interpreters
 Introduction to programming concepts
o Program
o Programming
o Programmer
 Good programming practices: Styles and Conventions.
 Program Development cycle
 Characteristics of programming languages
o Generality, expressivity, portability
 Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
2 Programming errors and Debugging
o Syntax, Semantics, Logical or Run-time errors

o Program testing and debugging
3  Introduction to algorithmic problem solving
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o Definition of algorithm
o Characteristics of an algorithm
o Flow charts, Pseudocode
o Problem solving strategies: Top-down and bottom-up
decomposition
4  Programming Concepts
 A C program
o # include, comments, main, Braces, printf, scanf, /n, return
 The Format of C
o Semicolon, Free Format, Case Sensitivity, Random behavior
 Variables
o Declaring variables, Valid names, Capital Letters
o Constants/Literals–
o Lvalues and Rvalues
o Variable Scope – Local and Global Variables
 Data Types
o Integer Types in C (Different Integers, unsigned, %hi, Integer
Example )
o Integers With Different Bases(Decimal, Octal and
Hexadecimal)
o Character Data Type (Arithmetic With char, %c vs %i)
o Real Types In C – float, double, long double
o Introduction Practical Exercises
4  Operators in C
o Arithmetic Operators
o Comparison/Relational Operators
o Logical Operators
o Increment and Decrement
o Prefix and Postfix
Operators in C Practical Exercises
5-7  Control structures

o Decisions If then, If Then Else, Nesting Ifs
o Switch vs if/then,else
o While loop, While, Do While, For Loop
o Break, break vs Switch, Continue vs Switch
o Summary
Control Flow Practical Exercises
Practical Exercises involving algorithmic problem solving
8-9  Introduction to modules and modularity

 Functions
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Defining a Function
o
Function Declarations
o
Calling a Function
o
Function Arguments
o
Function call by value
o
Function call by reference
o
Practical Exercises involving Functions
10-11  Arrays
o Introduction to arrays
o Declaring Arrays
o Initializing Arrays
o Accessing Array Elements
o Multi-dimensional Arrays
o Two-Dimensional Arrays
o Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays
o Accessing Two-Dimensional Array Elements
o Passing Arrays as Function Arguments
Practical Exercises involving Arrays
12-13  Unions and Structures
o Defining a Union
o Accessing Union Members
o Defining a Structure
o Accessing Structure Members
Practical Exercises involving Union and Structures
14  Introduction to Pointers - Definition
o Variables Vs Pointers
o Pointer Declaration
o How to use Pointers
Practical Exercises involving Pointers
LECTURER: SAMUEL OTIENO ADHOLA
Computer Programming Tutorial.....................................................................................................1

Audience........................................................................................................................................10
Prerequisites...................................................................................................................................10
1. Computer Programming - Overview......................................................................................11
1.1 Introduction to Computer Program.................................................................................11
1.2 Introduction to Computer Programming.........................................................................12
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1.3 Uses of Computer Programs...........................................................................................13
1.4 Computer Programmer....................................................................................................13
1.5 Algorithm........................................................................................................................14
2 Computer Programming - Basics...........................................................................................24
3 Computer Programming - Environment.................................................................................26
3.1 Text Editor......................................................................................................................27
3.2 Compiler?........................................................................................................................28
3.3 Interpreter........................................................................................................................29
3.4 Online Compilation.........................................................................................................30
4 Computer Programming - Basic Syntax.................................................................................30
4.1 Hello World Program in C..............................................................................................31
4.1.1 Program Entry Point....................................................................................................31
4.1.2 Functions.....................................................................................................................32
4.1.3 Comments....................................................................................................................32
4.1.4 Whitespaces.................................................................................................................32
4.1.5 Semicolons..................................................................................................................33
4.1.6 Program Explanation...................................................................................................34
4.2 Syntax Error....................................................................................................................35
4.3 Hello World Program in Java..........................................................................................35
4.4 Hello World Program in Python.....................................................................................36
5 Computer Programming - Data Types...................................................................................36
5.1 C and Java Data Types....................................................................................................37
5.2 Python Data Types..........................................................................................................38
6 Computer Programming - Variables......................................................................................39
6.1 Creating variables...........................................................................................................39
6.2 Store Values in Variables................................................................................................40
6.3 Access stored values in variables....................................................................................41
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6.4 Variables in Java.............................................................................................................42
6.5 Variables in Python.........................................................................................................43
7 Computer Programming - Keywords.....................................................................................45
7.1 C Programming Reserved Keywords..............................................................................46
7.2 Java Programming Reserved Keywords.........................................................................47
7.3 Python Programming Reserved Keywords.....................................................................47
8 Computer Programming - Operators......................................................................................48
8.1 Arithmetic Operators.......................................................................................................49
8.2 Relational Operators.......................................................................................................51
8.3 Logical Operators............................................................................................................53
8.4 Operators in Java.............................................................................................................55
8.5 Operators in Python........................................................................................................56
9 Decision Statements...............................................................................................................57
9.1 if...else statement.............................................................................................................61
9.2 if...elseif...else statement.................................................................................................64
9.3 The Switch Statement.....................................................................................................65
9.4 Decisions in Java.............................................................................................................67
9.5 Decisions in Python........................................................................................................68
10 Computer Programming - Loops............................................................................................68
10.1 The while Loop...............................................................................................................71
10.2 The do...while Loop........................................................................................................73
10.3 The break statement........................................................................................................74
10.4 The continue statement...................................................................................................75
10.5 Loops in Java..................................................................................................................77
10.6 Loops in Python..............................................................................................................77
11 Computer Programming - Numbers.......................................................................................78
11.1 Math Operations on Numbers.........................................................................................79
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11.2 Numbers in Java..............................................................................................................82
11.3 Numbers in Python..........................................................................................................83
12 Computer Programming - Characters.....................................................................................84
12.1 Escape Sequences...........................................................................................................85
12.2 Characters in Java...........................................................................................................87
12.3 Characters in Python.......................................................................................................88
13 Computer Programming - Arrays...........................................................................................88
13.1 Create Arrays..................................................................................................................90
13.2 Initializing Arrays...........................................................................................................90
13.3 Accessing Array Elements..............................................................................................91
13.4 Arrays in Java..................................................................................................................92
13.5 Arrays (Lists) in Python..................................................................................................93
14 Computer Programming - Strings..........................................................................................93
14.1 Basic String Concepts.....................................................................................................96
14.2 Strings in Java.................................................................................................................97
14.3 Strings in Python.............................................................................................................97
15 Computer Programming - Functions......................................................................................98
15.1 Defining a Function......................................................................................................100
15.2 Calling a Function.........................................................................................................100
15.3 Functions in Java...........................................................................................................101
15.4 Functions in Python......................................................................................................102
Computer Programming - File I/O..............................................................................................103
15.5 Computer Files..............................................................................................................103
15.6 File Input/Output...........................................................................................................104
15.7 File Operation Modes....................................................................................................104
15.8 Opening Files................................................................................................................105
15.9 Closing a File................................................................................................................106
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15.10 Writing a File.............................................................................................................106
15.11 Reading a File............................................................................................................107
15.12 File I/O in Java..........................................................................................................108
15.13 File I/O in Python......................................................................................................109
16 Computer Programming - Summary....................................................................................113
Computer programming is the act of writing computer programs, which are a sequence of
instructions written using a Computer Programming Language to perform a specified task by
the computer.
Computer Programming is fun and easy to learn provided you adopt a proper approach. This
tutorial attempts to cover the basics of computer programming using a simple and practical
approach for the benefit of novice learners.
Audience
This tutorial has been prepared for the beginners who are willing to learn computer
programming but they are unable to learn it due to lack of proper guidance. We are confident
that after completing this tutorial, you will be at a level where you can code in C Programming
language and will have a basic understanding of Java and Python programming languages as
well from where you can continue further.
If you are completely new to Computer Programming, then we recommend you to read this
tutorial twice or even thrice. First reading will not give you much idea, but during your second
reading, you will start grasping most of the concepts and you will enjoy writing computer
programs.
Prerequisites
We do not expect much from you as prerequisites; however, we assume that you have some
amount of exposure to computers and its peripherals like keyboard, mouse, screen, printer, etc.
1 Basic Concepts of Programming
Program
Programming languages
Programmer
Software
Computer vs Human beings
Definitions:
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PROGRAM: Is a set of step by step instructions written in a language that the computer can
interpret and understand. They are used to guide a computer to perform a task (simple or
complex).
Programming Problem: - A task that requires a program to be written.
Programming language: - This is a program with a special role i.e. it enables us to come up
with other programs. Has instructions that enable us to write programs or modify an existing
program. C, C++, JAVA, PHP, JSP, C#, JAVASCRIPT ETC
They have features of language
Grammar : SYNTAX
Vocabulary
Interpretation/ meaning: SEMANTICS
Programming: - This is the art of formulating a set of instructions to enable the computer to
perform certain tasks.
Software: - A program that has been debugged, tested, documented and ready to be used.
1. Computer Programming - Overview
1.1 Introduction to Computer Program

Before getting into computer programming, let us first understand computer programs and what
they do.
A computer program is a sequence of instructions written using a Computer
Programming Language to perform a specified task by the computer.
The two important terms that we have used in the above definition are −
 Sequence of instructions
 Computer Programming Language
To understand these terms, consider a situation when someone asks you about how to go to a
nearby KFC. What exactly do you do to tell him the way to go to KFC?
You will use Human Language to tell the way to go to KFC, something as follows −
First go straight, after half kilometer, take left from the red light and then drive around one
kilometer and you will find KFC at the right.
Here, you have used English Language to give several steps to be taken to reach KFC. If they
are followed in the following sequence, then you will reach KFC −
1. Go straight
2. Drive half kilometer
3. Take left
4. Drive around one kilometer
5. Search for KFC at your right side
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Now, try to map the situation with a computer program. The above sequence of instructions is
actually a Human Program written in English Language, which instructs on how to reach
KFC from a given starting point. This same sequence could have been given in Spanish, Hindi,
Arabic, or any other human language, provided the person seeking direction knows any of these
languages.
Now, let's go back and try to understand a computer program, which is a sequence of
instructions written in a Computer Language to perform a specified task by the computer.
Following is a simple program written in Python programming Language −
print "Hello, World!"
The above computer program instructs the computer to print "Hello, World!" on the computer
screen.
 A computer program is also called a computer software, which can range from two
lines to millions of lines of instructions.
 Computer program instructions are also called program source code and computer
programming is also called program coding.
 A computer without a computer program is just a dump box; it is programs that make
computers active.
As we have developed so many languages to communicate among ourselves, computer
scientists have developed several computer-programming languages to provide instructions to
the computer (i.e., to write computer programs). We will see several computer programming
languages in the subsequent chapters.
1.2 Introduction to Computer Programming

If you understood what a computer program is, then we will say: the act of writing computer
programs is called computer programming.
As we mentioned earlier, there are hundreds of programming languages, which can be used to
write computer programs and following are a few of them −
 Java
 C
 C++
 Python
 PHP
 Perl
 Ruby
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1.3 Uses of Computer Programs
Today computer programs are being used in almost every field, household, agriculture, medical,
entertainment, defense, communication, etc. Listed below are a few applications of computer
programs −
 MS Word, MS Excel, Adobe Photoshop, Internet Explorer, Chrome, etc., are examples
of computer programs.
 Computer programs are being used to develop graphics and special effects in movie
making.
 Computer programs are being used to perform Ultrasounds, X-Rays, and other medical
examinations.
 Computer programs are being used in our mobile phones for SMS, Chat, and voice
communication.
1.4 Computer Programmer

Someone who can write computer programs or in other words, someone who can do computer
programming is called a Computer Programmer.
Based on computer programming language expertise, we can name a computer programmers as
follows −
 C Programmer
 C++ Programmer
 Java Programmer
 Python Programmer
 PHP Programmer
 Perl Programmer
 Ruby Programmer
1.5 Algorithm
From programming point of view, an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to resolve any
problem. An algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite set of well-defined
instructions.
Thus, a computer programmer lists down all the steps required to resolve a problem before
writing the actual code. Following is a simple example of an algorithm to find out the largest
number from a given list of numbers −
1. Get a list of numbers L1, L2, L3....LN
2. Assume L1 is the largest, Largest = L1
3. Take next number Li from the list and do the following
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4. If Largest is less than Li
5. Largest = Li
6. If Li is last number from the list then
7. Print value stored in Largest and come out
8. Else repeat same process starting from step 3
The above algorithm has been written in a crude way to help beginners understand the concept.
You will come across more standardized ways of writing computer algorithms as you move on
to advanced levels of computer programming.
PROGRAM/SOFTWARE LIFE CYCLE (STAGES OF PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT)
The process of developing a program generally involves six stages which are referred to as the
program development life cycle and shown below:
1. Requirements specification: States the purpose/function of the program. Understand the
problem or task: A program to compute the area of a rectangle. It involves the definition of
inputs, transformation, outputs and treatment of exceptional situations.
2. Program design: This is where the programmer identifies the processing tasks required and
the precise order in which they are to be carried out, that is the algorithm from which the
computer program will be produced. The design process takes little or no account of the
programming language to be used.
3. Coding the program: Involves converting the design specification (the algorithm) into
actual computer instructions in the computer language to be used. If sufficient care has been
taken at the design stage, coding is an almost mechanical process for an experienced
programmer since most of the hard work of analyzing the problem and breaking it into a
sequence of small, simple steps has already been done during the design stage.
4. Testing and Debugging: Debugging is the detection and correction of errors that may exist
in the program. The only way of completely confident that a program will behave as
expected, under all circumstances that conceivably arise, is to test the program thoroughly
before implementing it. Program testing includes creating test data designed to produce
predictable output.
5. Documentation: Having written and debugged the program. It must be documented. There
are two main types of documentation.
a) User Guide: These are guides that are intended to help the user to use/operate the
program with minimal or no guidance
b) Technical manuals: These are intended for the system analysts/programmers to enable
maintenance and modification of the program design and code.
6. Implementation/Operation: At this stage, the system designers will actually install the new
system, create data files and train people to use the new system. A common practice is to run
the new system in parallel with the old system to ensure that if something goes wrong, the
business doesn't come to a grinding halt. After a number of parallel runs, the old system will
be abandoned and the new system will be fully be operational. At this point the system goes
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into the final stage off monitoring and review (or evaluation) where the performance of the
system is evaluated with reference to the initial requirements.
7. Maintenance and Evaluation:
QUALITIES OF A GOOD PROGRAM

1. ACCURACY: The program must do what it was supposed to do. The results/output should
be correct as per specifications.
2. RELIABLITY: The program must always do what it was supposed to do and never crash.
3. ROBUSTNESS: The program should cope with invalid data without creating errors or
stopping without stopping without indication of the cause.
4. USABILITY: To make sure that your program is easy to use,make sure that the flow of
your program is logical and provide a proper user guide/manual.
5. READABILTY: To make your code more readable, use the following rules/guidlines
a) Use Meaningful names: When coming up with the names for variables or constants,
use names that hint what the variable or constant holds e.g. balance, tax, tax_rate, etc.
instead of using letters like a,b,c.
b) Use Comments: Use comments at the module level to explain the purpose of the
module and within the code to explain complicated algorithms or highlight error prone
sections.
float length,width,area; //Declaration of variables

float length;
float width;
float area;
/* rhrhhhrjr ffjfjf
ddldldl fflflflf
kdlll fl;g;g;g;g */
c) Use Indentation: Lay your code neatly and make proper use of indentation to reflect
the logic structure of the code.
#include<stdio.h>
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main()
{
float length,width,area;
length=42.345;
width=31.344;
area=length*width;
printf("The area = %f\n",area);
}
d) Modularization: Split your program to make it easier to understand. This is always

achieved by including functions in your program. Modularizing a program, reduces the
effort required later to change the program since changes need only to be made to the
module whose functionality changes or if a new feature is to be added then the new
module can be added. Testing and debugging also becomes easier with small
independent modules.
e) Line Spacing
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
float length,width,area;
length=42.345;
width=31.344;
area=length*width;
printf("The area = %f\n",area);
}
6. SIMPLICITY: The clarity and accuracy of a program are usually enhanced by keeping
things simple.
7. EFFICIENCY: Efficiency is concerned with execution speed and efficient memory
utilization.
8. GENERALITY: Generality. A program should be as general as possible, within reasonable
limits. We may design a program to read in the values of certain key parameters rather that
placing fixed values into the program.
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Good programming practice
1. Apply the computer problem solving steps:
-Identify and study problem

-Formulate and represent a solution to the problem (Algorithm)
-Use any convection to represent the algorithm
-Check that the algorithm works
-Write the code (program)
-Test and document code
-Run program
2. Plan the work
3. Document your work
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
main()
{
float number;
float answer;//This is the declaration of variables
printf("Enter any number: ");

scanf("%f",&number);
/* This is the part of processsing

or where the inputs are transformed into
output*/
answer=sqrt(number);
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printf("The result is %.2f\n",answer);
}
COMPUTER PROGRAMMING ERRORS
ERROR: Is something that will make the program not to run or give erroneous result.
TYPES OF ERRORS:
1. SYNTAX ERRORS: Are caused when you violate the rules of a programming language.
Causes
a) Missing semicolon to terminate a statement
b) Misspelled reserved word
c) A reserved word consisting of a capital letter.
d) { without corresponding } or ( without corresponding )
e) " without corresponding "
f) Use of wrong expressions float x; area=l*w; Error: l*w=area;
g) Use of undeclared identifiers
h) Failure to include the appropriate header file.
float x,y,z;
a=23;
2. SEMANTIC ERRORS/RUNTIME ERRORS: Caused when the computer is not able to

understand the meaning of a statement. And thus is not able to do what it is being instructed
to do.
Causes
a) Division by zero
b) Computing the square root of a negative number
c) Endless loops
3. LOGICAL ERRORS: The program is giving erroneous result.
Causes
a) Wrong formula
b) Failure to initialize variables
c) Testing wrong conditions in loops
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4. LINKING ERROR: The computer is not able to get the intermediate programs required by
the program.
PROGRAMMING TESTING STAGES

There are several stages in testing the program:
1. DESK CHECKING: After writing the program, the programmer goes through the program
on paper to pick up any error that would cause extra work at a later stage
2. TRANSLATOR SYSTEM CHECKING: After keying in the program, it is checked using
the translator to detect any syntax errors. The programmer corrects the errors and re-submits
the programs until an error free listing is obtained.
3. PROGRAM RUN WITH TEST DATA: Test data is created designed to produce
predictable output. The program is then run using this data and its output is compared with
the predictable output. Test data should include all important variations and extremes or
including data errors to ensure that the program doesn't grind to an halt if incorrect data is
read in.
4. DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURES: For complex programs diagnostics procedures such as
trace routines, may be used to find logical errors. A trace prints result at each processing step
to enable errors to be detected quickly. If a trace routine is not available the programmer
inserts instructions in the program to print results at key points.
5. SYSTEM TEST WITH ACTUAL DATA: As part of the "Acceptance Trials" new
programs are usually run in parallel with the existing system for a short while so that results
can be compared and adjustments made. The systems run using actual data.
Add any two numbers.

solution:
- Create a space in your brain
- Prompt the user to enter the numbers
- Enter the numbers
- Compute the sum
- Display the result
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
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float num1,num2,sum;
printf("Enter the first number: ");

scanf("%f",&num1);
printf("Enter the second number: ");

scanf("%f",&num2);
sum=num1+num2;
printf("%f\n",sum);
printf("The answer = %f\n",sum);
printf("The sum of %f and %f is %f\n",num1,num2,result);
printf("%f is the sum of %f and %f\n",result,num1,num2);
Good Coding Techniques

There are various techniques that are usually recommended to be used by the programmer when
coding a program to ensure that the program produced are of good quality. They include the
following:
1) Documentation lines: Are lines to explain what the instructions of a program are doing.
They help one to be able to read and understand the program. They also make the
program easy to write and modify because another programmer can understand the code
easier. They are also known as comment lines.
There are two types:

a) Line comments//bbbbbbbbb vbbb bbbbb
b) Block comments /*ffffffff
ggggggggg */
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2) Line spacing: Leaving empty lines between sections of codes so as to visibly distinguish
among the individual sections.
3) Indenting code
4) Use of meaningful identifiers
#include<iostream>
#include<math.h>
using namespace std;
main()
{
float number,result;
cout<<"Enter the number: ";
cin>>number;
result=sqrt(number);
cout<<"The number = "<<number<<endl;
cout<<"The result = "<<result<<endl;
}
2 Computer Programming - Basics
We assume you are well aware of English Language, which is a well-known Human Interface
Language. English has a predefined grammar, which needs to be followed to write English
statements in a correct way. Likewise, most of the Human Interface Languages (Hindi, English,
Spanish, French, etc.) are made of several elements like verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs,
propositions, and conjunctions, etc.
Similar to Human Interface Languages, Computer Programming Languages are also made of
several elements. We will take you through the basics of those elements and make you
comfortable to use them in various programming languages. These basic elements include −
 Programming Environment
 Basic Syntax
 Data Types
 Variables
 Keywords
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 Basic Operators
 Decision Making
 Loops
 Numbers
 Characters
 Arrays
 Strings
 Functions
 File I/O
We will explain all these elements in subsequent chapters with examples using different
programming languages. First, we will try to understand the meaning of all these terms in
general and then, we will see how these terms can be used in different programming languages.
This tutorial has been designed to give you an idea about the following most popular
programming languages −
 C Programming
 Java Programming
 Python Programming
A major part of the tutorial has been explained by taking C as programming language and then
we have shown how similar concepts work in Java and Python. So after completion of this
tutorial, you will be quite familiar with these popular programming languages.
21
3 Computer Programming - Environment
Though Environment Setup is not an element of any Programming Language, it is the first step
to be followed before setting on to write a program.
When we say Environment Setup, it simply implies a base on top of which we can do our
programming. Thus, we need to have the required software setup, i.e., installation on our PC
which will be used to write computer programs, compile, and execute them. For example, if you
need to browse Internet, then you need the following setup on your machine −
 A working Internet connection to connect to the Internet
 A Web browser such as Internet Explorer, Chrome, Safari, etc.
If you are a PC user, then you will recognize the following screenshot, which we have taken
from the Internet Explorer while browsing tutorialspoint.com.
22
Similarly, you will need the following setup to start with programming using any programming
language.
 A text editor to create computer programs.
 A compiler to compile the programs into binary format.
 An interpreter to execute the programs directly.
In case you don’t have sufficient exposure to computers, you will not be able to set up either of
these software. So, we suggest you take the help from any technical person around you to set up
the programming environment on your machine from where you can start. But for you, it is
important to understand what these items are.
3.1 Text Editor

A text editor is a software that is used to write computer programs. Your Windows machine
must have a Notepad, which can be used to type programs. You can launch it by following these
steps −
Start Icon → All Programs → Accessories → Notepad → Mouse Click on Notepad
It will launch Notepad with the following window −
23
You can use this software to type your computer program and save it in a file at any location.
You can download and install other good editors like Notepad++, which is freely available.
If you are a Mac user, then you will have TextEdit or you can install some other commercial
editor like BBEdit to start with.
3.2 Compiler
You write your computer program using your favorite programming language and save it in a
text file called the program file.
Now let us try to get a little more detail on how the computer understands a program written by
you using a programming language. Actually, the computer cannot understand your program
directly given in the text format, so we need to convert this program in a binary format, which
can be understood by the computer.
The conversion from text program to binary file is done by another software called Compiler
and this process of conversion from text formatted program to binary format file is called
program compilation. Finally, you can execute binary file to perform the programmed task.
We are not going into the details of a compiler and the different phases of compilation.
The following flow diagram gives an illustration of the process −
24
So, if you are going to write your program in any such language, which needs compilation like
C, C++, Java and Pascal, etc., then you will need to install their compilers before you start
programming.
3.3 Interpreter
We just discussed about compilers and the compilation process. Compilers are required in case
you are going to write your program in a programming language that needs to be compiled into
binary format before its execution.
There are other programming languages such as Python, PHP, and Perl, which do not need any
compilation into binary format, rather an interpreter can be used to read such programs line by
line and execute them directly without any further conversion.
25
So, if you are going to write your programs in PHP, Python, Perl, Ruby, etc., then you will need
to install their interpreters before you start programming.
3.4 Online Compilation

If you are not able to set up any editor, compiler, or interpreter on your machine,
then tutorialspoint.com provides a facility to compile and run almost all the programs online
with an ease of a single click.
So do not worry and let's proceed further to have a thrilling experience to become a computer
programmer in simple and easy steps.
4 Computer Programming - Basic Syntax
Let’s start with a little coding, which will really make you a computer programmer. We are
going to write a single-line computer program to write Hello, World! on your screen. Let’s see
how it can be written using different programming languages.
26
4.1 Hello World Program in C
Try the following example using our online compiler option available
at www.compileonline.com.
For most of the examples given in this tutorial, you will find a Try it option in our website code
sections at the top right corner that will take you to the online compiler.
Try to change the content inside printf(), i.e., type anything in place of Hello World! and then
check its result. It just prints whatever you keep inside the two double quotes.
#include <stdio.h> preprocessor directive
int main()
{
/* printf() function to write Hello, World! */
printf( "Hello, World!" );
}
which produces the following result −
Hello, World!
This little Hello World program will help us understand various basic concepts related to C
Programming.
4.1.1 Program Entry Point

For now, just forget about the #include <stdio.h> statement, but keep a note that you have to
put this statement at the top of a C program.
Every C program starts with main(), which is called the main function, and then it is followed
by a left curly brace. The rest of the program instruction is written in between and finally a right
curly brace ends the program.
The coding part inside these two curly braces is called the program body. The left curly brace
can be in the same line as main(){ or in the next line like it has been mentioned in the above
program.
4.1.2 Functions
Functions are small units of programs and they are used to carry out a specific task. For
example, the above program makes use of two functions: main() and printf(). Here, the
function main() provides the entry point for the program execution and the other function
printf() is being used to print an information on the computer screen.
You can write your own functions which we will see in a separate chapter, but C programming
itself provides various built-in functions like main(), printf(), etc., which we can use in our
programs based on our requirement.
27
Some of the programming languages use the word sub-routine instead of function, but their
functionality is more or less the same.
4.1.3 Comments
A C program can have statements enclosed inside// /*.....*/. Such statements are called
comments and these comments are used to make the programs user friendly and easy to
understand. The good thing about comments is that they are completely ignored by compilers
and interpreters. So you can use whatever language you want to write your comments.
4.1.4 Whitespaces
When we write a program using any programming language, we use various printable
characters to prepare programming statements. These printable characters are a, b, c,......z, A, B,
C,.....Z, 1, 2, 3,...... 0, !, @, #, $, %, ^, &, *, (, ), -, _, +, =, \, |, {, }, [, ], :, ;, <, >, ?, /, \, ~. `. ", '.
Hope I'm not missing any printable characters from your keyboard.
Apart from these characters, there are some characters which we use very frequently but they
are invisible in your program and these characters are spaces, tabs (\t), new lines(\n). These
characters are called whitespaces.
These three important whitespace characters are common in all the programming languages and
they remain invisible in your text document −
Whitespace Explanation Representation
New Line To create a new line \n
Tab To create a tab. \t
Space To create a space. empty space
A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a blank line, and a C
compiler totally ignores it. Whitespace is the term used in C to describe blanks, tabs, newline
characters, and comments. So you can write printf("Hello, World!" ); as shown below. Here
all the created spaces around "Hello, World!" are useless and the compiler will ignore them at
the time of compilation.
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
}
28
Hello, World!
If we make all these whitespace characters visible, then the above program will look like this
and you will not be able to compile it −
#include <stdio.h>\n
\n
int main()\n
{
\n
\t/* printf() function to write Hello, World! */
\n
\tprintf(\t"Hello, World!"\t);\n
\n
}\n
4.1.5 Semicolons
Every individual statement in a C Program must be ended with a semicolon (;), for example, if
you want to write "Hello, World!" twice, then it will be written as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf( "Hello, World!\n" );
}
This program will produce the following result −
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Here, we are using a new line character \n in the first printf() function to create a new line. Let
us see what happens if we do not use this new line character −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
}
Hello, World! Hello, World!
29
We will learn identifiers and keywords in next few chapters.
4.1.6 Program Explanation

Let us understand how the above C program works. First of all, the above program is converted
into a binary format using C compiler. So let’s put this code in test.c file and compile it as
follows −
$gcc test.c -o demo
If there is any grammatical error (Syntax errors in computer terminologies), then we fix it
before converting it into binary format. If everything goes fine, then it produces a binary file
called demo. Finally, we execute the produced binary demo as follows −
$./demo
Hello, World!
Here, when we execute the binary a.out file, the computer enters inside the program starting
from main() and encounters a printf() statement. Keep a note that the line inside /*....*/ is a
comment and it is filtered at the time of compilation. So printf() function instructs the computer
to print the given line at the computer screen. Finally, it encounters a right curly brace which
indicates the end of main() function and exits the program.
4.2 Syntax Error

If you do not follow the rules defined by the programing language, then at the time of
compilation, you will get syntax errors and the program will not be compiled. From syntax
point of view, even a single dot or comma or a single semicolon matters and you should take
care of such small syntax as well. In the following example, we have skipped a semicolon, let's
try to compile the program −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
printf("Hello, World!")
}
main.c: In function 'main':
main.c:7:1: error: expected ';' before '}' token
}
^
So the bottom-line is that if you are not following proper syntax defined by the programming
language in your program, then you will get syntax errors. Before attempting another
compilation, you will need to fix them and then proceed.
30
4.3 Hello World Program in Java
Following is the equivalent program written in Java. This program will also produce the same
result Hello, World!.
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String []args) {
/* println() function to write Hello, World! */
System.out.println("Hello, World!");
}
}
Hello, World!
4.4 Hello World Program in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. This program will also produce the same
result Hello, World!.
# print function to write Hello, World! */
Hello, World!
Hope you noted that for C and Java examples, first we are compiling the programs and then
executing the produced binaries, but in Python program, we are directly executing it. As we
explained in the previous chapter, Python is an interpreted language and it does not need an
intermediate step called compilation.
Python does not require a semicolon (;) to terminate a statement, rather a new line always
means termination of the statement.
5 Computer Programming - Data Types
Let's discuss about a very simple but very important concept available in almost all the
programming languages which is called data types. As its name indicates, a data type
represents a type of the data which you can process using your computer program. It can be
numeric, alphanumeric, decimal, etc.
Let’s keep Computer Programming aside for a while and take an easy example of adding two
whole numbers 10 & 20, which can be done simply as follows −
10 + 20
Let's take another problem where we want to add two decimal numbers 10.50 & 20.50, which
will be written as follows −
10.50 + 20.50
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The two examples are straightforward. Now let's take another example where we want to record
student information in a notebook. Here we would like to record the following information −
Name:
Class:
Section:
Age:
Sex:
Now, let's put one student record as per the given requirement −
Name: Zara Ali
Class: 6th
Section: J
Age: 13
Sex: F
The first example dealt with whole numbers, the second example added two decimal numbers,
whereas the third example is dealing with a mix of different data. Let's put it as follows −
 Student name "Zara Ali" is a sequence of characters which is also called a string.
 Student class "6th" has been represented by a mix of whole number and a string of two
characters. Such a mix is called alphanumeric.
 Student section has been represented by a single character which is 'J'.
 Student age has been represented by a whole number which is 13.
 Student sex has been represented by a single character which is 'F'.
This way, we realized that in our day-to-day life, we deal with different types of data such as
strings, characters, whole numbers (integers), and decimal numbers (floating point numbers).
Similarly, when we write a computer program to process different types of data, we need to
specify its type clearly; otherwise the computer does not understand how different operations
can be performed on that given data. Different programming languages use different keywords
to specify different data types. For example, C and Java programming languages use int to
specify integer data, whereas char specifies a character data type.
Subsequent chapters will show you how to use different data types in different situations. For
now, let's check the important data types available in C, Java, and Python and the keywords we
will use to specify those data types.
5.1 C and Java Data Types

C and Java support almost the same set of data types, though Java supports additional data
types. For now, we are taking a few common data types supported by both the programming
languages −
Type Keyword Value range which can be represented by
32
this data type
Character char -128 to 127 or 0 to 255
Number int -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to

2,147,483,647
Small Number short -32,768 to 32,767
Long Number long -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
Decimal float 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 till 6 decimal places

Number
These data types are called primitive data types and you can use these data types to build more
complex data types, which are called user-defined data type, for example a string will be a
sequence of characters.
short int x;
long int y;
signed long int y;
unsigned long int a;
signed int x;
unsigned int x;
5.2 Python Data Types

Python has five standard data types but this programming language does not make use of any
keyword to specify a particular data type, rather Python is intelligent enough to understand a
given data type automatically.
 Numbers
 String
 List
 Tuple
 Dictionary
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Here, Number specifies all types of numbers including decimal numbers and string represents a
sequence of characters with a length of 1 or more characters. For now, let's proceed with these
two data types and skip List, Tuple, and Dictionary, which are advanced data types in Python.
6 Computer Programming - Variables
Variables are the names you give to computer memory locations which are used to store values
in a computer program.
For example, assume you want to store two values 10 and 20 in your program and at a later
stage, you want to use these two values. Let's see how you will do it. Here are the following
three simple steps −
 Create variables with appropriate names.
 Store your values in those two variables.
 Retrieve and use the stored values from the variables.
6.1 Creating variables

Creating variables is also called declaring variables in C programming. Different
programming languages have different ways of creating variables inside a program. For
example, C programming has the following simple way of creating variables −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a;
int b;
}
The above program creates two variables to reserve two memory locations with names a and b.
We created these variables using int keyword to specify variable data type which means we
want to store integer values in these two variables. Similarly, you can create variables to
store long, float, char or any other data type. For example −
/* variable to store long value */
long a;
/* variable to store float value */

float b;
You can create variables of similar type by putting them in a single line but separated by
comma as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b;
}
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Listed below are the key points about variables that you need to keep in mind −
 A variable name can hold a single type of value. For example, if variable a has been
defined int type, then it can store only integer.
 C programming language requires a variable creation, i.e., declaration before its usage in
your program. You cannot use a variable name in your program without creating it,
though programming language like Python allows you to use a variable name without
creating it.
 You can use a variable name only once inside your program. For example, if a
variable a has been defined to store an integer value, then you cannot define a again to
store any other type of value.
 There are programming languages like Python, PHP, Perl, etc., which do not want you to
specify data type at the time of creating variables. So you can store integer, float, or long
without specifying their data type.
 You can give any name to a variable like age, sex, salary, year1990 or anything else you
like to give, but most of the programming languages allow to use only limited characters
in their variables names. For now, we will suggest to use only a....z, A....Z, 0....9 in your
variable names and start their names using alphabets only instead of digits.
 Almost none of the programming languages allow to start their variable names with a
digit, so 1990year will not be a valid variable name whereas year1990 or ye1990ar are
valid variable names.
Every programming language provides more rules related to variables and you will learn them
when you will go in further detail of that programming language.
6.2 Store Values in Variables

You have seen how we created variables in the previous section. Now, let's store some values in
those variables −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
}
The above program has two additional statements where we are storing 10 in variable a and 20
is being stored in variable b. Almost all the programming languages have similar way of storing
values in variable where we keep variable name in the left hand side of an equal sign = and
whatever value we want to store in the variable, we keep that value in the right hand side.
35
Now, we have completed two steps, first we created two variables and then we stored required
values in those variables. Now variable a has value 10 and variable b has value 20. In other
words we can say, when above program is executed, the memory location named a will hold 10
and memory location b will hold 20.
6.3 Access stored values in variables

If we do not use the stored values in the variables, then there is no point in creating variables
and storing values in them. We know that the above program has two variables a and b and they
store the values 10 and 20, respectively. So let's try to print the values stored in these two
variables. Following is a C program, which prints the values stored in its variables −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
printf( "Value of a = %d\n", a );

printf( "Value of b = %d\n", b );
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Value of a = 10
Value of b = 20
You must have seen printf() function in the previous chapter where we had used it to print
"Hello, World!". This time, we are using it to print the values of variables. We are making use
of %d, which will be replaced with the values of the given variable in printf() statements. We
can print both the values using a single printf() statement as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
printf( "Value of a = %d and value of b = %d\n", a, b );

}
Value of a = 10 and value of b = 20
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If you want to use float variable in C programming, then you will have to use %f instead
of %d, and if you want to print a character value, then you will have to use %c. Similarly,
different data types can be printed using different % and characters.
6.4 Variables in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java programming language. This program will
create two variables a and b and very similar to C programming, it will assign 10 and 20 in
these variables and finally print the values of the two variables in two ways −
public class DemoJava {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
System.out.println("Value of a = " + a);

System.out.println("Value of b = " + b);
System.out.println("Value of a = " + a + " and value of b = " + b);
}
}
Value of a = 10
Value of b = 20
6.5 Variables in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. This program will create two
variables a and b and at the same time, assign 10 and 20 in those variables.
Python does not want you to specify the data type at the time of variable creation and there is no
need to create variables in advance.
a = 10
b = 20
print "Value of a = ", a

print "Value of b = ", b
print "Value of a = ", a, " and value of b = ", b
Value of a = 10
Value of b = 20
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You can use the following syntax in C and Java programming to declare variables and assign
values at the same time −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
printf( "Value of a = %d and value of b = %d\n", a, b );

}
7 What are Symbolic Constants in C Programming?
7.1.1.1 A symbolic constant is a name given to some numeric constant, or a character constant
or string constant, or any other constants.
Symbolic constant names are also known as constant identifiers. Pre-processor

directive #define is used for defining symbolic constants.
7.2 Syntax for Creating Symbolic Constants
#define symbolic_constant_name value_of_the_constant
7.3 Symbolic Constants Examples
#define PI 3.141592
#define GOLDENRATIO 1.6
#define MAX 500
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Here PI, GOLDENRATIO, SIZE are symbolic constants.
Note: symbolic constants names are written in uppercase by convention, but it is not required.
Literals are the constant values assigned to the constant variables. We can say that
the literals represent the fixed values that cannot be modified. It also contains memory but does
not have references as variables. For example, const int =10; is a constant integer expression in
which 10 is an integer literal.
8 Computer Programming - Keywords
So far, we have covered two important concepts called variables and their data types. We
discussed how to use int, long, and float to specify different data types. We also learnt how to
name the variables to store different values.
Though this chapter is not required separately because reserved keywords are a part of basic
programming syntax, we kept it separate to explain it right after data types and variables to
make it easy to understand.
Like int, long, and float, there are many other keywords supported by C programming language
which we will use for different purpose. Different programming languages provide different set
of reserved keywords, but there is one important & common rule in all the programming
languages that we cannot use a reserved keyword to name our variables, which means we
cannot name our variable like int or float rather these keywords can only be used to specify a
variable data type.
For example, if you will try to use any reserved keyword for the purpose of variable name, then
you will get a syntax error.
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int float;
float = 10;
printf( "Value of float = %d\n", float);

}
When you compile the above program, it produces the following error −
main.c: In function 'main':
main.c:5:8: error: two or more data types in declaration specifiers
int float;
......
Let's now give a proper name to our integer variable, then the above program should compile
and execute successfully −
39
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int count;
count = 10;
printf( "Value of count = %d\n", count);

}
8.1 C Programming Reserved Keywords

Here is a table having almost all the keywords supported by C Programming language −
auto else long switch
break enum register typedef
case extern return union
char float short unsigned
const for signed void
continue goto sizeof volatile
default if static while
do int struct _Packed
double
int float;
8.2 Java Programming Reserved Keywords

Here is a table having almost all the keywords supported by Java Programming language −
abstract assert boolean break
byte case catch char
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class const continue default
do double else enum
extends final finally float
for goto if implements
import instanceof int interface
long native new package
private protected public return
short static strictfp super
switch synchronized this throw
throws transient try void
volatile while
8.3 Python Programming Reserved Keywords

Here is a table having almost all the keywords supported by Python Programming language −
and exec not
assert finally or
break for pass
class from print
continue global raise
def if return
41
del import try
elif in while
else is with
except lambda yield
We know you cannot memorize all these keywords, but we have listed them down for your
reference purpose and to explain the concept of reserved keywords. So just be careful while
giving a name to your variable, you should not use any reserved keyword for that programming
language.
9 Computer Programming - Operators
An operator in a programming language is a symbol that tells the compiler or interpreter to

perform specific mathematical, relational or logical operation and produce final result. This
chapter will explain the concept of operators and it will take you through the important
arithmetic and relational operators available in C, Java, and Python.
9.1 Arithmetic Operators

Computer programs are widely used for mathematical calculations. We can write a computer
program which can do simple calculation like adding two numbers (2 + 3) and we can also write
a program, which can solve a complex equation like P(x) = x 4 + 7x3 - 5x + 9. If you have been
even a poor student, you must be aware that in first expression 2 and 3 are operands and + is an
operator. Similar concepts exist in Computer Programming.
Take a look at the following two examples −
2+3
P(x) = x4 + 7x3 - 5x + 9.
These two statements are called arithmetic expressions in a programming language
and plus, minus used in these expressions are called arithmetic operators and the values used in
these expressions like 2, 3 and x, etc., are called operands. In their simplest form, such
expressions produce numerical results.
Similarly, a programming language provides various arithmetic operators. The following table
lists down a few of the important arithmetic operators available in C programming language.
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −
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Operator Description Example
+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30
- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give -10
* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 200
/ Divides numerator by de-numerator B / A will give 2
% This gives remainder of an integer division B % A will give 0
Following is a simple example of C Programming to understand the above mathematical

operators −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b, c;
a = 10;
b = 20;
lvalue and rvalue
c = a + b;
c=10+20;
printf( "Value of c = %d\n", c);
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c = a - b;
c = a * b;
c = b / a;
c = b % a;
}
Value of c = 30
Value of c = -10
Value of c = 200
Value of c = 2
Value of c = 0
9.2 Relational Operators

Consider a situation where we create two variables and assign them some values as follows −
A = 20
B = 10
Here, it is obvious that variable A is greater than B in values. So, we need the help of some
symbols to write such expressions which are called relational expressions. If we use C
programming language, then it will be written as follows −
(A > B)
Here, we used a symbol > and it is called a relational operator and in their simplest form, they
produce Boolean results which means the result will be either true or false. Similarly, a
programming language provides various relational operators. The following table lists down a
few of the important relational operators available in C programming language. Assume
variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −
== Checks if the values of two operands are (A == B) is not

equal or not, if yes then condition becomes true.
true.
!= Checks if the values of two operands are (A != B) is true.

equal or not, if values are not equal then
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condition becomes true.
> Checks if the value of left operand is greater (A > B) is not true.
than the value of right operand, if yes then
< Checks if the value of left operand is less (A < B) is true.

than the value of right operand, if yes then
>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater (A >= B) is not

than or equal to the value of right operand, true.
if yes then condition becomes true.
<= Checks if the value of left operand is less (A <= B) is true.

than or equal to the value of right operand,
if yes then condition becomes true.
Here, we will show you one example of C Programming which makes use of if conditional
statement. Though this statement will be discussed later in a separate chapter, but in short, we
use if statement to check a condition and if the condition is true, then the body of if
statement is executed, otherwise the body of if statement is skipped.
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
/* Here we check whether a is equal to 10 or not */

if( a == 10 ) {
/* if a is equal to 10 then this body will be executed */

printf( "a is equal to 10\n");
}
/* Here we check whether b is equal to 10 or not */

if( b == 10 ) {
/* if b is equal to 10 then this body will be executed */

45
printf( "b is equal to 10\n");
}
/* Here we check if a is less b than or not */

if( a < b ) {
/* if a is less than b then this body will be executed */

printf( "a is less than b\n");
}
/* Here we check whether a and b are not equal */

if( a != b ) {
/* if a is not equal to b then this body will be executed */

printf( "a is not equal to b\n");
}
}
a is equal to 10
a is less than b
a is not equal to b
9.3 Logical Operators

Logical operators are very important in any programming language and they help us take
decisions based on certain conditions. Suppose we want to combine the result of two conditions,
then logical AND and OR logical operators help us in producing the final result.
The following table shows all the logical operators supported by the C language. Assume
variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then −
&& Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands (A && B)

are non-zero, then condition becomes true. is false.
|| Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two (A || B) is

operands is non-zero, then condition becomes true. true.
! Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to reverses the !(A &&

logical state of its operand. If a condition is true then B) is true.
Logical NOT operator will make false.
46
Try the following example to understand all the logical operators available in C programming
language −
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 1;
int b = 0;
if ( a&& b ) {
printf("This will never print because condition is false\n" );

}
if (a || b ) {
printf("This will be printed print because condition is true\n" );

}
if ( !(a && b) ) {
printf("This will be printed print because condition is true\n" );

}
}
&&(AND) True(1) False(0)
True(1) 1 0
False(0) 0 0
||(OR) TRUE(1) False(0)
True(1) 1 1
False(0) 1 0
avg=78;
if(avg>=70 && avg<=100)
printf(“You qualify to do medicine”);
When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result −
47
This will be printed print because condition is true
This will be printed print because condition is true
9.4 Operators in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java. C programming and Java provide almost
identical set of operators and conditional statements. This program will create two
variables a and b, very similar to C programming, then we assign 10 and 20 in these variables
and finally, we will use different arithmetic and relational operators −
You can try to execute the following program to see the output, which must be identical to the
result generated by the above example.
int a, b, c;
a = 10;
b = 20;
c = a + b;
System.out.println("Value of c = " + c );
c = a - b;
c = a * b;
c = b / a;
c = b % a;
if( a == 10 ) {
System.out.println("a is equal to 10" );

}
}
}
Value of c = 30
Value of c = -10
Value of c = 200
Value of c = 2
Value of c = 0
48
a is equal to 10
9.5 Operators in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. This program will create two
variables a and b and at the same time, assign 10 and 20 in those variables. Fortunately, C
programming and Python programming languages provide almost identical set of operators.
This program will create two variables a and b, very similar to C programming, then we assign
10 and 20 in these variables and finally, we will use different arithmetic and relational
operators.
a = 10
b = 20
c=a+b
print "Value of c = ", c
c=a-b
c=a*b
c=a/b
c=a%b
if( a == 10 ):
print "a is equal to 10"
Value of c = 30
Value of c = -10
Value of c = 200
Value of c = 0
Value of c = 10
a is equal to 10
10 Decision Statements
Decision making is critical to computer programming. There will be many situations when you
will be given two or more options and you will have to select an option based on the given
conditions.
49
Sequence
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
printf( "Value of a = %d\n", a );

printf( "Value of b = %d\n", b );
}
For example, we want to print a remark about a student based on his secured marks. Following
is the situation −
Assume given marks are x for a student:
If given marks are more than 95, then

Student is brilliant
If given marks are less than 30, then

Student is poor
If given marks are less than 95 and more than 30, then
Student is average
Now, the question is how to write a programming code to handle such situations. Almost all the
programming languages provide conditional statements that work based on the following flow
diagram −
50
if(condition)
{
conditional code to execute (if the condition true)
}
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
if(a>b)
{
printf( "%d is bigger than %d\n", a,b );
}
}
51
Let's write a C program with the help of if conditional statements to convert the above given
situation into a programming code –
Write a program that will check whether a student has passed exams. Assume the pass
mark is 40.
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int marks ;
printf(“Enter the marks obtained: ”);
scanf(“%d”,&marks);
if( marks >= 40) {
printf( "Student is brilliant!!! Passed your exams\n");

printf( "Proceed to the next stage\n");
}
}
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 45;
if( x > 95) {
printf( "Student is brilliant\n");

}
if( x < 30) {
printf( "Student is poor\n");

}
if( x < 95 && x > 30 ) {
printf( "Student is average\n");

}
}
Student is average
The above program uses if conditional statements. Here, the first if statement checks whether
the given condition i.e., variable x is greater than 95 or not and if it finds the condition is true,
then the conditional body is entered to execute the given statements. Here we have only
one printf() statement to print a remark about the student.
52
Similarly, the second if statement works. Finally, the third if statement is executed, here we
have the following two conditions −
 First condition is x > 95
 Second condition is x < 30
The computer evaluates both the given conditions and then, the overall result is combined with
the help of the binary operator &&. If the final result is true, then the conditional statement will
be executed, otherwise no statement will be executed.
This tutorial will give you a basic idea on various forms of if statements and an introduction
to switch statements available in C programming language. Different programming languages
provide different types of decision-making statements, but the basic concept remains the same
as explained in this tutorial.
10.1 if...else statement

An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes when the
Boolean expression is false. The syntax of an if...else statement in C programming language is −
if(boolean_expression) {
/* Statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true */

} else {
/* Statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is false */

}
The above syntax can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as shown below −
53
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
if(a>b)
{
printf( "%d is bigger than %d\n", a,b );
}
else
{
printf( "%d is smaller than %d\n", a,b );
}
An if...else statement is useful when we have to take a decision out of two options. For example,
if a student secures more marks than 95, then the student is brilliant, otherwise no such situation
can be coded, as follows –
Write a program that will check whether a student has passed or failed exams. Assume the
pass mark is 40.
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int marks ;
printf(“Enter the marks obtained: ”);
scanf(“%d”,&marks);
if( marks >= 40) {
printf( "Student is brilliant!!! Failed your exams\n");

printf( "Repeat the stage\n");
}
else
{
printf( "You are not clever!!! Passed your exams\n");
printf( "Proceed to the next stage\n");
}
}
54
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 45;
if( x > 95) {

} else {
printf( "Student is not brilliant\n");
}
}
Student is not brilliant
10.2 if...elseif...else statement

An if statement can be followed by an optional else if...else statement, which is very useful to
test various conditions.
While using if, else if, else statements, there are a few points to keep in mind −
 An if can have zero or one else's and it must come after an else if.
 An if can have zero to many else…if's and they must come before the else.
 Once an else…if succeeds, none of the remaining else…if's or else's will be tested.
The syntax of an if...else if...else statement in C programming language is −
if(boolean_expression 1) {
/* Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true */

}
else if( boolean_expression 2) {

}
else if( boolean_expression 3) {

} else {
/* Executes when the none of the above condition is true */

}
55
Now with the help of if...elseif...else statement, the very first program can be coded as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 45;
if( x > 95) {

}
else if( x < 30) {
printf( "Student is poor\n");
}
else if( x < 95 && x > 30 ) {
printf( "Student is average\n");
}
}
Student is average
10.3 The Switch Statement

A switch statement is an alternative of if statements which allows a variable to be tested for
equality against a list of values. Each value is called a case, and the variable being switched on
is checked for each switch case. It has the following syntax −
switch(expression){
case ONE :
statement(s);
break;
case TWO:
statement(s);
break;
......
default :
statement(s);
}
The expression used in a switch statement must give an integer value, which will be compared
for equality with different cases given. Wherever an expression value matches with a case
value, the body of that case will be executed and finally, the switch will be terminated using
a break statement. If no break statements are provided, then the computer continues executing
other statements available below to the matched case. If none of the cases matches, then the
default case body is executed.
The above syntax can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as shown below −
56
Now, let's consider another example where we want to write the equivalent English word for a
given number. Then, it can be coded as follows –
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int x = 2;
switch( x ){
case 1 :
printf( "One\n");
break;
case 2 :
printf( "Two\n");
break;
case 3 :
printf( "Three\n");
break;
case 4 :
printf( "Four\n");
57
break;
default :
printf( "None of the above...\n");
}
}
Two
10.4 Decisions in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java which too
supports if, if...else, if...elseif...else, and switch statements.
result generated by the above C example.
int x = 45;
if( x > 95) {

System.out.println( "Student is brilliant");
}
else if( x < 30) {
System.out.println( "Student is poor");
}
else if( x < 95 && x > 30 ) {
System.out.println( "Student is average");
}
}
}
Student is average
10.5 Decisions in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. Python
provides if, if...else, if...elif...else, and switch statements. Here, you must note that Python does
not make use of curly braces for conditional body, instead it simply identifies the body of the
block using indentation of the statements.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output −
x = 45
if x > 95:
58
print "Student is brilliant"
elif x < 30:
print "Student is poor"
elif x < 95 and x > 30:
print "Student is average"
print "The end"

Student is average
The end
11 Computer Programming - Loops
Let's consider a situation when you want to print Hello, World! five times. Here is a simple C
program to do the same −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf( "Hello, World!\n");
}
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {

59
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
It was simple, but again, let's consider another situation when you want to write Hello,
World! a thousand times. We can certainly not write printf() statements a thousand times.
Almost all the programming languages provide a concept called loop, which helps in executing
one or more statements up to a desired number of times. All high-level programming languages
provide various forms of loops, which can be used to execute one or more statements
repeatedly.
Let's write the above C program with the help of a while loop and later, we will discuss how
this loop works
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i = 0;
while ( i < 5 ) {
i = i + 1;
}
}
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
The above program makes use of a while loop, which is being used to execute a set of
programming statements enclosed within {....}. Here, the computer first checks whether the
given condition, i.e., variable "a" is less than 5 or not and if it finds the condition is true, then
the loop body is entered to execute the given statements. Here, we have the following two
statements in the loop body −
 First statement is printf() function, which prints Hello World!
 Second statement is i = i + 1, which is used to increase the value of variable i
After executing all the statements given in the loop body, the computer goes back to while( i <
5) and the given condition, (i < 5), is checked again, and the loop is executed again if the
condition holds true. This process repeats till the given condition remains true which means
variable "a" has a value less than 5.
60
To conclude, a loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple
times. Given below is the general form of a loop statement in most of the programming
languages −
This tutorial has been designed to present programming's basic concepts to non-programmers,
so let's discuss the two most important loops available in C programming language. Once you
are clear about these two loops, then you can pick-up C programming tutorial or a reference
book and check other loops available in C and the way they work.
11.1 The while Loop

A while loop available in C Programming language has the following syntax −
while ( condition ) {
/*....while loop body ....*/
}
The above code can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as shown below −
61
The following important points are to be noted about a while loop −
 A while loop starts with a keyword while followed by a condition enclosed in ( ).
 Further to the while() statement, you will have the body of the loop enclosed in curly
braces {...}.
 A while loop body can have one or more lines of source code to be executed repeatedly.
 If the body of a while loop has just one line, then its optional to use curly braces {...}.
 A while loop keeps executing its body till a given condition holds true. As soon as the
condition becomes false, the while loop comes out and continues executing from the
immediate next statement after the while loop body.
 A condition is usually a relational statement, which is evaluated to either true or false. A
value equal to zero is treated as false and any non-zero value works like true.
11.2 The do...while Loop

A while loop checks a given condition before it executes any statements given in the body part.
C programming provides another form of loop, called do...while that allows to execute a loop
body before checking a given condition. It has the following syntax −
do {
/*....do...while loop body ....*/
}
62
while ( condition );
The above code can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as shown below −
If you will write the above example using do...while loop, then Hello, World will produce the
same result −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i = 0;
do {
i = i + 1;
}
while ( i < 5 );
}
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
63
11.3 The break statement
When the break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is immediately terminated and
the program control resumes at the next statement following the loop. The syntax for
a break statement in C is as follows −
break;
A break statement can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as shown below −
Following is a variant of the above program, but it will come out after printing Hello World!
only three times −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i = 0;
do {
i = i + 1;
if( i == 3 ) {
break;
}
}
while ( i < 5 );
}
64
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
11.4 The continue statement

The continue statement in C programming language works somewhat like the break statement.
Instead of forcing termination, continue forces the next iteration of the loop to take place,
skipping any code in between. The syntax for a continue statement in C is as follows −
continue;
A continue statement can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as shown below −
Following is a variant of the above program, but it will skip printing when the variable has a
value equal to 3 −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i = 0;
do {
if( i == 3 ) {
i = i + 1;
continue;
}
i = i + 1;
}
65
while ( i < 5 );
}
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
11.5 Loops in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java that too
supports while and do...while loops. The following program prints Hello, World! five times as
we did in the case of C Programming −
int i = 0;
while ( i < 5 ) {
System.out.println("Hello, World!");
i = i + 1;
}
}
}
The break and continue statements in Java programming work quite the same way as they
work in C programming.
11.6 Loops in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. Python too
supports while and do...while loops. The following program prints Hello, World! five times as
we did in case of C Programming. Here you must note that Python does not make use of curly
braces for the loop body, instead it simply identifies the body of the loop using indentation of
the statements.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output. To show the difference, we
have used one more print statement, which will be executed when the loop will be over.
i=0
while (i < 5):

i=i+1
print "Loop ends"
66
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Loop ends
The break and continue statements in Python work quite the same way as they do in C
programming.
12 Computer Programming - Numbers
Every programming language provides support for manipulating different types of numbers
such as simple whole integers and floating point numbers. C, Java, and Python categorize these
numbers in several categories based on their nature.
Let's go back and check the data types chapter, where we listed down the core data types related
to numbers −
Type Keyword Value range which can be represented by

this data type
Number int -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to

2,147,483,647
Small Number short -32,768 to 32,767
Long Number long -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
Decimal Number float 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 till 6 decimal places
These data types are called primitive data types and you can use these data types to build more
data types, which are called user-defined data types.
We have seen various mathematical and logical operations on numbers during a discussion on
operators. So we know how to add numbers, subtract numbers, divide numbers, etc.
First let's see how to print various types of numbers available in C programming language −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
short s;
int i;
67
long l;
float f;
double d;
s = 10;
i = 1000;
l = 1000000;
f = 230.47;
d = 30949.374;
printf( "s: %d\n", s);

printf( "i: %d\n", i);
printf( "l: %ld\n", l);
printf( "f: %.3f\n", f);
printf( "d: %.3f\n", d);
}
Rest of the coding is very obvious, but we used %.3f to print float and double, which indicates
the number of digits after the decimal to be printed. When the above program is executed, it
produces the following result −
s: 10
i: 1000
l: 1000000
f: 230.470
d: 30949.374
12.1 Math Operations on Numbers

The following table lists down various useful built-in mathematical functions available in C
programming language which can be used for various important mathematical calculations.
For example, if you want to calculate the square root of a number, for example, 2304, then you
have a built-in function available to calculate the square root.
Sr.No. Function & Purpose
1 double cos(double);
This function takes an angle (as a double) and returns the cosine.
2 double sin(double);
This function takes an angle (as a double) and returns the sine.
3 double tan(double);
68
This function takes an angle (as a double) and returns the tangent.
4 double log(double);
This function takes a number and returns the natural log of that
number.
5 double pow(double, double);

The first is a number you wish to raise and the second is the power
you wish to raise it to.
6 double hypot(double, double);

If you pass this function the length of two sides of a right triangle, it
will return the length of the hypotenuse.
7 double sqrt(double);
You pass this function a number and it returns its square root.
8 int abs(int);
This function returns the absolute value of an integer that is passed
to it.
9 double fabs(double);
This function returns the absolute value of any decimal number
passed to it.
10 double floor(double);
Finds the integer which is less than or equal to the argument passed
to it.
Following is a simple example to show a few mathematical operations. To utilize these

functions, you need to include the math header file <math.h> in your program in the same way
you included stdio.h −
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
69
int main() {
short s;
int i;
long l;
float f;
double d;
printf( "sin(s): %f\n", sin(10));

printf( "abs(i): %f\n", abs(1000));
printf( "floor(f): %f\n", floor(230.47));
printf( "sqrt(l): %f\n", sqrt(1000000));
printf( "pow(d, 2): %f\n", pow(2.374, 2));
}
sin(s): -0.544021
abs(i): -0.544021
floor(f): 230.000000
sqrt(l): 1000.000000
pow(d, 2): 5.635876
Besides the above usage, you will use numbers in loop counting, flag representation, true or
false values in C programming.
12.2 Numbers in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java. Java provides almost all the numeric data
types available in C programming.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output, which is identical to the result
generated by the above C example.
short s;
int i;
long l;
float f;
double d;
s = 10;
i = 1000;
l = 1000000L;
f = 230.47f;
d = 30949.374;
System.out.format( "s: %d\n", s);

System.out.format( "i: %d\n", i);
70
System.out.format( "l: %d\n", l);
System.out.format( "f: %f\n", f);
System.out.format( "d: %f\n", d);
}
}
s: 10
i: 1000
l: 1000000
f: 230.470001
d: 30949.374000
Java also provides a full range of built-in functions for mathematical calculation and you can
use them in the same way as you did in C programming.
12.3 Numbers in Python

Python is a little different from C and Java; it categorizes numbers
in int, long, float and complex. Here are some examples of numbers in Python −
int long float complex
10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j
100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j
-786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j
080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEl 32.3+e18 .876j
-0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J
-0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J
0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j
Following is the equivalent program written in Python −

s = 10
i = 1000
l = 1000000
f = 230.47
71
d = 30949.374
print "s: ", s

print "i: ", i
print "l: ", l
print "f: ", f
print "d: ", d
s: 10
i: 1000
l: 1000000
f: 230.47
d: 30949.374
Python also provides a full range of built-in functions for mathematical calculations and you can
use them in the same way you have used them in C programming.
13 Computer Programming - Characters
If it was easy to work with numbers in computer programming, it would be even easier to work
with characters. Characters are simple alphabets like a, b, c, d...., A, B, C, D,....., but with an
exception. In computer programming, any single digit number like 0, 1, 2,....and special
characters like $, %, +, -.... etc., are also treated as characters and to assign them in a character
type variable, you simply need to put them inside single quotes. For example, the following
statement defines a character type variable ch and we assign a value 'a' to it −
char ch = 'a';
Here, ch is a variable of character type which can hold a character of the implementation's
character set and 'a' is called a character literal or a character constant. Not only a, b, c,.... but
when any number like 1, 2, 3.... or any special character like !, @, #, #, $,.... is kept inside single
quotes, then they will be treated as a character literal and can be assigned to a variable of
character type, so the following is a valid statement −
char ch = '1';
A character data type consumes 8 bits of memory which means you can store anything in a
character whose ASCII value lies in between -127 to 127, so it can hold any of the 256 different
values. A character data type can store any of the characters available on your keyboard
including special characters like !, @, #, #, $, %, ^, &, *, (, ), _, +, {, }, etc.
Note that you can keep only a single alphabet or a single digit number inside single quotes and
more than one alphabets or digits are not allowed inside single quotes. So the following
statements are invalid in C programming −
char ch1 = 'ab';
char ch2 = '10';
72
Given below is a simple example, which shows how to define, assign, and print characters in C
Programming language −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char ch1;
char ch2;
char ch3;
char ch4;
ch1 = 'a';
ch2 = '1';
ch3 = '$';
ch4 = '+';
printf( "ch1: %c\n", ch1);

}
Here, we used %c to print a character data type. When the above program is executed, it
ch1: a
ch2: 1
ch3: $
ch4: +
13.1 Escape Sequences

Many programming languages support a concept called Escape Sequence. When a character is
preceded by a backslash (\), it is called an escape sequence and it has a special meaning to the
compiler. For example, \n in the following statement is a valid character and it is called a new
line character −
char ch = '\n';
Here, character n has been preceded by a backslash (\), it has special meaning which is a new
line but keep in mind that backslash (\) has special meaning with a few characters only. The
following statement will not convey any meaning in C programming and it will be assumed as
an invalid statement −
char ch = '\1';
The following table lists the escape sequences available in C programming language −
Escape Sequence Description
73
\t Inserts a tab in the text at this point.
\b Inserts a backspace in the text at this point.
\n Inserts a newline in the text at this point.
\r Inserts a carriage return in the text at this point.
\f Inserts a form feed in the text at this point.
\' Inserts a single quote character in the text at this point.
\" Inserts a double quote character in the text at this point.
\\ Inserts a backslash character in the text at this point.
The following example shows how the compiler interprets an escape sequence in a print
statement −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char ch1;
char ch2;
char ch3;
char ch4;
ch1 = '\t';
ch2 = '\n';
printf( "Test for tabspace %c and a newline %c will start here", ch1, ch2);
}
Test for tabspace and a newline
will start here
13.2 Characters in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java. Java handles character data types much in
the same way as we have seen in C programming. However, Java provides additional support
for character manipulation.
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char ch1;
char ch2;
char ch3;
char ch4;
ch1 = 'a';
ch2 = '1';
ch3 = '$';
ch4 = '+';
System.out.format( "ch1: %c\n", ch1);

}
}
ch1: a
ch2: 1
ch3: $
ch4: +
Java also supports escape sequence in the same way you have used them in C programming.
13.3 Characters in Python

Python does not support any character data type but all the characters are treated as string,
which is a sequence of characters. We will study strings in a separate chapter. You do not need
to have any special arrangement while using a single character in Python.
ch1 = 'a';
ch2 = '1';
ch3 = '$';
ch4 = '+';
print "ch1: ", ch1

print "ch2: ", ch2
print "ch3: ", ch3
print "ch4: ", ch4
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ch1: a
ch2: 1
ch3: $
ch4: +
Python supports escape sequences in the same way as you have used them in C programming.
14 Computer Programming - Arrays
Consider a situation where we need to store five integer numbers. If we use programming's
simple variable and data type concepts, then we need five variables of int data type and the
program will be as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int number1;
int number2;
int number3;
int number4;
int number5;
number1 = 10;
number2 = 20;
number3 = 30;
number4 = 40;
number5 = 50;
printf( "number1: %d\n", number1);

}
It was simple, because we had to store just five integer numbers. Now let's assume we have to
store 5000 integer numbers. Are we going to use 5000 variables?
To handle such situations, almost all the programming languages provide a concept
called array. An array is a data structure, which can store a fixed-size collection of elements of
the same data type. An array is used to store a collection of data, but it is often more useful to
think of an array as a collection of variables of the same type.
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Instead of declaring individual variables, such as number1, number2, ..., number99, you just
declare one array variable number of integer type and use number1[0], number1[1], and ...,
number1[99] to represent individual variables. Here, 0, 1, 2, .....99 are index associated
with var variable and they are being used to represent individual elements available in the array.
All arrays consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest address corresponds to the first
element and the highest address to the last element.
14.1 Create Arrays

To create an array variable in C, a programmer specifies the type of the elements and the
number of elements to be stored in that array. Given below is a simple syntax to create an array
in C programming −
type arrayName [ arraySize ];
This is called a single-dimensional array. The arraySize must be an integer constant greater
than zero and type can be any valid C data type. For example, now to declare a 10-element
array called number of type int, use this statement −
int number[10];
Here, number is a variable array, which is sufficient to hold up to 10 integer numbers.
14.2 Initializing Arrays

You can initialize an array in C either one by one or using a single statement as follows −
int number[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
The number of values between braces { } cannot be larger than the number of elements that we
declare for the array between square brackets [ ].
If you omit the size of the array, an array just big enough to hold the initialization is created.
Therefore, if you write −
int number[] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
You will create exactly the same array as you did in the previous example. Following is an
example to assign a single element of the array −
number[4] = 50;
The above statement assigns element number 5th in the array with a value of 50. All arrays have
0 as the index of their first element which is also called the base index and the last index of an
array will be the total size of the array minus 1. The following image shows the pictorial
representation of the array we discussed above −
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14.3 Accessing Array Elements
An element is accessed by indexing the array name. This is done by placing the index of the
element within square brackets after the name of the array. For example −
int var = number[9];
The above statement will take the 10th element from the array and assign the value
to var variable. The following example uses all the above-mentioned three concepts viz.
creation, assignment, and accessing arrays −
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int number[10]; /* number is an array of 10 integers */
int i = 0;
/* Initialize elements of array n to 0 */

while( i < 10 ) {
/* Set element at location i to i + 100 */

number[ i ] = i + 100;
i = i + 1;
}
/* Output each array element's value */

i = 0;
while( i < 10 ) {
printf("number[%d] = %d\n", i, number[i] );

i = i + 1;
}
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
number[0] = 100
number[1] = 101
number[2] = 102
number[3] = 103
number[4] = 104
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number[5] = 105
number[6] = 106
number[7] = 107
number[8] = 108
number[9] = 109
14.4 Arrays in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java. Java supports arrays, but there is a little
difference in the way they are created in Java using the new operator.
int[] number = new int[10];
int i = 0;
while( i < 10 ) {
number[ i ] = i + 100;
i = i + 1;
}
i = 0;
while( i < 10 ) {
System.out.format( "number[%d] = %d\n", i, number[i] );
i = i + 1;
}
}
}
number[0] = 100
number[1] = 101
number[2] = 102
number[3] = 103
number[4] = 104
number[5] = 105
number[6] = 106
number[7] = 107
number[8] = 108
number[9] = 109
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14.5 Arrays (Lists) in Python
Python does not have a concept of Array, instead Python provides another data structure
called list, which provides similar functionality as arrays in any other language.
# Following defines an empty list.
number = []
i=0
while i < 10:

# Appending elements in the list
number.append(i + 100)
i=i+1
i=0
while i < 10:
# Accessing elements from the list
print "number[", i, "] = ", number[ i ]
i=i+1
number[ 0 ] = 100
number[ 1 ] = 101
number[ 2 ] = 102
number[ 3 ] = 103
number[ 4 ] = 104
number[ 5 ] = 105
number[ 6 ] = 106
number[ 7 ] = 107
number[ 8 ] = 108
number[ 9 ] = 109
15 Computer Programming - Strings
During our discussion about characters, we learnt that character data type deals with a single
character and you can assign any character from your keyboard to a character type variable.
Now, let's move a little bit ahead and consider a situation where we need to store more than one
character in a variable. We have seen that C programming does not allow to store more than one
character in a character type variable. So the following statements are invalid in C programming
and produce syntax errors −
char ch1 = 'ab';
char ch2 = '10';
We have also seen how to use the concept of arrays to store more than one value of similar data
type in a variable. Here is the syntax to store and print five numbers in an array of int type −
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#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int number[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int i = 0;
while( i < 5 ) {
printf("number[%d] = %d\n", i, number[i] );
i = i + 1;
}
}
number[0] = 10
number[1] = 20
number[2] = 30
number[3] = 40
number[4] = 50
Now, let's define an array of five characters in the same way as we did for numbers and try to
print them −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
char ch[5] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o'};
int i = 0;
while( i < 5 ) {
printf("ch[%d] = %c\n", i, ch[i] );
i = i + 1;
}
}
Here, we used %c to print character value. When the above code is compiled and executed, it
ch[0] = H
ch[1] = e
ch[2] = l
ch[3] = l
ch[4] = o
If you are done with the above example, then I think you understood how strings work in C
programming, because strings in C are represented as arrays of characters. C programming
simplified the assignment and printing of strings. Let's check the same example once again with
a simplified syntax −
#include <stdio.h>
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main() {
char ch[5] = "Hello";
int i = 0;
/* Print as a complete string */

printf("String = %s\n", ch);
/* Print character by character */

while( i < 5 ) {
printf("ch[%d] = %c\n", i, ch[i] );
i = i + 1;
}
}
Here, we used %s to print the full string value using array name ch, which is actually the
beginning of the memory address holding ch variable as shown below −
Although it's not visible from the above examples, a C program internally assigns null
character '\0' as the last character of every string. It indicates the end of the string and it means
if you want to store a 5 character string in an array, then you must define an array size of 6 as a
good practice, though C does not complain about it.
If the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
String = Hello
ch[0] = H
ch[1] = e
ch[2] = l
ch[3] = l
ch[4] = o
15.1 Basic String Concepts

Based on the above discussion, we can conclude the following important points about strings in
C programming language −
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 Strings in C are represented as arrays of characters.
 We can constitute a string in C programming by assigning character by character into an
array of characters.
 We can constitute a string in C programming by assigning a complete string enclosed in
double quote.
 We can print a string character by character using an array subscript or a complete string
by using an array name without subscript.
 The last character of every string is a null character, i.e., ‘\0’.
 Most of the programming languages provide built-in functions to manipulate strings, i.e.,
you can concatenate strings, you can search from a string, you can extract sub-strings
from a string, etc. For more, you can check our detailed tutorial on C programming or
any other programming language.
15.2 Strings in Java

Though you can use character arrays to store strings, but Java is an advanced programming
language and its designers tried to provide additional functionality. Java provides strings as a
built-in data type like any other data type. It means you can define strings directly instead of
defining them as array of characters.
Following is the equivalent program written in Java. Java makes use of the new operator to
create string variables as shown in the following program.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output −
String str = new String("Hello");
System.out.println( "String = " + str );
}
}
String = Hello
15.3 Strings in Python

Creating strings in Python is as simple as assigning a string into a Python variable using single
or double quotes.
Given below is a simple program that creates two strings and prints them using print() function
−
var1 = 'Hello World!'
var2 = "Python Programming"
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print "var1 = ", var1
print "var2 = ", var2
var1 = Hello World!
var2 = Python Programming
Python does not support character type; these are treated as strings of length one, thus also
considered a substring.
To access substrings, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to
obtain your substring. Take a look at the following code segment −
var1 = 'Hello World!'
var2 = "Python Programming"
print "var1[0]: ", var1[0]

print "var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5]
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
var1[0]: H
var2[1:5]: ytho
16 Computer Programming - Functions
A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single, related action.
Functions provide better modularity for your application and a high degree of code reusing. You
have already seen various functions like printf() and main(). These are called built-in functions
provided by the language itself, but we can write our own functions as well and this tutorial will
teach you how to write and use those functions in C programming language.
Good thing about functions is that they are famous with several names. Different programming
languages name them differently, for example, functions, methods, sub-routines, procedures,
etc. If you come across any such terminology, then just imagine about the same concept, which
we are going to discuss in this tutorial.
Let's start with a program where we will define two arrays of numbers and then from each
array, we will find the biggest number. Given below are the steps to find out the maximum
number from a given set of numbers −
1. Get a list of numbers L1, L2, L3....LN
2. Assume L1 is the largest, Set max = L1
3. Take next number Li from the list and do the following
4. If max is less than Li
5. Set max = Li
6. If Li is last number from the list then
7. Print value stored in max and come out
8. Else prepeat same process starting from step 3
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Let's translate the above program in C programming language −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int set1[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int set2[5] = {101, 201, 301, 401, 501};
int i, max;
/* Process first set of numbers available in set1[] */

max = set1[0];
i = 1;
while( i < 5 ) {
if( max < set1[i] ) {
max = set1[i];
}
i = i + 1;
}
printf("Max in first set = %d\n", max );
/* Now process second set of numbers available in set2[] */

max = set2[0];
i = 1;
while( i < 5 ) {
if( max < set2[i] ) {
max = set2[i];
}
i = i + 1;
}
printf("Max in second set = %d\n", max );
}
Max in first set = 50
Max in second set = 501
If you are clear about the above example, then it will become easy to understand why we need a
function. In the above example, there are only two sets of numbers, set1 and set2, but consider a
situation where we have 10 or more similar sets of numbers to find out the maximum numbers
from each set. In such a situation, we will have to repeat, processing 10 or more times and
ultimately, the program will become too large with repeated code. To handle such situation, we
write our functions where we try to keep the source code which will be used again and again in
our programming.
Now, let's see how to define a function in C programming language and then in the subsequent
sections, we will explain how to use them.
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16.1 Defining a Function
The general form of a function definition in C programming language is as follows −
return_type function_name( parameter list ) {
body of the function
return [expression];
}
A function definition in C programming consists of a function header and a function body. Here
are all the parts of a function −
 Return Type − A function may return a value. The return_type is the data type of the
value the function returns. Some functions perform the desired operations without
returning a value. In this case, the return_type is the keyword void.
 Function Name − This is the actual name of the function. The function name and the
parameter list together constitute the function signature.
 Parameter List − A parameter is like a placeholder. When a function is invoked, you
pass a value as a parameter. This value is referred to as the actual parameter or
argument. The parameter list refers to the type, order, and number of the parameters of a
function. Parameters are optional; that is, a function may contain no parameters.
 Function Body − The function body contains a collection of statements that defines
what the function does.
16.2 Calling a Function

While creating a C function, you give a definition of what the function has to do. To use a
function, you will have to call that function to perform a defined task.
Now, let's write the above example with the help of a function −
#include <stdio.h>
int getMax( int set[] ) {

int i, max;
max = set[0];
i = 1;
while( i < 5 ) {
if( max < set[i] ) {
max = set[i];
}
i = i + 1;
}
return max;
}
main() {
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int set1[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int set2[5] = {101, 201, 301, 401, 501};
int max;

max = getMax(set1);
printf("Max in first set = %d\n", max );

max = getMax(set2);
printf("Max in second set = %d\n", max );
}
16.3 Functions in Java

If you are clear about functions in C programming, then it is easy to understand them in Java as
well. Java programming names them as methods, but the rest of the concepts remain more or
less same.
Following is the equivalent program written in Java. You can try to execute it to see the output
−
int[] set1 = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int[] set2 = {101, 201, 301, 401, 501};
int max;

max = getMax(set1);
System.out.format("Max in first set = %d\n", max );

max = getMax(set2);
System.out.format("Max in second set = %d\n", max );
}
public static int getMax( int set[] ) {
int i, max;
max = set[0];
i = 1;
while( i < 5 ) {
if( max < set[i] ) {
max = set[i];
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}
i = i + 1;
}
return max;
}
}
16.4 Functions in Python

Once again, if you know the concept of functions in C and Java programming, then Python is
not much different. Given below is the basic syntax of defining a function in Python −
def function_name( parameter list ):
body of the function
return [expression]
Using this syntax of function in Python, the above example can be written as follows −
def getMax( set ):
max = set[0]
i=1
while( i < 5 ):
if( max < set[i] ):
max = set[i]
i=i+1
return max
set1 = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]

set2 = [101, 201, 301, 401, 501]
# Process first set of numbers available in set1[]

max = getMax(set1)
print "Max in first set = ", max
# Now process second set of numbers available in set2[]

max = getMax(set2)
print "Max in second set = ", max
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Computer Programming - File I/O
16.5 Computer Files

A computer file is used to store data in digital format like plain text, image data, or any other
content. Computer files can be organized inside different directories. Files are used to keep
digital data, whereas directories are used to keep files.
Computer files can be considered as the digital counterpart of paper documents. While
programming, you keep your source code in text files with different extensions, for example, C
programming files end with the extension .c, Java programming files with .java, and Python
files with .py.
16.6 File Input/Output

Usually, you create files using text editors such as notepad, MS Word, MS Excel or MS
Powerpoint, etc. However, many times, we need to create files using computer programs as
well. We can modify an existing file using a computer program.
File input means data that is written into a file and file output means data that is read from a file.
Actually, input and output terms are more related to screen input and output. When we display a
result on the screen, it is called output. Similarly, if we provide some input to our program from
the command prompt, then it is called input.
For now, it is enough to remember that writing into a file is file input and reading something
from a file is file output.
16.7 File Operation Modes

Before we start working with any file using a computer program, either we need to create a new
file if it does not exist or open an already existing file. In either case, we can open a file in the
following modes −
 Read-Only Mode − If you are going to just read an existing file and you do not want to
write any further content in the file, then you will open the file in read-only mode.
Almost all the programming languages provide syntax to open files in read-only mode.
 Write-Only Mode − If you are going to write into either an existing file or a newly
created file but you do not want to read any written content from that file, then you will
open the file in write-only mode. All the programming languages provide syntax to open
files in write-only mode.
 Read & Write Mode − If you are going to read as well as write into the same file, then
you will open file in read & write mode.
 Append Mode − When you open a file for writing, it allows you to start writing from the
beginning of the file; however it will overwrite existing content, if any. Suppose we
don’t want to overwrite any existing content, then we open the file in append mode.
Append mode is ultimately a write mode, which allows content to be appended at the
end of the file. Almost all the programming languages provide syntax to open files in
append mode.
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In the following sections, we will learn how to open a fresh new file, how to write into it, and
later, how to read and append more content into the same file.
16.8 Opening Files

You can use the fopen() function to create a new file or to open an existing file. This call will
initialize an object of the type FILE, which contains all the information necessary to control the
stream. Here is the prototype, i.e., signature of this function call −
FILE *fopen( const char * filename, const char * mode );
Here, filename is string literal, which you will use to name your file and access mode can have
one of the following values −
Sr.No Mode & Description
1 r
Opens an existing text file for reading purpose.
2 w
Opens a text file for writing. If it does not exist, then a new file is
created. Here, your program will start writing content from the
beginning of the file.
3 a
Opens a text file for writing in appending mode. If it does not exist,
then a new file is created. Here, your program will start appending
content in the existing file content.
4 r+
Opens a text file for reading and writing both.
5 w+
Opens a text file for both reading and writing. It first truncates the file
to zero length, if it exists; otherwise creates the file if it does not
exist.
6 a+
Opens a text file for both reading and writing. It creates a file, if it
does not exist. The reading will start from the beginning, but writing
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can only be appended.
16.9 Closing a File

To close a file, use the fclose( ) function. The prototype of this function is −
int fclose( FILE *fp );
The fclose( ) function returns zero on success, or EOF, special character, if there is an error in
closing the file. This function actually flushes any data still pending in the buffer to the file,
closes the file, and releases any memory used for the file. The EOF is a constant defined in the
header file stdio.h.
There are various functions provided by C standard library to read and write a file character by
character or in the form of a fixed length string. Let us see a few of them in the next section.
16.10 Writing a File

Given below is the simplest function to write individual characters to a stream −
int fputc( int c, FILE *fp );
The function fputc() writes the character value of the argument c to the output stream
referenced by fp. It returns the written character written on success, otherwise EOF if there is
an error. You can use the following functions to write a null-terminated string to a stream −
int fputs( const char *s, FILE *fp );
The function fputs() writes the string s into the file referenced by fp. It returns a non-negative
value on success, otherwise EOF is returned in case of any error. You can also use the
function int fprintf(FILE *fp,const char *format, ...) to write a string into a file. Try the
following example −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("/tmp/test.txt", "w+");
fprintf(fp, "This is testing for fprintf...\n");
fputs("This is testing for fputs...\n", fp);
fclose(fp);
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it creates a new file test.txt in /tmp directory
and writes two lines using two different functions. Let us read this file in the next section.
16.11 Reading a File

Given below is the simplest function to read a text file character by character −
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int fgetc( FILE * fp );
The fgetc() function reads a character from the input file referenced by fp. The return value is
the character read; or in case of any error, it returns EOF. The following function allows you to
read a string from a stream −
char *fgets( char *buf, int n, FILE *fp );
The function fgets() reads up to n - 1 characters from the input stream referenced by fp. It
copies the read string into the buffer buf, appending a null character to terminate the string.
If this function encounters a newline character '\n' or EOF before they have read the maximum
number of characters, then it returns only the characters read up to that point including the new
line character. You can also use int fscanf(FILE *fp, const char *format, ...) to read strings
from a file, but it stops reading after encountering the first space character.
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
FILE *fp;
char buff[255];
fp = fopen("/tmp/test.txt", "r");
fscanf(fp, "%s", buff);
printf("1 : %s\n", buff );
fgets(buff, 255, (FILE*)fp);

printf("2: %s\n", buff );
fgets(buff, 255, (FILE*)fp);

printf("3: %s\n", buff );
fclose(fp);
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it reads the file created in the previous section
and produces the following result −
1 : This
2 : is testing for fprintf...
3 : This is testing for fputs...

Let's analyze what happened here. First, the fscanf() method reads This because after that, it
encountered a space. The second call is for fgets(), which reads the remaining line till it
encountered end of line. Finally, the last call fgets() reads the second line completely.
16.12 File I/O in Java

Java provides even richer set of functions to handle File I/O. For more on this topic, we suggest
you to check our Java Tutorials.
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Here, we will see a simple Java program, which is equivalent to the C program explained above.
This program will open a text file, write a few text lines into it, and close the file. Finally, the
same file is opened and then read from an already created file. You can try to execute the
following program to see the output −
import java.io.*;

public static void main(String []args) throws IOException {
File file = new File("/tmp/java.txt");
// Create a File
file.createNewFile();
// Creates a FileWriter Object using file object

FileWriter writer = new FileWriter(file);
// Writes the content to the file

writer.write("This is testing for Java write...\n");
writer.write("This is second line...\n");
// Flush the memory and close the file

writer.flush();
writer.close();
// Creates a FileReader Object

FileReader reader = new FileReader(file);
char [] a = new char[100];
// Read file content in the array

reader.read(a);
System.out.println( a );
// Close the file

reader.close();
}
}
This is testing for Java write...
This is second line...
16.13 File I/O in Python

The following program shows the same functionality to open a new file, write some content into
it, and finally, read the same file −
# Create a new file
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fo = open("/tmp/python.txt", "w")
# Writes the content to the file

fo.write( "This is testing for Python write...\n");
fo.write( "This is second line...\n");
# Close the file

fo.close()
# Open existing file

fo = open("/tmp/python.txt", "r")
# Read file content in a variable

str = fo.read(100);
print str
# Close opened file

fo.close()
This is testing for Python write...
This is second line...
Top-down and Bottom-up decomposition
Difference between Top-down and Bottom-up Approach
The algorithms are designed using two approaches that are the top-down and bottom-up
approach. In the top-down approach, the complex module is divided into submodules. On the
other hand, bottom-up approach begins with elementary modules and then combine them further.
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The prior purpose of an algorithm is to operate the data comprised in the data structure. In other
words, an algorithm is used to perform the operations on the data inside the data structures.
A complicated algorithm is split into small parts called modules, and the process of splitting is
known as modularization. Modularization significantly reduces the complications of designing
an algorithm and make its process easier to design and implement. Modular programming is the
technique of designing and writing a program in the form of the functions where each function is
distinct from each other and works independently. The content in the functions are cohesive in
manner, and there exists a low coupling between the modules.
17 Top-down Approach Vs Bottom-up Approach
Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR
TOP-DOWN APPROACH BOTTOM-UP APPROACH
COMPARISON
Basic Breaks the massive problem into Solves the fundamental low-level
smaller subproblems. problem and integrates them into
a larger one.
Process Submodules are solitarily analysed. Examine what data is to be

encapsulated, and implies the
concept of information hiding.
Communication Not required in the top-down Needs a specific amount of

approach. communication.
Redundancy Contain redundant information. Redundancy can be eliminated.
Programming Structure/procedural oriented Object-oriented programming

languages programming languages (i.e. C) languages (like C++, Java, etc.)
follows the top-down approach. follows the bottom-up approach.
Mainly used in Module documentation, test case Testing

creation, code implementation and
debugging.
Definition of Top-down Approach
The top-down approach basically divides a complex problem or algorithm into multiple smaller
parts (modules). These modules are further decomposed until the resulting module is the
fundamental program essentially be understood and cannot be further decomposed. After
achieving a certain level of modularity, the decomposition of modules is ceased. The top-down
approach is the stepwise process of breaking of the large program module into simpler and
95
smaller modules to organize and code program in an efficient way. The flow of control in this
approach is always in the downward direction. The top-down approach is implemented in the
“C” programming language by using functions.
Thus, the top-down method begins with abstract design and then sequentially this design is
refined to create more concrete levels until there is no requirement of additional refinement.
Definition of Bottom-up Approach
The bottom-up approach works in just opposite manner to the top-down approach. Initially, it
includes the designing of the most fundamental parts which are then combined to make the
higher level module. This integration of submodules and modules into the higher level module is
repeatedly performed until the required complete algorithm is obtained.
Bottom-up approach functions with layers of abstraction. The primary application of the bottom-
up approach is testing as each fundamental module is first tested before merging it to the bigger
one. The testing is accomplished using the certain low-level functions.
Key Differences Between Top-down and Bottom-up Approach
Top-down approach decomposes the large task into smaller subtasks whereas bottom-up
approach first chooses to solve the different fundamental parts of the task directly then
combine those parts into a whole program.
Each submodule is separately processed in a top-down approach. As against, bottom-up
approach implements the concept of the information hiding by examining the data to be
encapsulated.
The different modules in top-down approach don’t require much communication. On the
contrary, the bottom-up approach needs interaction between the separate fundamental
modules to combine them later.
Top-down approach can produce redundancy while bottom-up approach does not include
redundant information.
The procedural programming languages such as Fortran, COBOL and C follows a top-down
approach. In contrast, object-oriented programming languages like C++, Java, C#, Perl,
Python abides the bottom-up approach.
Bottom-up approach is priorly used in testing. Conversely, the top-down approach is utilized
in module documentation, test case creation, debugging, etcetera.
Conclusion
The top-down approach and bottom-up approach are the algorithm design methods where top-
down is a conventional approach which decomposes the system from high-level specification to
96
low-level specification. On the other hand, the bottom-up approach is more efficient and works
in an inverse manner where the primitive components are designed at first then proceeded to the
higher level.
The top-down approach emphasizes on the isolation of the submodules (signifies the low
coupling between the modules) while ignores the identification of communication and reusability
concept. While in the bottom-up approach, information hiding and reusability are the prominent
factors.
18 Computer Programming - Summary
We appreciate your patience for going through this tutorial. We have tried to keep it concise but
as this subject contains several topics, we have shown a few examples in detail.
If you have not understood any of the concepts, then we recommend to go through the tutorial
once again and once you are comfortable with the concepts explained in this tutorial, you can
proceed further.
There are many other subjects related to computer programming which we did not cover
intentionally to avoid any confusion, but we are sure those concepts will not be difficult for you
to understand as long as you make yourself comfortable with the concepts explained in this
tutorial.
At tutorialspoint, we have put lots of effort to prepare comprehensive tutorials on C, Java, and
Python programming languages and we strongly recommend you to start either of them, after
having completed this tutorial.
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COURSE NAME:

SDS 2102: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER PROGRAMMING FOR DATA SCIENCE

BIT 2104 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING AND ALGORITHMS / ICS

(45 CONTACT HOURS)

 Types of Programming Languages

 Non procedural languages

o Syntax, Semantics, Logical or Run-time errors

5-7  Control structures

Practical Exercises involving algorithmic problem solving

8-9  Introduction to modules and modularity

LECTURER: SAMUEL OTIENO ADHOLA

Computer Programming Tutorial.....................................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction to Computer Program

1.2 Introduction to Computer Programming

1.4 Computer Programmer

QUALITIES OF A GOOD PROGRAM

float length,width,area; //Declaration of variables

d) Modularization: Split your program to make it easier to understand. This is always

-Identify and study problem

printf("Enter any number: ");

/* This is the part of processsing

2. SEMANTIC ERRORS/RUNTIME ERRORS: Caused when the computer is not able to

3. LOGICAL ERRORS: The program is giving erroneous result.

PROGRAMMING TESTING STAGES

Add any two numbers.

printf("Enter the first number: ");

printf("Enter the second number: ");

Good Coding Techniques

There are two types:

2 Computer Programming - Basics

3.1 Text Editor

3.4 Online Compilation

4 Computer Programming - Basic Syntax

#include <stdio.h> preprocessor directive

4.1.1 Program Entry Point

Whitespace Explanation Representation

New Line To create a new line \n

Tab To create a tab. \t

Space To create a space. empty space

/* printf() function to write Hello, World! */

printf( "Hello, World!" );

4.1.6 Program Explanation

4.2 Syntax Error

4.4 Hello World Program in Python

5.1 C and Java Data Types

Type Keyword Value range which can be represented by

Character char -128 to 127 or 0 to 255

Number int -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to

Small Number short -32,768 to 32,767

Long Number long -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

Decimal float 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 till 6 decimal places

5.2 Python Data Types

6.1 Creating variables

/* variable to store float value */

6.2 Store Values in Variables

6.3 Access stored values in variables

printf( "Value of a = %d\n", a );

printf( "Value of a = %d and value of b = %d\n", a, b );

6.4 Variables in Java