Mechanics of Materials

Chapter 3 Torsion

3.1

Introduction

In many engineering applications, members are required to carry torsional loads. Consider the torsion of circular shafts. Because a circular cross section is an efficient shape for resisting torsional loads. Circular shafts are commonly used to transmit power in rotating machinery. Also discuss another important applicationtorsion of thinwalled tubes..

3.1 Torsion of Circular Shafts

a. Simplifying assumptions During the deformation, the cross sections are not distorted in any mannerthey remain plane, and the radius r does not change. In addition, the length L of the shaft remains constant. Figure 3.1 Deformation of a circular shaft caused by the torque T. The initially straight line AB deforms into a helix.

Based on these observations, we make the following assumptions: Circular cross sections remain plane (do not warp) and perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. Cross sections do not deform (there is no strain in the plane of the cross section). The distances between cross sections do not change (the axial normal strain is zero). Each cross section rotates as a rigid entity about the axis of the shaft. Although this conclusion is based on the observed deformation of a cylindrical shaft carrying a constant internal torque, we assume that the result remains valid even if the diameter of the shaft or the internal torque varies along the length of the shaft.

b. Compatibility
Because the cross sections are separated by an infinitesimal distance, the difference in their rotations, denoted by the angle d, is also infinitesimal. As the cross sections undergo the relative rotation d, CD deforms into the helix CD. By observing the distortion of the shaded element, we recognize that the helix angle is the shear strain of the element.
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

From the geometry of Fig.3.2(a), we obtain DD= d=dx , from which the shear strain is d = (3.1)
dx

The quantity d/dx is the angle of twist per unit length, where is expressed in radians. The corresponding shear stress, illustrated in Fig. 3.2 (b), is determined from Hookes law:
d = G = G dx
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

(3.2) Figure 3.2 (a) Shear strain of a material element caused by twisting of the shaft; (b) the corresponding shear stress.

the shear stress varies linearly with the radial distance from the axial of the shaft. = G = G d
dx

The variation of the shear stress acting on the cross section is illustrated in Fig. 3.3. The maximum shear stress, denoted by max , occurs at the surface of the shaft. Note that the above derivations assume neither a constant internal torque nor a constant cross section along the length of the shaft.

Figure 3.3 Distribution of shear stress along the radius of a circular shaft.

c. Equilibrium
Fig. 3.4 shows a cross section of the shaft containing a differential element of area dA loaded at the radial distance from the axis of the shaft.

Figure 3.4 Calculating the Resultant of the shear stress acting on the cross section. Resultant is a couple equal to the internal torque T.

The shear force acting on this area is dP = dA = G (d/dx) dA, directed perpendicular to the radius. Hence, the moment (torque) of dP about the center o is dP = G (d/dx) 2dA. Summing the contributions and equating the result to the internal torque yields A dP = T , or d G 2 dA = T A dx

Recognizing that is the polar moment of inertia of the crosssectional area, we can write this equation as G (d/dx) J = T , or d T = (3.3)
dx GJ

The rotation of the cross section at the free end of the shaft, called the angle of twist , is obtained by integration:

= d =
o

T dx GJ

(3.4a)

As in the case of a prismatic bar carrying a constant torque, then reduces the torque-twist relationship

TL = GJ
L

(3.4b)

Note the similarity between Eqs. (3.4) and the corresponding formulas for axial deformation: = o (P/ EA)dx and = PL/(EA)

Notes on the Computation of angle of Twist

1.In the U.S. Customary system, the consistent units are G [ psi ], T [ lbin ] , and L [ in.], and J [ in.4 ]; in the SI system, the consistent units are G [ Pa ], T [ Nm ], L [ m ], and J [ m4 ]. 2.The unit of in Eqs. (3.4) is radians, regardless of which system of unit is used in the computation. 3.Represent torques as vectors using the right-hand rule, as illustrated in Fig. 3.5. The same sign convention applies to the angle of twist. Figure 3.5 Sign Conventions for Torque T and angle of twist .

d. Torsion formulas
G (d/dx) = T/J , which substitution into Eq. (3.2), of the shaft, Torsion formulas :
= G = G

gives the shear stress acting at the distance from the center

d dx

T = J

(3.5a)

The maximum shear stress max is found by replacing by the radius r of the shaft:

max

Tr = J

(3.5b)

Because Hooks law was used in the derivation of Eqs. (3.2)(3.5), these formulas are valid if the shear stresses do not exceed the proportional limit of the material shear. Furthermore, these formulas are applicable only to circular shafts, either solid or hollow.

The expressions for the polar moments of circular areas are : Solid shaft : Hollow shaft :
max
max
2T 16T = 3 = 3 r d
2TR 16TD = = 4 4 R r D4 d 4

(3.5c)

(3.5d)

Equations (3.5c) and (3.5d) are called the torsion formulas.

Figure 3.6 Polar moments of inertia of circular areas.

e. Power transmission
Shafts are used to transmit power. The power transmitted by a torque T rotating at the angular speed is given by =T , where is measured in radians per unit time. If the shaft is rotating with a frequency of f revolutions per unit time, then = 2 f , which gives = T (2 f ). Therefore, the torque can be expressed as

T =

2 f

(3.6a)

In SI units, in usually measured in watts (1.0 W=1.0 Nm/s) and f in hertz (1.0 Hz = 1.0 rev/s); Eq. (3.6a) then determines the torque T in Nm. In U.S. Customary units with in lbin./s and f in hertz, Eq.(3.6a) calculates the torque T in lbin.

Because power in U.S. Customary units is often expressed in horsepower (1.0 hp = 550 lbft/s = 396103 lbin./min), a convenient form of Eq.(3.6a) is (hp ) 396 10 3 (lb in. / min ) T (lb in) = 2f (rev / min ) 1.0(hp ) which simplifies to (hp ) 3 T (lb in) = 63.0 10 f (rev / min ) (3.6b)

f. Statically indeterminate problems

Draw the required free-body diagrams and write the equations of equilibrium. Derive the compatibility equations from the restrictions imposed on the angles of twist. Use the torque- twist relationships in Eqs.(3.4) to express the angles of twist in the compatibility equations in terms of the torques. Solve the equations of equilibrium and compatibility for the torques.

Sample Problem 3.1

A solid steel shaft in a rolling mill transmits 20 kW of power at 2 Hz. Determine the smallest safe diameter of the shaft if the shear stress w is not to exceed 40 MPa and the angle of twist is limited to 6in a length of 3 m. Use G = 83 GPa. Solution Applying Eq. (3.6a) to determine the torque:
P 20 10 3 T = = = 1591 .5 N m 2f 2 (2 )

To satisfy the strength condition, we apply the torsion formula, Eq. (3.5c):

16 T 16 (1591 . 5 ) 6 max = 4 10 = max 3 d d 3 Which yields d = 58.710-3 m = 58.7 mm.

Tr = J

Apply the torque-twist relationship, Eq. (3.4b), to determine the diameter necessary to satisfy the requirement of rigidity (remembering to convert from degrees to radians): TL 1591 .5(3) = 6 = 180 (83 10 9 )(d 4 / 32 ) GJ From which we obtain d = 48.610-3 m = 48.6 mm. To satisfy both strength and rigidity requirements, we must choose the larger diameter-namely, d = 58.7 mm. Answer

Sample problem 3.2

The shaft in Fig. (a) consists of a 3-in. -diameter aluminum segment that is rigidly joined to a 2-in. -diameter steel segment. The ends of the shaft are attached to rigid supports, Calculate the maximum shear stress developed in each segment when the torque T = 10 kip in. is applied. Use G = 4106 psi for aluminum and G = 12106 psi for steel.

Solution Equilibrium This problem is statically indeterminate.

Mx = 0 , ( 10 103 ) Tst Tal =0

(a)

Compatibility the two segments must have the same angle of twist; that is, st = al From Eq. (3.4b), this condition between.

TL TL = GJ st GJ al
from which

(12 10 ) 32 (2)
6

Tst (3 12)

=
4

(4 10 ) 32 (3)
6

Tal (6 12)

Tst = 1.1852 Tal (b) Solving Eqs. (a) and (b), we obtain Tal = 4576 lb in. Tst = 5424 lb in. the maximum shear stresses are

( max )al
( max )st

16(4576) 16T = 3 = = 863 psi 3 (3) d al

16T 16(5424) = 3450 psi = 3 st = 3 (2) d

Answer Answer

Sample problem 3.3

The four rigid gears, loaded as shown in Fig. (a), are attached to a 2-in.-diameter steel shaft. Compute the angle of rotation of gear A relative to gear D. Use G = 12106 psi for the shaft. Solution It is convenient to represent the torques as vectors (using the right-hand rule) on the FBDs in Fig. (b).

Solution
Assume that the internal torques TAB, TBC, and TCD are positive according to the sign convention introduced earlier ( positive torque vectors point away from the cross section). Applying the equilibrium condition Mx = 0 to each FBD, we obtain 5009001000TCD = 0 500900TBC = 0 500TAB = 0 TAB =500 lb ft , TBC =-400 lb ft TCD = 600 lb ft The minus sign indicates that the sense of TBC is opposite to that shown on the FBD.A is gear D were fixed.

This rotation is obtained by summing the angles of twist of the three segments: A/D =A/BB /CC/D Using Eq.(3.4b), we obtain (converting the lengths to inches and torques to pound-inches)

A/ D

TAB LAB + TBC LBC + TCD LCD = GJ

(50012)(5 12) (40012)(3 12) + (60012)(4 12) = [ (2)4 / 32](1210)6

= 0.02827 rad = 1.620 Answer

The positive result indicates that the rotation vector of A relative to D is in the positive x-direction: that is, AD is directed counterclockwise when viewed from A toward D.

Sample Problem 3.4

Figure (a) shows a steel shaft of length L = 1.5 m and diameter d = 25 mm that carries a distributed toque of intensity ( torque per unit length) t = tB(x/L), where tB = 200 N m/m. Determine (1) the maximum shear stress in the shaft; and (2) the angle of twist. Use G = 80 GPa for steel. Figure (a) and (b) FBD

Solution
Part 1 Figure (b) shows the FBD of the shaft. The total torque applied to the shaft is

t 0

tdx . The maximum torque in the shaft is

TA, which occurs at the fixed support. From the FBD we get

X
L

=0

tB L 1 x = (200)(1.5) = 150N m T A = tdx = t B dx = 0 0 L 2 2 From Eq. (3.5c), the maximum stress in the shaft is 16T A 16(150) max = = = 48.9 10 6 Pa = 48.9MPa Answer d 3 (0.025)3
L

tdx T A = 0

Part 2 The torque T acting on a cross section located at the distance x from the fixed end can be found from the FBD in Fig. (c):

=0

T + tdx T A = 0
0

T = TA

tB 2 L x2 = 2L

tB L x tdx = t B dx = 0 2 L

From Eq. (3.4a), the angle of twist of the shaft is L T L tB t B L2 = dx = L2 x 2 dx = 0 GJ 2 LGJ 0 3GJ

(1.5)2 200 4 3(80 10 9 )( / 32 )(0.025)

= 0.0489rad = 2.8 o

Answer

3.3 Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes

Simple approximate formulas are available for thin-walled tubes. Such members are common in construction where light weight is of paramount importance. The tube to be prismatic ( constant cross section), but the wall thickness t is allowed to vary within the cross section. The surface that lies midway between the inner and outer boundaries of the tube is called the middle surface.

Figure 3.7 (a) Thin-walled tube in torsion; (b) shear stress in the wall of the tube.

If thickness t is small compared to the overall dimensions of the cross section, the shear stressinduced by torsion can be shown to be almost constant through the wall thickness of the tube and directed tangent to the middle surface, in Fig. (3.7b). At this time, it is convenient to introduce the concept of shear flow q, defined as the shear force per unit edge length of the middle surface. the shear flow q is q = t (3.7) If the shear stress is not constant through the wall thickness, then in Eq. (3.7) should be viewed as the average shear stress.

the shear flow is constant throughout the tube. This result can be obtained by considering equilibrium of the element shown in Fig. 3.7(c). In labeling the shear flows, we assume that q varies in (c) Shear flows on wall element. the longitudinal (x) as well q as the circumferential (s) FX = 0 q + s ds dx qdx = 0 directions. The force acting on each side of the element FS = 0 q + q dx ds qds = 0 is equal to the shear flow x multiplied by the edge q / x = q / s = 0, thereby proving that length, resulting in the the shear flow is constant throughout equilibrium equations . the tube.

The shear force is dP = qds. The moment of the force about an arbitrary point 0 is rdP = (qds)r, where r is the perpendicular distance of 0 from the line of action of dP. The sum of these moment must be equal to the applied torque T; that is,

T =

Which the integral is taken over the closed curve formed by the intersection of the middles surface and the cross section, called the median line. Figure 3.8 Calculating the resultant of the shear flow acting on the cross section of the tube. Resultant of a couple equal to the internal torque T.

qrds
s

(a)

But from Fig. 3.8 we see that r ds = 2dAo, where dAo is the area of the shaded triangle. Therefore, srds = 2 A0, ,where Ao is the area of the cross section that is enclosed by the median line.

T =

qrds
s

T = 2 A0q
q=

from which the shear flow is

T 2 A0

(3.8a) (3.8b)

Determining the work done by the shear flow acting on the element in Fig. 3.7(c). 1 1 dU = ( force dis tan ce ) = ( qds )( dx ) 2 2 Figure 3.9 Deformation of element caused by shear flow.

Substituting =/G = q / Gt yields

q2 b dsdx dU = 2Gt The work U of the shear flow for the entire tube is obtained by integrating Eq. (b) over the middle surface of the tube. Noting that q and G are constants and t is independent of x,
1 dU = ( qds )( dx ) 2

q 2 L ds q 2 L ds U= 0 s t dx = 2G s t 2G

Conservation of energy requires U to be equal to the work of the applied torque that is, U = T/2. After substituting the expression for q from Eq. (3.8b) into Eq. (c),

T q= 2 A0

T 2A 0

L 2G

1 ds s t = 2 T

The angle of twist of the tube is

=
TL 4GA 02 ds s t

(3.9a)

If t is constant, we have s(ds / t ) = S / t, where S is the length of the median line Therefore, Eq. (3.9a) becomes
TLS = 4GA02 t

( constant t)

(3.9b)

If the tube is not cylindrical, its cross sections do not remain plane but tend to warp. Tube with very thin walls can fail by bucking which the stresses are still within their elastic ranges. steel tubes of circular cross section require r/t 50 to forestall buckling due to torsion. Shape re-entrant corners in the cross section of the tube should also be avoided because they cause stress concentration. The shear stress at the inside boundary of a corner can be considerably higher than the average stress.

Sample Problem 3.5

A steel tube with the cross section shown carries a torque T. The tube is 6 ft long and has a constant wall thickness of 3/8 in. (1) Compute the torsional stiffness k = T/of the tube. (2) If the tube is twisted through 0.5, determine the shear stress in the wall of the tube. Use G =12 106 psi. and neglect stress concentrations at the corners. Solution Part1 Because the wall thickness is constant, the angle of twist is given by TLS Eq. (3.9b): =
4GA02 t

Therefore, the torsional stiffness of the tube can be computed from 3.5 Figure (a)
4GA02 t = = LS T

The area enclosed by the median line is

A0 = averagewit h height = 6 + 4 (5) = 25in.2 And the length of the median line is 2
S = 6 + 4 + 2 12 + 5 2 = 20.20in. Consequently, the torsional stiffness becomes 2 4(12 10 6 )(25) (3 / 8) = = 7.735 10 6 lb in. / rad (6 12)(20.20) = 135.0 103 lb in./deg Answer Part 2 The toque required to produce an angle of twist of 0.5 is T = k= (135.0 103)(0.5) = 67.5 103 lb in.
T 67.5 10 3 = = 1350lb / in. which results in the shear flow q = 2 A0 2(25)

The corresponding shear stress is =

q 1350 = = 3600 psi Answer t 3/8

Sample Problem 3.6

An aluminum tube, 1.2 m long, has the semicircular cross section shown in the figure. If stress concentrations at the corners are neglected, determine (1) the torque that causes a maximum shear stress of 40MPa.and (2) the corresponding angle of twist of the tube. Use G = 28 GPa for aluminum. Solution the shear flow that causes a maximum shear stress of 40 MPa is q = t = (40 106) (0.002)= 80 103 N/m The cross-sectional area enclosed by the median line is
A0 =

r 2
2

(0 . 25 )2
2

= 0 . 9817 10 3 m 2

T = 2 A0 q = 2(0.9817 10 3 )(80 10 3 ) = 157.07 N m

Part 2 The cross section consists of two parts, labeled 1 and 2 in the figure, each having a constant thickness. S1 S 2 ds 1 1 s t = t1 s1 ds + t 2 s 2 ds = t1 + t 2 where S1 and S2 are the lengths of parts 1 and 2, respectively. ds 2 (25) 2(25) s t = t1 + t 2 = 2 + 3 = 55.94 and Eq. (3.9a) yields for the angle of twist

TL = 4GA02

157.07(1.2 ) ds s t = 4 28 10 9 09817 10 3 = 0.0977 rad = 5.60 o Answer

)(

(55.94)