o

serniconducto"g he.^re- condrrcLfr, ity LzL-r-r-n con&r.ctprs

anA i rr sr.l-^-Lors ,

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* 5t v"X/,e e-Q-e-" e se-yvr i co ndrr..to v
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o Ge-rrnnqn i** in Pertodrt ti'LQe'
J
dk Cowtpoun[ sqyv1 i conArrc\ot
o Go.Qfu*rn .- iA,L
. covnLini't2^ysR-n .,.| Xrr*f,t
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A cf vi -U
bonAs ay( \rrtact. & v\o &.trons
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VIC4- . V{l.Ysa^.
"d'to t^/t {t*Y bec ovv14- i""^'i\
t v'r
*.- Onc*. hrle-s d;l[usz It o*
ca...y ia",rs rn n -t1pt {}ft('n " 5qwrl tLu'q
,.'i-t'h elut'"'x
d

tiorn - -- ph C"r) p. C"c)

Ion -

n*Cx)
[riuvn

"Xe O +Xn

Hgrr. Na > No
@
* At thz dXz ,f fu,7LzLton {enLon
{"o* Azvic-q- PhPics

wL hute-, u/v,
Pn Cx| : Pno z
)F Tl'uls Lxc&ss eov\centva*,tbrr or\ hu'0cs i',
P^o
Lxcz--S conc. =
* Th'z
'nrut'u='
injectzd h,olos r,ttovL 8- 6P-Lomt'i'z t^,,ith
a(safxons
Lr"ti*
Lrn4orlby r-,\e Y ier, N\L dtssapPeeY U&' zY&ss
cDYl ce.n

ve)t*cts ";Ponei*tal+
 @
T\n,rs totot c'llccntr^ltp* "+ h''fus it'
Pn(rc) = P^o + P^, c
.u/"-) ;Q-"il/tt
wvwYLt LP -- fu$&sron le"fku
) Svna-0lzv LP [*tV' is the docal'
Thas cuvt,. ,^k A-ens i6y \n n -r'26 i on o\ue b \'!t
Arf$ustrn i.,
Ap^C.c)
JpCrc)= -? bp L*
-€'-^')/r-r
:) Srcrc)= q,(*)o^, G*")
At dfl, "$ Aepiu.Lto" <eTiovt ths cctrrenl dznsity
LL-,L
is Lht frk[r*t and [t,r
flir.. I , \/r_' \
bU

(R - \)
Je (xn) 1/ (t) P^o
=
,k At zach goint olo^q thz x-a*L tt^.{
hrlz cuw€nf
&nsily vedqrces bd,1 LI{- ovsroll" cu\re"Jc Je nsiLy
sho"{A b,{. nnruntai .
^gA
* Tln& veAnctt"o, in cuvrenU d,rzvtsr{y du& U tT lTrttty
hrks \tecrrnLi'rrrnc with ^maioriLv
".bctvovrs
is
o- pt nso*e{ t1 4 .*l;zvno-l- 'c i'"c lt irljecttrn e-lzrLron,
:
i^to
" 7
n - reX ion ,

)F Tl"re e-l,zrLrrn i " ie" tf ,n c uxrrewt is in Ll^!- sa,rvtL

Aixz"tjrrr of h"il. cuxrr4rn*, (tl-lhY??)
* ThAs a.s T* Cx) vefuic;<s ttr'-e- ,L2.Lyan c a r rersL
Lf . oT ponn 'a*, incrr€aszs Vt1 say+z ann orl,lnt so
Jzns i
+lnat Lr*il cuvverrL len siLf iE'
.r,"-tvr L= ?e*
) Pr, (evfr' )
)k Savn(- Lt^i*? c&..^ loz A.ovtt- fo, P-Lt ee s ila " Tluts,
I^ C-rr) = 1/ + ^,, ( Lu/u* -)
i*,
,F fo&.{, cu.rrent tJ^rouX h PN-Sunctf ora

f,, = ACs" -*f I

)I.= A1n(#* + t: ",) (e.v/" -)
:)r =,7A11L#*-* i:^il (.*')
I no N>
=s
* Fov nz-6attr€ "\J " i -e . $r, '\tzv LYs< btas c urtve^b
iE consta,'r*t, de 2
r,= Alrn? ffi -fi-)
..;l,.d' ";g$g*Pl tXXXt*'l
and, -,tus cr,rr€,nt is ts t"
T\pi*X. vo'i"ps 'S ts vawl 4..o* t o-
{o \ o-'
)F
rt

v->

s.f U.^Ue then . th& p rr -j r^nc{,t o',n bvecKs A*-q or.A

curreni av1"rP) n c 'rZase.s . T-o rnec fto lt,is vns , I
t

bYzat<lour\ : *
Ci) ZeN EA E FF Ec r tirj A unLANc H LPre er.
Z1NER Esrecl 2,- BreaKinq o4 .ouallydc tprr&s an[
m*ffi*-n*,rr, ol i1,,,!t- - e)x-.Lvrn p,ry aup-to
hto&o o,tu"tk, t;d)" in AzgkLi'w re6fonn
V

@',- HiXh ,oflociLy wtinortty ca)rtu€Ys

,l"inX thto,,t6 h &zpl,zLion
":"X:7^ qrnd inX {'o*n Ynov(
^X3,.tI.tr
["tLL'c'' "?l<
l;vry"!'ps cav.nizrs
LriA* uonds, ,!"u
'!uthin aw qvrt/-Ln.h $a-=l'rotr' '

This pyoczss vLpa*;

Qqeuerrox
n a\,4v,^/4'z1.*^
oSfuslqr @".-
Cha t* \n )aPLcL{on &nr Pn in'

Q3= A

=) Q,l.l =o< Vo+UR

u.:h€,r€-
,, d-- A J.%irffi SJrpe= cJ
-t-Z
t
e,-j
Q= Bias Paint

VR= ?reuzret Uol*a6t

rVurc
"t cj r {q..
du*
ve. -- vq

=> c3 d-
Uo+ Un
.1_= 3a-;tve i t
-expY.?-ss i on
$"u'*
&ov e .
t
AL, Ue= o *L #, cj" - 2{q
o("

Th,us, cjo
cj=
 -T1 ee s
{\.&-/
Qe
.-
f^u_o.l c t
{v.^,J--'-az^-/
r o Ns ", -
\.-- *, (AAyfr !i[f,[lL'. - SopinX concant'ratton ch""Xeg
=uALzwLy.
,h G ^cJlor{ - b,p i.X^:rTrntva*'ioT
*9\^^/ charn5es
%

arailrcw' TYdr,2
^AEP [/
. cj,
'J = Ja'-L1^
L v, I
*)*xL,, *'n1" ya\t^Ls $-r* Y3 to Y, and is 'ilfud"
XrnAiv.T co.f$ tcient.
S rsFus to hr Cnpnc \ TAN cF- n,-
lv @
^.n-l\-.r1.-
3 Dkple\.r0, P" C'O
Cornc.
i lReXir,n
Pno
rha:r.'nc-[ €4p.].1t xt' vn
Volr^z.
-xp xn
,k In 4o-,rro.,A V i aseA P N -'1uy16.Lt'o n tt^{- LYczes vvltn
"t ifr,,
carrrtert ehatf is a, 4riyr.{,r'ovt ,$ uol*,ay.
tl thrve is L c\tavyz ct'ss o cia*<d, "'iLh "9*o(
+ wL can ctssoci^t{- a- ca'?^ciltn'L '
Th-rrs
r
r
P"; Lp
Qe = A7 f e"(",^)
tz "jrp=AT
) q.p-- ftrt
n<
P,',(:/"i%
?=p - L n(in oriLv
^,,-t-v.-..-<\
-/\Hi$.--t<r\r l;{tti",t.e
c-avY
}../-.--------
)F Savnz th,.*X ca,rn Le Aptt- {ot ek \rPqE , TIN^E)

Q''^ = a" I^
\
Tota.[ ex c*ss ndvr ori by c^Ylrt€v n't2

Q= trlp + tnI^
=) e= @r..t
w\rOret I = I?* th
anA, t- = Y\De4htv*n s ft tiwne'
Sm ch^,n62* o.xo, r.il t ias Po int,
^M
4$- )r
c^c fr incva"n lzyt+a.l )ul["sfam
[;;;*a;;
; e-* r- , * Pl*,-s +x1 t: dtrive;t,
e) $r,v {ouv s"t{.
 o
D r oDE-q

Io€.Au
A r'\.^.A/
btva'^'*\r-
role
<- R3v{.ts e -.

An ods
--+
f + Ca*ho tre

A cts a.E a- surit.('.-

AnoAe Ca-Lhode Anol0 d*La4r;
<C\ ft\a
+ v<o +
V>O
open
ALnz--
St*rfi,ch
^ztta.,a.a
M *.,3th
)r' hlh, 0i*its cc'rrjvli t,-,lrcrn d,iad,e is {o*at4 hi"rscA
t*Ln ?,

+ €-drr.o[ Ctr ct,it co wt [ro vlcnl,s .tt<< T cs is Eo ts

oY' c.a' PA .ttors .

i"n o.,Ir Appl.'.r'\,[on

5a.nf
l^nz
,\[
[^,\v\-^^-.---l
b Fgs$Jrty'-
vf,
,{,
va

.lk Trvr..c d,o main g.l.ot *> txan s t en-t ''6esP on sL.
* Iopuf -0,tfp"-t gt'ot -> DC Y€sPonsz'
:.,v# lf&srUgr & ?#, 1u=:- TR U TII TABUE
A\,\.4^ 2\.r-
ANp
7111^.
6nre:
arA-a.u
-
Y^
o o o
o o t o
0 t o o
o t \ o
t o o o
I o I o
I t o o
t t t \
oR. GAf€ '. -
/4./\.4
-Te
.w
urq -tA BLE
/\^V_

o o o
o o \ t
uo
o t o t
o t t t
t o o I
t o t t
t t o I

t I I \

leg Ml NAL CHnRAcr€ Rlsrrc s o; DrooE: -

n arrrr-a-t I

Cou pvtss 14 gaae Fovnra td. Bir.sed (-_->

-vlx
i
o '1v
I
a

SxhKloqrn H Aeveys e E-xgandeA scak .

:
I
6 iassA

}.}* hi$_es *F qq*Np '-

O Fo:nua'yA - Bias Re6io'o / t,[- -o
@ Rtve-rse- tsia.rs ReXi on) o**" * < o
O Brrak4o,n Reqion q't 2
tL < - Gr r .

fig.*tl]Pft^tt REAq$ - ]
u)e. \ue al,ve a.lu
't sL*Are* bhd cqrT€nt Lk.'oe1t PN-
j*oc\-ton ir,
r = T,r\- (---r/:*'
.v/vt -D
b o yot Tthn€ nnlr<v r^rha*. \e f" I I :Q ].-,i
 @
Is-- e1,ni e Dp
+
)v. -l I

LLe Nu
!
Lrn N^ J
)F -T-s is cn/.j.,lA "rr vgvg g sn a-*,uro-rLI rn C U'rY(,4 nt "
n/\.21..?\/- I\. ../\r,\-A^
^..-.\.
\\
*vTis co-|t/."d
l,krrr,d VoL\o*<"
"\r'-^./\l ^

vr= KT
n
ur1rgxe, ( = BolLlm" nk covrstant : l'38xto-:'S/f
J : A b s olulte te v" pe ra-:\rr r z i". Ke( v in .

(R oOrn tzwrp t 3ooK)

1/= l'6xlo-tjc.
Tvuls,
' vt= o'086a T vnV

At Toohn ttnnp<-o*utr [soo d , vT x- 2 6 mV '

In ccLgl- ,{ fovtoa rd. b i a-s eu/" ;) t . -lihrrs,
g = -r-s eu/v' biode For,.ra'rd
?
rilff;,fr:n
oy,, v=urn"C) j
A+ A 4;oAe .s f,rr.orol, brase.ot q,ith . ra{. \ay u, and t1l4^
ruiLh v2 wz #,
0^-') = ur U" C\
o\t (.-r,) = X.b$.Q06
e)
* Fo.r a f,o.[o" ,{ lo incr€a-Sc in Cu'rY{^t t}"C voQ*ay
cha^n6€s by tyq 1.3 ur o b aPprox. €,9,$y @ rraom
tzrra peralure .
* Frov,,r I-U charact* ttst,tc in {o'wa rd b ras re( r orn we
s?e cu yv€.nt is vteXl,d {q sma.L( -l"z- vrLfugt ti < o'sv
oY 0'6v
ie cillzA
t't*&-b" vollagz
This vol.V1.e. '

)k Fo' tt", diode. -tt,.,"e v s[*af dt'P sh o"I rl

{ ,tW condar
^
bz a\ro,tnA' rXpJ t, IJ^Y or,d w,L tf i tcoJJl *nVe it
0. 1v
r\4..4-

-fgMPqErrry o: ftAXX) @'-

Azfnzr.,azlaaz @
ta

At A co rtsta n t cux.'en t voL+ay cle cr€45€s ty af? rtDx.

2m V {-, ev€vr1 f^g irlcY€ase in te*p{ rature '
t** I

Can yotr prov€ th,ts J ).

R.gveese B,ns RecroN;
/V\/L-^'

t
.1,^rr-
Anzr-.a--z

!
lv'
.r..$, iv I ts S.- 'lp(v,nes ogrza*ax thq,n Ur Lhet

and,
!= -rs.
*Is Vavi€s 4-o- lo-trA to 1O-'SA qnd' so"ne{ir.nas
cen be As kth 4s lo-tA oY I n A .

Jr LarW. Oar* ,l Yevlts< cuYr€nJt, is Arrc to

J t, 'rs npt lW c$IJA!.
\wx 4!Lt.
)k Is d,oul"&s f,or €, u€ Y\ 5oC r I s€ r't tzuPerat u\e .

Pvove
(
//\..\.4'
lt)
t-'.?
ulirt
.,a|' ; - r s i s a- 4 u^c{,d, , ,{ ni
.-
*h,t'c h is o.
{,^r.rt(oo
"l bero p cta*nve .
* Stnca v,tosf u4 tt^{- Teveys e c urre*rt is due t o I'ul<&e
et[ec\ a. Lff tcatr r"1z o+ ttur'"rh is tha,t ;gyfr€-(.
n|. '.*\Y^|,.^- k*b
curren;k [o, Lveyy LgS Xll. * kljf,:sU:t '

n
tsl
@
hlAuvllNq S rmpue
..VV'\,^.-,
q,paF c;g^P$€,-
vr/r,
15=Ese
v", Ue an d,, LD
uls - uD
= R.

Se we harc t-o .Ill.&toru ,.,ith l*o ttnt<nocrns L)

nnA v, *!r,r"h c4^^ b4. gol.veA. T*o tl.lys ,{ so0u r"ff

4Yg 4s t-ll"tels'. -
O Grtnen\cAu wAY.
@ I rEeerr uE uJny .

G tnpHrcA lU
ay
L 4/^-,
frnn-zr-.^..1: - --
VSIV* upr - uD
nt vT an{ t}
P,[ot Ls= rr L = A
_- . U.po- D iod,e
tqD dp aratinl
"havactevrstic
Po int ,

LoaALrne, S0o7e = - Yx

vle vo -?
-I'TEAAT-IVE
A. .A.- z1^ WIY .' vt gs
5v ft: I K rL and. d*o&e ca t \ r" A
Lets Assq,Yn€ Voo = '
,rlun Up= o'?V.
Assum(, VD = o'1v' Th'.rs''

ro -- J'"#-l
lN z Knoo,
v.-v, : 2.3 u, &d (+)
S,..bs+.f tuttyi"
.ll
Vt= O.1V, fr: tyrrA, n.d Ir- , q'3 YnA wc y*,
(q':t'e A \
UI--o.7 +a,3vr ^
*E t fiA /
=) Vl = o,-+38V.
P*rtin6 tJrus Ua in tD = Jff;Ye wE *,

Ir= /.'Z61mA.
tlsinrl ttus Mru LJ wQ- {,
0
N(*,, V, -- o'?39 + 2'3 l/r lrg
6*Xl
'; r.\eu Uo = o' 7 3g .

Sincx. , two itlYaftons

Xive s cY\^Z u alul
cL'Q- 6au Q-t

Ul = O'?39
St, = 4' r 6 ana A .

R.npru
,,-.rv {U^Ly-s,s
r\frrrrr--., a\./\.^..4 Qss:r,rr
Qp,lq An.A+.a {9.5IAE
t\ }}et M.lg, -
Constant
Voltet( +
f
r) vt:9'JV
-4Dtop
Mod,e[
-
LLsinl cons+ant vol.taX,e drrol r'tole.Q *za1*, Xp = l:i?* - 4.3 mA
t^.,hich is ueyy &.l'ose to
+Jn"t oLWntl byt#gglxf \ydfXt
Rnp_ro 4 tn Lysrs U_srNrq
N\,4,,\A.zraa=a.--- rLa.,+--,IxAs EI-PR fselsu'-
Ioeo I D ro DE => )tooe TeoP =tbvl'
T["'^^s, 5-O
S3
\KsL
= .timA.
AIth o*qh its a.cc uv oJr.z ibs 6ooo[ 4o t "6t o ts z-slrt *o*z!
0

f*a*oLt
*t- ', -

_tov ssc.*i^? Vo=o'?V we #,

(-ro-4..\
Il[ n=rK^- tr-r= =
_
+'qr.aA.
_ --Vour. t-[JL
.V
$Dv Ea"ch Aiodn carvr4; -(.lnnA.-rh4<
-Lt
\Z ')
fs = -f 5-
*
I "Qfrt)'
= =) cs: \'6xto-tqA.
S.{ tov char6.es {n tl V thzrn ttue cuv:r.ent .hanXzs t",
r$= \#= 8'tnA
TI\is 8''\mA ccr^ses +l^r- d*od,e volLay tP t\a^ge L',
VD= v1 L^(t)

:) UD= TOf.t6nrV.
Thr|s, Vou r c;hanres by r o rn Tt^& uorf. .,ho sa,'n 6<
"aXarn'
t.
iLer^ti"* it r( :ff
uort.
vtseA, tp fi",4 Ls arrd f
* -rht- a6oue zxauTlt i/firctrafus rM P,3:!:LY-b&gcs
in cixcur\s,.
* TVuse ?z,rbuvba*tow c q.n be studrz/
"{{iri,^*-ly
by
trsinX ,,ry[ @ lt
"Ad
6m6uu S taNR L.- MooeL'--
.r1-a..-..--r
I"S t as;, utQ t[..{. € *pg
chc-aged
n ,^-^
ct:L ca.,^ b,.f{.d & c [vcart as { r\ltg
-\,-1,.-L.
uoLVaTc tn thc .*a*Pk
vo -+D tia 1 V*:
t14
+
$" = \tD+ 4{.
k rt?NXlEure
C ouuEN
.#
v) l
t \5 i s eim,I.o. to \oY in {J"t exa, p/4 .

. LtA co,.tA be a. tt*e uarnlinl b,t = r*o-{,[ voLLaX.e

supev inposel on Ue.

Whfrt, tl*=o +l'2Yl) 1\b \
ID= .Is R-
u,, ,
0hcrr tr1 is aypfu2l we #,
/vr+ 4A \
i, = ls e- s-u-- /

=) iD= rs JH t#t
qL\
f
=) i3 = E, gLutl
!f is t e?t st^$lfc ien[l s vtcl[ s'' ch Lha*
uact) '}

lher, by TayLor t E. e,xpans ior, *2 *)

?sLL)= I! (,* +)
t r[v.{- kur.nLrv ovk'r tetvns \ot*. b<ln ne5'b'fu'^'
l his q "A4{ z;d *f-l@ tzt"t 4'v clet 5r"u
-t tS
'^0.l
or lzss ;; Safv,oV i )tooYn Pev")u'v( '
^s
 @
Th^tS,
= ro f Ie9L
,
LsCl) V1

=) zrct) = =, + 1-*

-hzyt, ?;A = rs -V;

tla

* What is te{ir,i{1'rn ,4 vesr's Lavr cL-|.

_?g= +
I.
,t D i od,g =no.!l s,Xn"{ r4,s r sta vtcL ::'4 Yr
= cD
Ll,
)F Rc sis ta^cz i s a!.s o in ugYs ( e] tl.,c s!.r 7t o{ ro - vo curvQ a's,t
\,/
q= (y'r:tr \
(-au" /j, =cD
,.rhgY€., ?D: Ib
^".d
r{5=Us is tt'z o.{g*tbtr- pi$ iv
3r:c{1t Pgr!
{. Lets u.se thz smo.!,,!, si6na,[ ,no&,-( t9 4* +ht P,e'fo'r-s
exawr glz
-+ Noq ino"l- vo-lrtq o* co-rv{.nL in diod,L is)
t.
.}-5
\O -2't c ?.1,ynf
' I t<&

F, \ }-A,iodas s-etd€s t"t^[ incr€ mev*ol v!-ststonce

in
\f= 3Y^ = q'6 r2-.
1Sr
R=l Fn-
Uou r Uaor

\ou
I K-r,
,+rv
q
rv ,a
u,
 @

Chaa^1t (n o"tpA. vr(tane a:hu^. uoL+n# .lrr*rgu by tV is,

)r .-
A,vo = t. rtR
3 y6t
z) Av, = \'
3a+R
>)4Vo=q.SrnV
*uSr Av {*o za.ch is T o"rt*L, B.t *Vr
dLiod'e-
savnL tt^'aJr

ob{uai.sA uar!;ar L,{t *itJn o"L i\zv"*LoY1 .

sw\A[L a1lPto*ima*'ion i' e'

2 m V s^{rs 4ces
n,_ - 3'
hdrTE '.
ut is Le'ss th*r 5 v '
",6vr"t
HT

?rooE
A
q*rr.tru
a\
^,/
ayg re Vejr,g(g@,-
'
Lxa^fb o{
p-arLj^gt is 4-n
Tl\2 exp'.-g& d,isutsseA
v o0.tagt vtylcc'*or a{fhoth
.@M is Dco\-.

ore,nArroN It B.gqES:_e @ Ra-orsst l-

.-V\.-\./v-,
# A'^\'/-
,Arnava.a-

ZS$eJLD+gu.-U;. '' - tlnzse d*otcs -l^tea" "ge=&A

i''
act uo,[ Ln&e vtgnlc*."-s '
h*It{Je! *UgS
s_r
z
: ver

rar
sLop* *
Tlne I -V chavachrrttt< is stvat6l'tt, Q;"'a b"lond *
^
r?-= -Sa*.
 ** Si",r iht to Srt,r.rrt btased drod,e o. ynrv iloAz cam be
,\_ MoA*!'zL -ith incv{roer,tal v4,sistanc4 anJ. rravia*ron
in Vz t uz tp .hor6r in I? is fl ivsn ty,
'ce = 1l Af,
AV-
wfuflt Tu= incy€mznto.l tgs i= ta. hc,^e ,

t
ynl, di'd.e- l"t ttv!'vse
t
circui
Thrl-s eyiva-1.e.^t; ,,nof,e.l, * ^
bias is..,
_+ Iz + rzla
uz = tzo
Tvz,
t-

,^rl'urQ, v3 = va,
=a
anl. T? ) rar
E xAnreue .- -
. . /-,^\r,-
v=(g i\v) Qtrv)
F:.o ,5 K .rt R=O'S\<'n-
Uo

Ru

?-
^ *@y d'i.oda- ) v? lzo-f l.z r?
For
:') VZ' = 6'+V'
Al, U? = 6'gV ) I? = 5v'"A & Yz = 1'-n-
ti) with rto rhol, cu-rvrnt Lhroutrh 22\\L\
ilo{p is.,
Le = s= ::#: = G'?5mA'
tlursr
vo= b'a+ b':,lsxl o'3x2'o=$'Blv'
(D tuith t r u cho^,.n ix ty* : #,
avr= tt *t =*38,5rntV.
is cr{,te.d
o,[f* ,l
Tfus !
YM a
 @
00 U/kn cr....t q[-ooA thct, A.,'atts truA t6,'\ ccYYrY\L
wQ-
t-\vr,^X h ?fn/t ch"-r6<S Ly tn't A tt'.r€m c-f"a^t6t irr
ot^tput
,r.Q,tS i s,
Aua = y> A rz

=) ; 20 4,rA): t 2 oy'rV
A Vo .

t'[o^A
T[.ts is c^tr|.t-e. \%),Lo&[" "'
(iu) t{rh4^^ R, = o'5 y--t- tlru^ cntr€^# A'-or,ta by ('ood is b^'t/o s

is noL 4s sa rvz^t sfl\Lef'

:\3.6m A -Urh Possitle
us! bt' cu* -' {F'
ig ,q 6'q.r,1ft .:) Zzv*t "T

f Ve*t{Y th"s { " Yo*.,sel{) '

H nus
a\.t\.* WAxg
D
+

tq, \lo
I
o
-v i.
sros{.=&

uoo vg+
r"F:t- o*ttd
C havaeberf stic- Timc. -4.0 r,rai"t
A./\/\-;g
r-e--s P9vrsz
/4./-l\,-\r^.J
#
Coc rzsponsel
rlAAzv'
(T*uxs Ys€rRrx)
The. o ,-tpu.t Lta6z is X
i'v€n by,
'.ro
o ) q< Voo
%= q >vro
= @ -'r,) R+ Y4
R
 Ho-
t*
t,
l^-
-Voose
@,^v'\
tt"r, tttrL"t d,fsde ?
i'\U^- -\-1.-1-z

C,rxvent har,d /L en+ ca.p4citV

rt- .

X ?eor lv,,v.€vS€ V oILo A^q CP r V) i ' e ' Tvtaxf rnuvn Y(vlYs(

UrtLatr thr* I,iod,z c-4\a hah4.te ,^'i thot* btlsBfnl d'ot''n'
* Fox \{ &U - Wav€- Re.ti{ tt< uoe \*2t
Pf.V = Vs
wlwra th4. vol"lag+ apfl*il {ot rre-ctrf,t'cr.-tt'o'r it,
Vr= Vs sin GrS
M
l^lh
/\./\.r\.4/
et rs- tt\{-
t*
qS ufu 'J o;gLfi$ q{sis&:!t?-
,t
vs

Co'nAqction An{e = 6-24)

whrral si".-'Ifrf)
0 =
Avcxaf vo&A nI o *tp-t-t vol,,Lay i s,
'#Ax
uo't =*
f
I
t' nd - ur)
I
=) V. ,5 \ Aa,.
l= 2TIrlJg €r
-'
=)vlar'[=
I
VqL c os o. \n .4 u-lg, (n - *b
aTN
a \o ax -
vq
Vg rlse . . . . [; e is "-d(]
V,4vE '7r - 2-
 Fuuu kJcve
/V1.z1-,
REc-rtF rER '. -
/\./\..a,-.

+'
Ag
Lttt€
IN

Jnuo:
T ,'/
\ ,"/

-vD vD us
s*rr*-ax&.rs&
' @
(oj.'qg:f,u:_, lx1 -q.9.y* (rg.n:s

t ?sv=6rr-e
* ConAacf(on A"* = *(n-*e)
wtcrlt O = sin-'(g\
*- {'1zvdff vil*q- ,f, o*tpat- uo-l,taXr it, rr-o
Un,, uo)& + *l G.,nc-uro)d'(
*f-&,sin4-
7t+g
=) v,,r[= r fr'e
*J, Gsind-vr)/<
=) vorl =
* ,r
Vsq
*- T h^s togo.[pqna is
',g^J.h oL gre[errel n q.s i t
vsguir+s a/\
exgens(v €'centf y -B'Wd t@ o,'A !'0b PJ-y fr.
,- n
d*od,es.
 !u uu W
n7-Vl o uE fSerT 6E
r1,/1.--=,a.--.-'^.-d
I\ECTI
/^.--Y\
F IER :-
-/^\.,

rlf aVpo
,!
'+' i

* Averap vilba JG, o_t-t7ut t's,

"[ G-r)
vout= **
* l^&-evD)Ad
o
J, e, -lu,),|(t*-.$
wVrl, n_ si^-tfu,
$= -i*-l/avr\
Gs = Vs ti"t6,,t) .

\-- lh Condrr ct[or, o".1/c- = 4 (T - " B) .

)k- l-lo- to ft,"a Pt v 4 o diodl-?.-

l\/,V -\. J -\-1, ,a. n ,r\/^r/ai,

D,^vin1 gosi!(r< h"g, cyck +o -Fi^A Ptv o$ D" 4fP4 kvL

^

in the " hop contarrrrnl 5. , R, and' DL '

*rrfYcvers") = L}o + Uo=. C4"-o')

Maximtr,^rvr *r, is wLa,nn \}, t's rn-ax i Tvltrzwr i' { ' G - a V; '

-]'hHs'
p ,, = vs -avor+ vo, = Q. - u;) .

This i s h"t $ tho*. ,-[ a ccnVr- La.ppecl {.1"t udilL

r,echi$r'zr.
Beroae
ffa,z-i
Re.TrFIER
n-,a',r.-.--R)
ts-/ M,RE
nzl.-a
PoeuuRR
/\.^^./^\,
 Wg gau,, -o.ttlt t:.E t,h"t Tu4 a s i yU p o!.ar;ty oor-tput
bk*, tfey a"ye not pg{K,! q,!.
--> -Tf.ey ha^rz xupplzs.
)r' 'Hr-4, yor^ -c<.mov4 tripp&s?
-> Luh,r,rhaynonf R, L, & C has t,he r.ffi* ttnla,ncy
to prev€nt ;y cha",tXr in
"olLay?
t*Capact bov
YF Ut: tv5 t" 4s€ u,' capr.ci Uox \o W^ XuL ry
P*:B* q,s

rpLe -fuEr YXffIE

(tvor..izr^L t+tg*r)
\I"
0, -',,)
->
'd
qqx! c\gBrkItrUg
*F4-
' CD. r*por.rf .

This clvcu ib ives p.e"{e.t D C b** d,ou not gto" i&

ony curyent.X
WhaI i.f w( d-oo,,Ctrxy€nt ?
 +
* R ulo

t)"
'fi.--
,u, 't# t]a
t> ,
/l tl
I r.'t
i\,-
I
,\/\\
( \r .
.\-./ t
(

t
f(
{
i
i,

Assavrrpt{ovr, CR>>T.
a:!rLvQ, T = Pzt\oA ,{ sintrsoiA.
ThL haA cuxt€nt iL is 1i
vr,vr bY,

i. = tlo/K
and, d.tod-e cu\rtnL ,rl^raa it, is condurcU"fl i=,
ts= i.*2..
=)iDs c# +au.
* Durinl Aiodg. ,T[ inberv otr ,
t/ec
w aVpZ
*R! tt,*er,A d"r=chat6r. inte-vvf,
"l -t

Taylotts S,crr€s ()<P]v\s,io tt, -r['urs,

vt, r v.* = ur4.u
 Ttu l-onl, cuYY€nft \-s Xtve^n \ , t'-= %
T1u.s,
' .t"Y- Su
.9c
Frv Lo* ripS& c sho,.^eA be h'th a-s possiLt^e
Thve ubovc is vahd, du.vfutA based ott Ll"z f*"t th4* tt z
^nd !a^t caxren't Iu= y*.
V Thrs
capacitoy * ith covts
is va(iA f ],^dir.har6rs
uR << uP.
*nrue d,ioAz c^o-ndrrcL-lor0 ,XPXyAI
--r..n,- AI b{ "bHY1 ?t.r- ,.
c.'tyt
^./^vJJvv^i ttlot*. t_ats
*-;'"X3:crtr'e
Ur "os@4t)= ete -u)
3inc9 a, AL i s s*a.-|,!, u? cr^r 4s € Tcry{o.r ,s setl'L| a-nd -r,'V

cos@^qY 1-*fuou)'
1["urs2 zvr/vF
cp ALZ .J

:L{ V v <" Up tk\f.\ ter .At ,- i1.( bt s *aLQ cts a-Ssu v'*d '

'F t:y k {x4 M tstJta* cxlxr! ?

T ioda- cu.rvgpf, .ko rXer Ll,.Q- capactt o r q.,,.d . ho
"A( ="f r
L'zd tct

%*ppl^rl. = '.*, At = cho 1z l;-s\ /*rn"'6 ol'ischatSt

in kvva[ .

-)
-\ Q
= irouAt = & urst = c ult'
"*gp{.eA
=) trou = * At
Notr.r
' Luou * iL
= 2..,
t='
=)'L^
Dau: !v'+
AE.' R

a' Cr /
=) Loou = ft tTu
I.$ vpz.< Vg =) Dtode C,.rrent is ry\kh cye+lev Uh*"r Lood Cuwe,;n,.
+ Nhd* a-bo,"*, d,toA*- yyl*xf yvrrr,,an cutvlnt ).

to = c *f +Er*.
att
:t$ rL = ti.!,n
* ,

4r \t=tr *x sfL'
,

Now
\r= V, <os c.:{ ,u).tr4 t= o is tt^t p?AK
ttla* ie -h\ gug noful it cs
-T\rrs, a. c os in e uut&v4 .

dr,*Ax tr
=-C.cr.,Vp s in@', ) .-+I u.
NO.u,, tr=-At 4-s t=o ts Peak. Ttutg,

d),ro, z- c w vp
@ aO .-+ rL.
- rDTf"'^x = 2rr-sL.vp..lE +-tru
=) 'vr=t:

=> rD,*o^ =
-\G-. { f,P

t.L * Z^fffr
-r-L f
L*^ rua1=
a
Fov, Vt 4. Vp we *<4. rtr4v.
r
Fuuu tJnue
n.r\,/\- 6gqrg} WfI.'
r\.4.- @:-
/v-
Vp
V"r= ffi
.;
=.(t+ T d"/t'r)
a-
"o,ntu
av'd, ir*o* . f..(r + zrr-rSlfr*)
,a'

-+ H{ F"tl wutt rszc{t{fe Y necAs ha'td Lhz gaPa"citpt that ts

lor h"l{ -watre Srt -styvr{* t.iTp}ln.
ret;;;r1.A,
-) D zviv e tt.r"e ubov z You rtcL$ "l1.
l*lulAse kgtAl lxxrs'-

rrp*t - o-tp"t Ti-s

&
-Doma+n Rerpp6sg
t^''-lt^',.1-r
,^. ..A,.r\ -\|a.Az-.2 -\rw

* The_ otovc- is ""-U,zd h3y1.-e1j!gg

)k Thg *riln*.,ir^1 is chqv^cfuvistic o+ #+-A13$L"t

$ir",.

Civcutt
Az-z\A./ -
\'. -

c^xlt! ]:-

-o'4v u[ -r

Exs!:,: - ur
B"d
 lyE1pp c#C-grrre b qg [E:qlss,-

9&xce *gs*r: tl W Ysr&r:-

\rta f-1
-t
-d
v

'hrug Qg*EA',-
cl

Vgsin 2 ue =vpu,1 Corn pw exten{

+ +t^^s t , motKe
\louf'- N.Ve.?)

UlS Vrr,
 SpecrAuO robe Txpes . _
nra.rfZr.-+ Z\.:r.a.-- AA.a;

O Scuo.rrrv - Benn,ee. D.rooE (ses) + hrrned ty h>f

',6in1 \,
tnetal into contact *ith -rd. -"*iLy Aopcd n-type
="rn-i"orlrr.tor.
-* Con 1rrr*tirro ty rn 1ox i tX f4r tt € "s (&.tvon)
f For,^atl uol-,.g,'AlP is Q'- i'o' p'g t' o"Ev'
Not d.f rngul seyriconLrctrv conbacts Sor* *:bf!!$yj&&s.
€ov,teLih^.(,s ttv%/ fr"- *hxk- c:Ak*k.
ln s
-Ll o*"4 in sol.ar cells
@ Photo &t
ptt*l- te- der.Ln.o-[ conv€rrsfon .

@ Lintnt- Ernit+i"6 bto&s CLED) .

 a)
P ux s\cs UF BrpouAR lcRNsrsToR<
rfZWr,a,,rrr.. ,/\4.r^,/^./1, rc

* A b rpolar tvarns istov u?ns ists o{ t hr"a /,r,p<& r€6iorns

('
lox mi nX a. sq\td,*r[. h : -
o Ev'n it,b€ rr. +
r-yn(ts cha ,Xe c4 y rr* vs
o hase -+ (ontvp/s ths .wfl ny ulex o$ Lha rX<
o c o wcto, * :i'fl,X
coW,*c* I'*ffj:ucovrt'e
th{ llll.:T
ch"-ry i:y.l' ys.
Co{,(zc.to y
-cc )
*
U*u *
sa-se vce
+ 3r
cs) \,AC

€v' i{t*v
(,€)

svmbol
/^AJ BA.A.

-) beLu-,(pm basq-evq itk r

:""
* The c{*v rtc is not ey*rqa tyr c r^, rt h rasJo,€c | *p
€ wr i tte v arn A co lkr,to v ,
* 'Qxv.e{s o$ wi ttr t
Th4 cl,L*tnsipns inc
a^A Aob * tu\d'
A\",i\r^.r\..4..A./\^
^ l,t-.,(1
col&,rtov ,t Y*- VnLg Ai[[*ent.
& U[x^t tA] Mqgy${
ts M,
* P"rpq" o?Lra*[ovr o[ the o\rvrc< rey*ive- =tha* base
b e a- tlun t*tion, 4.t. u-buu* \o0 A in *todevn
inteatafuA
I
e(vcui[s
 @

rniqqtisl L{
^
4q.!:rc
n'A"^ Lsb *eh 'f,of,s.:-
^-'J,lr^,nr.*A e-
n-\t c s ,*r-\*.t pe
+
rt*{{
rt tat
..t++f
i*-tt t

Lets irnj rct o.^A *.tn.tro-, into tt^.Q. Aey{<ttonn wgfovr in

cr. .t.€veys€ loi4se{
Pn-.\*uctio\^,
l.t s,qvv{.s a-E ca\rrtcr in P-fVf l''nd is
-Ti.tq s- rp\ *y^tIoritl into n'stcte to1 the e-ex.tvic *|cl,a,
* Abt(i1, o{ tt{. "cev€rs€ - b iased, Ph-j\A\c-Uo'n t"
r-&$(ctt*\l.v 'to.{&.t" evfu.rnolll-f .jectzd tkct ro*s llrolr;.
I
{,
\ro v{ s a ess4 ntr:al, tD tt.e ' , pcia-*t'ovt ,$ [tp o ,{.4 v
tra,'rrsiS\orS.
oPeRArtorl, Oe Brpoi-r+g lgn*sr-sroR Eu AcrruE fvlooF ,
f\n.l/\..r\-1^rr. Ar .a..av\.^.^ @- zff..a\zr ,^J\r.(i'- ^.-

* Ln thrE mo.l,c thl, tvamsis\ox acts a. c u"ctre nt Sou'rr4

beburel*\ W&*U a*,d. H*k'
* Tfu. ajoove currertt iE coh +roLfud, U.{ ttrt vo[-ta6'e
roet,e,*z^n
E*x arytd- 9IA*3.5.
Fora* bipo,(or tza^rrsirtov th{ te--ir,o-[ uo(*aX<s U*E,
U15c, ar.r,d, Vce. I u'nr-ch ca5 4-ssLu..qg posi$vq o nA
neXdulue vo-b&s, VVtt-v,z a.y< aj poss iW ca.ees.
O^; iu^h r$ the.se covrbina.l,rons [s ugg+rL.
 @
V6.r lY
Usg : *tV a \ee
, Yge, a O.tV

9t^-crtt
/\AA4.t
Cor,fuUon:-
-1-^Y^.+\.,A_
Vrbe )o
Vce >o
ar,A Uo. <o
?F Tt"q" ai m p&s\ic h4 ot{.(. ass rrwr{s tha,t Da nr sLr.[d hDt
c.a.yyy q.^ny cq\6y€nt a^A hevrc* th,e,re ce\n Ot bz ar$(
voL,ta6 {D cuvrcnt conygrs(ovr.
*R11U R* kIIXAt $r Qkry X.eIAA r-
{69: *\Y

:)
ugt'o'tv

Dep&,\tovr
Relion

* Emitbet is Maui,[., oto pel ,

t 6ase is thit
 @
I.Qlqst*ra^(o* ,{ C,r'. v{,rr.t ${^o*'. -
W^ /\.4.-

fo.rwa-d Biased Aeverdz

$06eL

Injec tr4 ai[[usina c o,L{abe{

Etesttor,\ E{gq{r ons iJ
Elect'rons
+
^Lc
r$icrt{A
- "ho[.os

lrr
,t Lts

UcB

@
*"wx}l k:xY eeJ Sq.s(
P*4i&.
, \r4..44.
.-
cBr CoU*,cLov
Etni[trv cr)
crO C t')
Efuctvou ' t&tt*'
(,
to conrrntvotr,orl ,

LJ
np C iAc"0) ', I
sl

d
rF :"r4;'i\
, r" coubinai,ioi\
Dis tonce
Cx)
Pn(o)

* Sincz base i s "4-Y L\^vin

F\ ccrrv(4'v concent'rra'b[on -i'tl bg a{'*nost q"
_/v,rrr{.,t

s txc*ifl l^tt .tf,n{, .

-+ RgJE we- saiA 4-a,x Uev B't^rlv,n *Iudf ,"?

&o.lzs tha* it shr'4i be- zqforz,n tr'a.(
thr. ,hy sul"fu,,,r\ sttut ht '{,r"rnr ).1
-+ D svrr t €* q-Q,rrr prt a- s t r,ati hrt ,ti*-t" wtts"\
"rc'is svr,oll Jl.
f+ ul-y fs tlre conc^eyrt^r.c.Itorn ;'rtt e* C BS, &u1&tr:o", ,re6ton?
-) gincx. or y d,"e*Lvov, rzt'cM*t *J"{.vc is s*Et *A
' ty bln( <.4."Lv-. kn-Ld, irn aeplati"" xtgton th{,
tl I
c ovr c/, !ya.f iorr S"Ils to
I
o
tlrhot ohorl 'r€ coyv\btnat(orn ,4 e!.ecLrons & h o'ft.s it tt'.e
Vase ve6(on ?.
I

A
-+ D't4 to T€c-ovnbinalr.o* {J^,e p*F;& laviahs $"rq n

str,e.tght lire & t!-fr\. UJs c4^^ i6nar(

th.r ;hil4 drrlvin6 thl cuYrent'

iln q. {-ov-ct4 btasz{ P-n ju*nc\ton tlr'€ corn(.{n['t^.trtor,,

no(o) = h.Po €us/$r.

' arh.g.4t npo tlqv*o..[ eViLibYu^,v\ ttoJW' ,{ n"inp"i\ -
=
catvd"€ v c on c4 r4L ra-tio*l '

,l 3 vrl*il{ c4 1'5mV
T'rnal wlfug<'
= F,or-.vd. biaszd base ev'tt\'tev
Uue

1+ Tt\r d.i{{usrpn .u,"+,*I "'

1
s:n= Ae ?D^ T
'Ti,;T't'"
.ii

urherg Ac = cypss -se.t[or,aX a\<A o$ A Eiu nctio*n' '

13 n : el**llrlrt 4r Ffusir' i*Y , in bc*sq '

t^) z' Lbfu,*ti'ue hq'pe u'iAt\ '

o'L'hctxd' vy
futfusir*1 thvar.Xh -r,nr: VX c
TV\r, &+b"pns
th& cofuclDy bhus 7ivin6 " ,o!-!,*.to*' ' ct'tYTaoj 46r
?* * .fy,
 + i"= srcusvv
l^l
t^rhCrg, I= = Sa*ufa*,ior1' 6-uTyewt = A,? bn +, v
No-,J r\''Po n1 ,r.rtrnrg \i ? intxinsic C a rt(^€ v COr,rZof.ro-troh
N6
a",d Nrt I dopinl coh(ernt rofiov, itt ba.sc ,

thrrs, ^+2- Dn hr_

t*e?
J
N n'tt.,

-Is & 7. Aepen4o^t, ora V.e.?).

Np,
-€ 5 o ,rha* d.gl wQ hu;e 1
J A ctrYr€nt r,ou,Y cc l",thwc;-tt e*kls& Rx*kr'
whot oJoo&, tt,^,4. b rrse c u'sre'dE l.
JLt hcs t.o coy?\portr^n*s: -
@ T)ua to ho&s irnjecfu4, 4rom b<se relion tp aYvrift* r. hT's
-t

ts tiue*by,
asr= Ae?seni
_. tt se/v,
ffi e-
etscass
urktvq Lp = Aitfusio',, &.61U C"ff,}x1t:ilil',tf ca'evt'€v

)p : ht{.r d;&fusiv i!y.

$ I dopinX c oro,pr,\rction in e'vqitt{ r'
tp b<' Ly 's}' tsrn''{
A to
Dr,,c ho.a+s {h^t hde- 'Y$!
ci.rcuit [n ov&v b tepla-c* hr&s f-os\ {-'o* tt"t{ bas<
thvoa6h r.acombina*[on
,iez=
t
tlya.lz ttvn{. $rt n..Iino'..'ritf dc.clvD, to
reconr\in^e -ith nnliovity W,rlt in tL.t bas,e
 @
Qn = miv'ovity cavrrt4v
chav5x. stoted i^ ${ ba.se ,

=) gh Ae? x J-
:'
n, (o) w S'ec 4 ll(e*7{el.
=) 8r,
Re? W nI aef tlr , . .. '.' tno(a) = r\po nuse/vr
tNn "r)
, ., or n, (o) = "f
'N6 "u*r/u,
T\us, ?Bl= Ae?dnf . rJes/u
t
! Yb NP
!\ena, tohil" *e c u \<x(y1f i*,
b

iB E {sr *C*-
NA W + J- -yr* I .uun/',
a1= ,B )L Dp
T--f
Dil Ns L-p 2 \tuJ
#,uu KYI g w,r r.l se/V,;
vc rs€ l

Th"l dg
'l- c-
= p
urlre<{, 1} = (P,
\s go
lr.-pis +ypirq cvotr"t{ to e,yo. '.

* ft is .q.l&,d c;g$- ge&kr '{u1$ ?Er'

-+ w ha*. is f\ h in q f-4.oEJ?
* Fov u(h P "- ,

* ud Bqsc shp,"{,4 be tl"it, C')

-) EvqitLr.v s h^o,'4.d b*- fu^"tj &f*4 tha'n 6qse i' &'
Ns >) N*.
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6.tttx lo oI
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Vce_= Vea * Ce RB .

Apg-6yi*n FUL d+o* Vcc. to (Yot ",rl, q)Q-#,

Vcc = tE Rc +CBR6 *VgE
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R
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c uyxe hts art"tl V< g;qxo!. r,:esu.0.,trn1 i*;
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 Physics of MOS Field Effect Transistors

Perspective View

Cross-sectional View
• Nowadays the gate electrode is made of poly-silicon instead of metal.
• There are two types of MOSFET:
o Enhancement Type (Most widely used)
o Depletion Type
• Another name of MOSFET is “insulated-gate FET” or “IGFET”.
• Enhancement type MOSFET is going to be analyzed first. Based on the type of carriers there are two kinds
of MOSFETs:
o n-channel MOSFET or NMOS
o p-channel MOSFET or PMOS
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# C"y1 .runhtl sowr1 Currgn{ lnnps r olth ounh it is uty},
6n.olJ,
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@-to vetion cq"rsrt is qTfx"tftrxry^ -;
Y&^J.ai ua, (Not i*rrporta^t 4ot {-h& d r.l*).
 3n/ArA-r\.a..-
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o uas ? v{ (i*a,^."1 rhqn
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o vo, ( vt .j ( Pincl,,.ed -r4$
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L f^"-u* )uqr- *rril
w
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a
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f (uo.-u+) ur, ,,..0*<< e'rf
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neX&ctt nX ufi t€-rr,,.
*
,F Bo,^*d<r1 bc.tw e.n trrl od.< I sa.*,trra-tton rzc;ion is
& f ava.bolla X lv+rrr by,
.: ] * n,l f rri ,.&hv< vrs= (0, 'el
 kxar lnd k*4 C tstte\ll. in'@'-
G
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++ +
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!

+^"d" vps Z Qor- vt)

Ex$$r&.,- Voor I'g V

Vt* : g.rr V t
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\v.*r-{
I
f.rt
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=
ce{.....Q,fu bias c*rr€,tt ,l t'4r. r{ to}- uo*nTt' ivlgv€as(
by I O wt V, t , ha-t iS the cha^r,X,r in d rrq.r'n vo L*ayL \-
sa&rl.iort: -

ffi-ao not Knoqr *h"qlhav $1 iB iu, sa:\uva*,fov, oY tvioc{s.

* B*t w( do kno,r, t#t Mt is nst cul, ' 6{{' whv ? ?
t-cts 4.ssq\'l€ t'\\ is in sadtrvadion. T rlrv,) r

ru = tt,.co* e) Gr-uru,)-
!
Hsrl /tnco x, t oo1 n lV
*
w
-\^s-\ z
L =(-a
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vru= o'rrV.
rhrsr r>c AoopA.

rs t Mt sbi.Q.l- in sa-lqr**ton ?1
 I{ vas incx{.q, ses by I Qwr V th{-\ yc* Var= l' o t V.
T[,utg/
a{a+vr t0,at
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M t is' ii so-tu vaJ"r'.v!
I
-

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a '

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"1"*elr/ i\ iE .
I
Thul c !ra*n6e t l.\ Vrrr iS,, A Vr., r = 3/1 vnV.
c haqe tv? V ir, i5, dUir., a lDr'tV.'

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"'q
+K' Vol!a.64 n cha*(e ftives cuYY€vrt tl*-q{ .: I *

X Ct"^ ln cqyy{nt Ilo*s throu$ a.'resistor flfvtn3

Xf
c h4^rlt€ in oq* *t p v r,Q,taXt .

fu)"dl'- TF gx',-
Y.!D=\;sv hlha1s ua[,* ,.| C) p,[are*., *t
I a.t Lk4 plqt o[ s^*u.o*fo"' .'
Vo u'r t
\v?I-{ Emr
t
:

t
.3 -

s,gk*kf,- At tt'\a eae6"e o4 so"*'rrva*,(on Vrrr =Go.4)=o.6v.

)p yorr Know tr"rhy ?
At th& aAEA # sa*urq*ron Mt caan er.t*v
tviocl.q n . (A, Lu"t is th.t cr",d+t iprt
1.

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chqvr n*l- $olrr*tr,;r. ad tt{- A.rq,Ln enA M t'
'+
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\- = 'r"t = ?d,/tfl-
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=) /gr\ a|opA /z \ /a.t, \
=(**)
@ GtG)
 I
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SorevC{ D-'qeav1

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.(
L-At-4i4L'5-
ta

Al, Ll6p = U1 wE harre ping.l.,-o$[ rigl'* 4rt ttnz dtarn znd' )

d VrFo, =(Yos - Vr) ffnch - rf,$ hnpg"* & th,g dtnen end .

S{ Vps incve*s4s b*ycn4 Vo,r^, , tM chaonz-{ p inc h- "{+

point rnov€s towarAs tk 5 ou'vc&.
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&.'',.0r. depletton Y€cion W be*,wLo"rt th€ evrd "{
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+ -r> ac * (i"''e-s* P:nr.Pottt'onal to n
'=) ul s,
fs increaSe S sritk incvLase i
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..2
_u+)
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a
o^'E)Ct) 0"^'n)-
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pava*t€t{y ue td,
t-
rp=* r,'(t) Qo, -,t) (,* 2 uD,
v6
sq

wl-e.ve, 1 =
l-
^l
t
xD
-tviod;^} Sa"tuYa*ion
-->
>t Vas>
,"'/ i
vas z-

%sr

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= **,l Q^r-rr)*(r+x,ur.) wq spe the*
St
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= -UA= fu,,
*'Vo.0ba6e va is ,.s,aA, rc-{erreA t'eo-\ Vo
to * l,Luytt,,
a{te, J' M Ear\, '-ho djscou€r{d q. s[m,,'ro, p]*;offirney1
4on tt\4 B rf . '

x Va is a'
W nuam4-"(*r by extvaga4,p)
"tfuiL-
*11
be_ a. Te, sis l,anc-e- a-ss ocia*el, uith iL,.
 N our,
Xo= f ?Io-l-l
L5E\
E - -.1 Uqs __ ConStant.
=)Y;=B
$ t (v.,, -u*)'l-'
I Ve
=
--nr3 ID
wVuw, to is *Jg* sxl! x*@ fudtu(lb
vn od,rr[4[ i en
r\A.a.a.-aA-a

b r\^.^.a\.r\.a=
moarsres
hrug*gH! XxSq;*'-
G o-o
+
*rJ, t@' -qx
1'

ks!\seqxls{$ kgsx@

*tn"('rt

Yss -)
 fu * *Prtrex Hh* es{A yrs4! ?

1*
4s

Vos +
* Fo" hiqlev ou_tp,_t i"nprA
incvea^se nn4
anc.l [erqth.
"ha
Xg:" ,-
-,F rv\gs covtvqrtg vol,LaTz to ctrrrg4{rar,d,, thc qya-ULy
o{ tLu=, conugrrs f on i= " d*{ ivt g-c},, by, t
Trans cond*rclq.r.cc
I
.fu= R
* Fo'rr tra"., s\s{,or in sa*urro*ron
ut€ huure,

t*= F,G, tQ.*-vt)

* ott,s, €.xprr<s s ions n4,6J,, _

fr-n= t/, G, #tt and. fi* =

ik U[y 4e 'J
*,lr*.u Q-I Prre Sg f ovrs,.-
(B)c,^.+""t (+)Varr'aL.& Vayhb&
}fr":y*) vavralg(r 0or - Ut) (rrn tnnt - Vt) (oyrsbnt
%vna JE X* aL ra fu^d' V
6'* "t 0or -r") X,"4 g\ fl* ot -u*)
 o
$O€ Ar-vrpLrFrERs
'nnrna %
t (\osF€r is q_ non-krrto, &urcc.
lft l{ou,., corr\ yo,^ obfarn ut.kr.to, a,,.&d,'.a_*,don
frr*
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c brasi",X i-t. pwp{.v uo,, 4 xr
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btas po(n. th{ }6
,

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'-- xxxrofuy-xEs&,. I
etq.ra-'Df en
Tvr'od*. S
1o r!
uo = qr- '[]
[-r-frs-l
uag

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A
sa\pqluk- T.'iode
uor ..rjuo ,
Vos = tl,

do
\lus e
/ -.,l
wt€

VoB

1l*e
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r\"4' -\' ! Xlisst>.t'.-
iD ; o =) t4 = Vot.

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Tlurs,
f, = ;! f", co^ t V, - ur)-
avd', L.l.o z \foo - .q Ro Io
W
Ht,ncc,
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hnlr is vol*ng<
t .r
rr9 A.r= *l: _,,
_ _&e.
"
Thur,
A*= -(,5 f''"(;* ?C.r-q).
e*
T1^{- eoA point oI so-f,ura.fion *eE io n i =l
(Vo* = v3e- rb),. -O
S.r-bs[it-tr- (o.UoB ar4[ s&= Ur,e r.,

rlo= uoo ! Roflr,rox t (u"-r-f.@

a^tA solve- O a^& 6 alo ove si n,..^(, toq onq .
 @
,*:*'kks' =& ,Q.9'i-

' ' t} '= /4n.hxf - + uri]

* i, l1o [$-
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Lto Vpo {u)
" Se

rlo , Vlo _
) ,Ra/n,co+ *re-: u*) lla * rt=l
4 "J
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L,\o . vro -'

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e

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Voo
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r+ R;I a co,rf C{"_6
U [etn'{v,,r\t r)
r .; t' thS
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r

Ut =."i 'vDs, Yl,s,

Ro *vtu =+ rr" ttaffi 5 fv idev,
R$,S$ II' X^sg nx*xx,n QAxrs,-
* A tnos ^cts 4s an o*'ghh'{Y . o} q?Progrrrate
Dc o?erattnl Point is' astahfushsA" l] ias lno
4,41
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Q,$'-,ryq
|\A V,tlsg. EJIEP fu' -
,.\,.A,az
I

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r'{' as sh'*n beJ'oLg"*
KfL*ic*
Ro
Rr Vout
--- fl\t\tr

s rcrin cuvr€nt f . liven i,, 2-

s,s =
*.1"Y Q,-r0
co^

anA
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es?ect va.t(o (f; ca-nn vav\ + T€-s*'Llrnt
c qtrve r'o
in a h"# v a t(o '$
r ia n l'tot'n "-t'
and hrr.c* oPexa'tr:n6\ ry
i*'
I otv iff-z
Ip Drvtcr I

Ep z-

f,ur

s This is not #iX*&-.

 Qu^l{s
nn/frr'
qy fuAe Y. * cxxgsrAgf ftxx.lss$ hv
Tug So,RC€ . -
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\-

fl.1 :
VouT
?iM'
(s

)r' R , 4 R z de$t",e t4*u vol laftar w\u'rh is *ixr.d,e

V6= Vqs t IoR*
* l*t se,. ho- this Ccr^ 6 rue q. e\a,t& TS in tt'u '(ve nt
,i- t;;ristor eatr4rne tsv veriatt'on(V*t Coxt 4'ta[ Y),
* V6 rs cons\avrt 7.y.|!vyal b/ flr , Rrr dnA Y55.
* L{ Co in c t-ta^S€ s d,'ae to so Yw-' req-s o r' t hat'
s> Rs ing v{as€.s + Vas i s 3o tY to dsc 'r Lq'Fz '=>
CD, is Xo\nX
tt xeAucr-,
ThK, * tkre rte6a-ttv€ ***.d' uq"c K
$**Ahq"c *hc
k tr: Yuc [n
h

'Keeps Gp q [yyrost consto r.t -:] R.s it, , r'!'-l*A

deX.entrrq.Lion y <_E [stor.
?xv kg^?
/L 9er,tr<.
L* ag^ t
l-
S/-
ll,p e
IDr ;S3$* I

vqr* q,; vq LE
w
Noba:- ALLz- Atz-
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hn:J.-ss
(lelxl Psw-k-ftlrc reEl** Rsebes,-

Vo.r t
rs

{i- Hgt€.r
Vas = Vls = Vuu - IO R>

C+ I-9 increasgs Aua. to som4 Y€q.son -t ltrtt Va.

h* to dec re a.s e . The d,gcv1es7- i n Vas Catt-ses CD
to di.c:.-e,&s e :> )1e6<true [r*Aback.

fu^fxs Vs,rsa kAi:Xr Mr F.SIS'-

T{,
-l-tec

,t8 I tur,-
,/ *t
*g
-J
L+ Mz-
I=
sinc{ c qyr€ n t of t\t t i.s set o-t, ":f ", noo matlgY
r^rhot is ttu. uo.ttap, 4.t Yq,:* a"Lruuys {ol"t
to car t! irent ? ro"t d.td.
saYne ct'
:/ V6 Kz,LFs 14t'in saLufi4*(on
 T\ne c.rTrs,at 't". is te*a,ra.fud t/ th{- cu)rT.",b
ynir.rov ctrc, it that @e. 4lr c t-sszA in &
one oS Lt'\a P-tob& "s"
gu3 2 tt^r,^&IC"-rv*)*.-. C*, .hanne( .{er;tn
q-
w oda*l.^*r,
&Lt o, lLpB D
R = rRee
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hu. vO' rr4s"-Q.)rc,,r it4-r
1
Epa =
5r' 11 coxc), Qor=-o*)-
t"4

tw,
0 %O.
=) Sr*
Cus
=
(/'\,

=) rua = rnep @').

Q/-)s
,r T h i s is cr"!,9.0A crpr..erlt vn ir yo r ,* .

dr AU tht inteX,rafuA ctvcutts <*fbf c.rTr<.nb

A

vrrirrroys o*I constcnt cu.rrenb btasinX.

1

* Fot tLus cot^Ysz you sho"!.d, @ tr*g4 tt"rz,

a"& & 3r{ methol o,[ biq=,rfl.
88
9
10
 sttn*
Xps$u.tPc +s*:r Axg fus0rqtr:-
R.s = t0$ "n- Vt = l'5 Y
R6: totlst-
{F7-Uo kJ*= D'45n,'4/uL
ao or'\oK'r'
I V6 = 5ov.
v
P ]-
{,

DC Ax&{*s ', - TT
.r-D xo .i5y1"'3 (Va( - \'r)=
2.
Ra..ro*r) fl5 c tO K {r*

=) Iu= x o,is xro-i (.f o - t'S)-

!
Ed, Vs c 0"o - to R$) ='(s- roooo s.5 ) .

T\*t,,
{p t' o 6mA + VP = h'l{V '
AqraNflL
nzf*fvl-
A rrr nuVsrs
crrnz-ria..--
or Ac 4runLYsrs 'l.-
,\ A..7\_ .1.,-4..--r.-\-4.

uo
R,L

No0,
fu^=
*" t e* -Ut) : o.-+as wr rr
fo *s \.06
Stvrc4, &c. i: u eyy (n'xf tor, ar o. Rzglr.ce &a, -ith o Pt n
c txcu it. Hznc4,
\,t, : '*
?* \s Qo t\ R L tt "ob) .

-\ A
-) ,-lL, \ $o = ^t*Go\\Rsttrr) = -3'3
l.;\.
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whlrJg is i"pud iwge fancal.
jl-Lf,&. -rl"\
?+ I

,.it. ,
,.
t'
t'l 4{'3
trrho* is 0avXest *[& uo d6fu uL; 6o6 thd*, t\psFE"risin
s a-tu xafi.i'o q 1.

=) q.4- 3-3 tI; = w*'4 + tr; -ut"

=) $;: 0'34)l
- ', .t
.
$ -

* Ca..r yr* fyovg itU,..'o *ibh ttu-q.' u; w8 iar"r sLi{,[ rs€ *tno.['(-
silncl 14ry1" ^n^hris'1, hlhsh ar{ tt'.€ st<ps *qt(en lo
grove tt?
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