TORSION

For a solid or hollow shaft of uniform circular cross-section throughout its length, the theory of pure torsion
states that

where T is the applied external torque, constant over length L;

J is the polar second moment of area of shaft cross-section

D is the outside diameter; R is the outside radius;

d is the inside diameter;

τ is the shear stress at radius R and is the maximum value for both solid and hollow shafts;
G is the modulus of rigidity (shear modulus); and

θ is the angle of twist in radians on a length L.

For very thin-walled hollow shafts
J = 2nr³t, where is the mean radius of the shaft wall and t is the thickness. Shear stress and shear strain are related to the
angle of twist thus:

Strain energy in torsion is given by

Simple torsion theory

When a uniform circular shaft is subjected to a torque it can be shown that every section of the shaft is subjected to a
state of pure shear (Fig. 8.1), the moment of resistance developed by the shear stresses being everywhere equal to the
magnitude, and opposite in sense, to the applied torque. For the purposes of deriving a simple theory to describe the
behavior of shafts subjected to torque it is necessary to make the following basic assumptions:
(1) The material is homogeneous, i.e. of uniform elastic properties throughout.
(2) The material is elastic, following Hooke's law with shear stress proportional to shear strain.
(3) The stress does not exceed the elastic limit or limit of proportionality.
(4) Circular sections remain circular.
(5) Cross-sections remain plane. (This is certainly not the case with the torsion of non- circular sections.)
(6) Cross-sections rotate as if rigid, i.e. every diameter rotates through the same angle.
Angle of twist
Consider now the solid circular shaft of radius R subjected to a torque T at one end, the other end being fixed (Fig. 8.2).
Under the action of this torque a radial line at the free end of the shaft twists through an angle θ , point A moves to B,
and AB subtends an angle γ at the fixed end. This is then the angle of distortion of the shaft, i.e. the shear strain.

Stresses
Let the cross-section of the shaft be considered as divided into elements of radius r and thickness dr as shown in Fig. 8.3
each subjected to a shear stress τ '

The force set up on each element

= stress area
= τ ' * 2 π r * dr (approximately)
Torsion
This force will produce a moment about the centre axis of the shaft, providing a contribution to the torque

The total torque on the section T will then be the sum of all such contributions across the section,

Now the shear stress τ ' will vary with the radius r and must therefore be replaced in terms of r before the integral is
evaluated.
From eqn. (8.3)

The integral integrate 2 π r ^ 3 dr is called

the polar second moment of area J, and may be

evaluated as a standard form for solid and
hollow shafts as shown in §8.2 below.

Combining eqns. (8.3) and (8.4) produces the so-called simple theory of torsion:

8.2. Polar second moment of area

As stated above the polar second moment of area J is defined as

For a solid shaft

For a hollow shaft of internal radius r,

For thin-walled hollow shafts the values of D and d may be nearly equal, and in such cases there can be considerable
errors in using the above equation involving the difference of two large quantities of similar value. It is therefore
convenient to obtain an alternative form of expression for the polar moment of area.

where A (= 2 π r * dr ) is the area of each small element of Fig. 8.3, i.e. J is the sum of the Ar ^ 2 terms for all elements.

If a thin hollow cylinder is therefore considered as just one of these small elements with its wall thickness t = dr
then

Flanged Bolt Couplings

In shaft connection called flanged bolt couplings (see figure above), the torque is transmitted by the shearing force P
created in the bolts that is assumed to be uniformly distributed. For any number of bolts n, the torque capacity of the
coupling is

If a coupling has two concentric rows of bolts, the torque capacity

is
where the subscript 1 refer to bolts on the outer circle the subscript 2 refer to bolts on the inner circle. See figure.
For rigid flanges, the shear deformations in the bolts are proportional to their radial distances from the shaft axis. The
shearing strains are related by

Using Hooke’s law for shear, G = τ / γ, we have

If the bolts on the two circles have the same area, A1 = A2, and if the bolts are made of the same material, G1 = G2, the
relation between P1 and P2 reduces to

Helical Springs
When close-coiled helical spring, composed of a wire of round rod of diameter d wound
into a helix of mean radius R with n number of turns, is subjected to an axial load P
produces the following stresses and elongation:

The maximum shearing stress is the sum of the direct shearing stress τ 1 = P/A and the

torsional shearing stress τ 2 = Tr/J, with T = PR.

This formula neglects the curvature of the spring. This is used for
light spring where the ratio d/4R is small. For heavy springs and considering the curvature of the spring, a more precise
formula is given by: (A.M.Wahl Formula)

Where m is called the spring index and (4m – 1) / (4m – 4) is the Wahl Factor.
The elongation of the bar is

Notice that the deformation δ is directly proportional to the applied load P. The ratio of P

to δ is called the spring constant k and is equal to

Problem 01
What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will not twist through more than 3° in a 6-m length when
subjected to a torque of 12 kN·m? What maximum shearing stress is developed? Use G = 83 GPa.

Problem 02
A flanged bolt coupling consists of eight 10-mmdiameter steel bolts on a bolt circle 400 mm in diameter, and six
10 mm diameter steel bolts on a concentric bolt circle 300 mm in diameter, as shown in Fig. 3-7. What torque can be
applied without exceeding a shearing stress of 60 MPa in the bolts?

Problem 03
A helical spring is fabricated by wrapping wire ¾ in. in diameter around a forming
cylinder 8 in. in diameter. Compute the number of turns required to permit an elongation of 4 in. without exceeding a
shearing stress of 18 ksi. Use Eq. (3-9) and G =12 ×
106 psi.

SHEAR AND MOMENT IN BEAMS

Relationship between Load, Shear, and Moment
The vertical shear at C in the figure shown in previous section is taken as

If we differentiate M with respect to x:

Thus, the rate of change of the bending moment with respect to x is equal to the shearing force, or the slope of the
moment diagram at the given point is the shear at that point.
Differentiate V with respect to x gives

Thus, the rate of change of the shearing force with respect to x is equal to the load or the slope of the shear diagram at a
given point equals the load at that point.
PROPERTIES OF SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS
The following are some important properties of shear and moment diagrams:
1. The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section is equal to
the moment at that section.
2. The slope of the moment diagram at a given point is the shear at that point.
3. The slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that point.

4. The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shears. This is in reference to
property number 2, that when the shear (also the slope of the moment diagram) is zero,
the tangent drawn to the moment diagram is horizontal.
5. When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram is concave upward.
6. When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram is concave
downward.
SIGN CONVENTIONS
The customary sign conventions for shearing force and bending moment are represented by the figures below. A force
that tends to bend the beam downward is said to produce a positive bending moment. A force that tends to shear the left
portion of the beam upward with respect to the right portion is said to produce a positive shearing force.

An easier way of determining the sign of the bending moment at any section is that upward forces always cause positive
bending moments regardless of whether they act to the left or to the right of the exploratory section.

Problem 01
Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-425.

Problem 02
Beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-427.
Solution
TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

TERM PAPER PROJECT No.2

BES 313 – MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
THIRD TERM
S.Y 2023- 2024

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. ARNEL VILLANUEVA

SUBMITTED BY:
AARON P. PAJARILLO