Atomic Structure 594

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Edexcel AS Chemistry Your notes
1.1 Atomic Structure

Contents
1.1.1 Structure of the Atom
1.1.2 Isotopes
1.1.3 Relative Mass
1.1.4 Mass Spectrometry
Page 1 of 18
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1.1.1 Structure of the Atom

Your notes
Structure of the Atom
All matter is composed of atoms, which are the smallest parts of an element that can take place in
chemical reactions
Atoms are mostly made up of empty space around a very small, dense nucleus that contains protons
and neutrons
The nucleus has an overall positive charge
The protons have a positive charge and the neutrons have a neutral charge
Negatively charged electrons are found in orbitals in the empty space around the nucleus
The basic structure of an atom (not to scale)
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Subatomic Mass & Charge

Subatomic particles are the particles an element is made up of and include protons, neutrons and Your notes
electrons
These subatomic particles are so small that it is not possible to measure their masses and charges
using conventional units (such as grams and coulombs)
Instead, their masses and charges are compared to each other using ‘relative atomic masses’ and
‘relative atomic charges’
These are not actual charges and masses but they are charges and masses of particles relative to each
other
Protons and neutrons have a very similar mass so each is assigned a relative mass of 1 whereas
electrons are 1836 times smaller than a proton and neutron
Protons are positively charged, electrons negatively charged and neutrons are neutral
The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are:
Relative mass & charge of subatomic particles table
Exam Tip
The relative mass of an electron is almost negligible. The charge of a single electron is -1.602 x 10-19
coulombs whereas the charge of a proton is +1.602 x 10-19 coulombs, however, relative to each other,
their charges are -1 and +1 respectively.
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Atomic & Mass Numbers

The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and has Your notes
symbol Z
The atomic number is equal to the number of electrons present in a neutral atom of an element
Eg. the atomic number of lithium is 3 which indicates that the neutral lithium atom has 3 protons
and 3 electrons
The mass number (or nucleon number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom and has symbol A
The number of neutrons can be calculated by:
Number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number
Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons
Exam Tip
The mass (nucleon) and atomic (proton) number are given for each element in the Periodic Table
Page 4 of 18
1.1.2 Isotopes
Your notes
Atomic Structure Calculations
An atom is neutral and has no overall charge
Ions on the other hand are formed when atoms either gain or lose electrons, causing them to become
charged
The number of subatomic particles in atoms and ions can be determined given their atomic (proton)
number, mass (nucleon) number and charge
Properties
Isotopes have similar chemical properties but different physical properties
Chemical properties
Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics
This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells
Electrons take part in chemical reactions and therefore determine the chemistry of an atom
Physical properties
The only difference between isotopes is the number of neutrons
Since these are neutral subatomic particles, they only add mass to the atom
As a result of this, isotopes have different physical properties such as small differences in
their mass, density, melting point and boiling point
For example samples of uranium hexafluoride gas, UF6, can undergo uranium enrichment by using
a gas centrifuge cylinder
This is because nuclear reactors require higher amounts of the lighter U235 isotope
UF6 gas is placed in a gas centrifuge cylinder and rotated at a high speed
This rotation creates a strong centrifugal force so that the heavier gas molecules (UF6 containing
the heavier U238 isotope) move towards the outside of the cylinder
The lighter gas molecules (containing the U235 isotope) collect closer to the centre
Protons
The atomic number of an atom and ion determines which element it is
Therefore, all atoms and ions of the same element have the same number of protons (atomic number)
in the nucleus
E.g. lithium has an atomic number of 3 (three protons) whereas beryllium has atomic number of 4 (4
protons)
The number of protons equals the atomic (proton) number
The number of protons of an unknown element can be calculated by using its mass number and
number of neutrons:
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Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Number of protons = mass number - number of neutrons Your notes
Worked example
Determine the number of protons of the following ions and atoms:
1. Mg2+ ion
2. Carbon atom
3. An unknown atom of element X with mass number 63 and 34 neutrons
Answers
Answer 1: The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 indicating that the number of protons in the
magnesium element is 12
Therefore the number of protons in a Mg2+ ion is also 12
Answer 2: The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6 indicating that a carbon atom has 6 protons in
its nucleus
Answer 3: Use the formula to calculate the number of protons
Number of protons = mass number - number of neutrons
Number of protons = 63 - 34
Number of protons = 29
Element X is therefore copper
Electrons
An atom is neutral and therefore has the same number of protons and electrons
Ions have a different number of electrons to their atomic number depending on their charge
A positively charged ion has lost electrons and therefore has fewer electrons than protons
A negatively charged ion has gained electrons and therefore has more electrons than protons
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Worked example
Your notes
Determine the number of electrons of the following ions and atoms:
1. Mg2+ ion
2. Carbon atom
3. An unknown atom of element X with mass number 63 and 34 neutrons
Answers
Answer 1: The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 suggesting that the number of protons in
the neutral magnesium atom is 12
However, the 2+ charge in Mg2+ ion suggests it has lost two electrons
It only has 10 electrons left now
Answer 2: The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6 suggesting that the neutral carbon atom has 6
electrons orbiting around the nucleus
Answer 3: The number of protons of element X can be calculated by:
Number of protons = mass number - number of neutrons
Number of protons = 63 - 34
Number of protons = 29
The neutral atom of element X therefore also has 29 electrons
Neutrons
The mass and atomic numbers can be used to find the number of neutrons in ions and atoms:
Number of neutrons = mass number (A) - number of protons (Z)
Worked example
Determine the number of neutrons of the following ions and atoms:
1. Mg2+ ion
2. Carbon atom
3. An unknown atom of element X with mass number 63 and 29 protons
Answers
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Answer 1: The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 and its mass number is 24
Number of neutrons = mass number (A) - number of protons (Z) Your notes
Number of neutrons = 24 - 12
Number of neutrons = 12
The Mg2+ ion has 12 neutrons in its nucleus
Answer 2: The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6 and its mass number is 12
The carbon atom has 6 neutrons in its nucleus
Answer 3: The atomic number of an element X atom is 29 and its mass number is 63
The neutral atom of element X has 34 neutrons in its nucleus
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Defining & Calculating Isotopes

The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and then the mass Your notes
number
E.g. carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon containing 6 and 8 neutrons respectively
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and electrons but a
different number of neutrons
For example, three isotopes of hydrogen are protium, deuterium and tritium
The atomic structure and symbols of the three isotopes of hydrogen
Page 9 of 18
1.1.3 Relative Mass

Your notes
Isotopic & Atomic Mass
The relative mass of an atom uses the carbon-12 isotope as the international standard
One atom of carbon-12 has an accepted mass of 1.992646538 x 10-26 kg
It is not realistic to work with this value so the mass of a carbon-12 atom is fixed as exactly 12 atomic
mass units / 12υ
The standard mass for atomic mass is 1υ
Therefore, the standard mass for comparison is the mass of 1 12 of a carbon-12 atom
Relative isotopic mass
Relative isotopic mass is defined as the mass of an isotope relative to 1 12 of a carbon-12 atom
For A Level Chemistry it is common to work with mass values rounded to one decimal place, for
example:
The accurate relative isotopic mass of nitrogen is 14.00307401 but this is rounded to 14.0
The accurate relative isotopic mass of oxygen is 15.99491464 but this is rounded to 16.0
Relative atomic mass

Most elements on the Periodic Table represent a mixture of different isotopes, which is shown as their
relative atomic mass (Ar)
The relative atomic mass is the weighted mean / average mass of an atom relative to 1 12 of the mass
of a carbon-12 atom
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Molecular & Formula Mass

We have seen previously that the symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar Your notes
This is calculated from the mass number and relative abundances of all the isotopes of a particular
element
The symbol for the relative formula mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the substance
The term relative formula mass should be used for compounds with giant structures e.g. ionic
compounds such as sodium chloride
If the substance is molecular you can use the term relative molecular mass
To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all the atoms
present in the formula
Relative Formula Mass Calculations Table
Exam Tip
It is expected that you will use relative atomic mass values from the Periodic Table
This means that your values will be more accurate
e.g. potassium carbonate = (2 x 39.1) + 12.0 + (3 x 16.0) = 138.2
If you are in any doubt whether to use relative molecular mass or relative formula mass, use the latter
because it applies to all compounds whether they are ionic or covalent.
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1.1.4 Mass Spectrometry

Your notes
Interpreting Mass Spectra
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and
electrons but a different number of neutrons
These are atoms of the same elements but with different mass numbers
Therefore, the mass of an element is given as relative atomic mass (Ar) by using the average mass of the
isotopes
The relative atomic mass of an element can be calculated by using the relative abundance values
Ar =
(relative abundance isotope 1 × mass isotope 1) + (relative abundance isotope 2 × mass isotope 2) etc
100
The relative abundance of an isotope is either given or can be read off the mass spectrum
Worked example
Calculating relative atomic mass of oxygen
A sample of oxygen contains the following isotopes:
What is the relative atomic mass, Ar, of oxygen in this sample, to 2dp?
Answer
( 99. 76 × 16) + (0 . 04 × 17) + (0 . 20 × 18)

Ar =
100
Ar = 16.0044
Page 12 of 18
Ar = 16.00
Your notes
Worked example
Calculating relative atomic mass of boron
Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron using its mass spectrum, to 1dp:
Answer
(19. 9 × 10) + (80. 1 × 11)

Ar = = 10. 801 = 10. 8
100
Exam Tip
You can be expected to work with tables or graphs of data to calculate relative atomic mass
You can also be expected to do these calculations backwards to determine the abundance of one
isotope given sufficient information
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Predicting Mass Spectra

You can also predict how a mass spectrum might appear for a given compound, e.g. ethanol, Your notes
CH3CH2OH
The methyl, CH3+, fragment has a mass of 15.0
The ethyl, CH3CH2+, fragment has a mass of 29.0
The base ion, CH2OH+, fragment has a mass of 31.0
The whole molecule has a mass of 46.0
Predicting mass spectra becomes more complex with the inclusion of halogen isotopes such as
chlorine and bromine
Chlorine
Chlorine exists as two isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl
A compound containing one chlorine atom will therefore have two molecular ion peaks due to the two
different isotopes it can contain
35Cl = M+ peak
37Cl = [M+2] peak
The ratio of the peak heights is 3:1 (as the relative abundance of 35Cl is 3x greater than that of 37Cl)
A diatomic chlorine molecule or a compound containing two chlorine atoms will have three molecular
ion peaks due to the different combinations of chlorine isotopes they can contain
35Cl + 35Cl = M+ peak
35Cl + 37Cl = [M+2] peak
There is an alternative of 37Cl + 35Cl doubling the [M+2] peak
37Cl + 37Cl = [M+4] peak
The ratio of the peak heights is 9:6:1
This ratio can be deduced by using the probability of each chlorine atom being 35Cl or 37Cl
35Cl + 35Cl = 3
4 × 3 4 = 9 16
35Cl + 37Cl = 3
4 × 1 4 = 3 16 but this doubles for the 37Cl + 35Cl option, therefore, 6 16
37Cl + 37Cl = 1
4 × 1 4 = 1 16
The presence of bromine or chlorine atoms in a compound gives rise to a [M+2] and possibly [M+4]
peak
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Your notes
Mass spectrum of compounds containing one chlorine atom (1) and two chlorine atoms (2)
Bromine
Bromine too exists as two isotopes, 79Br and 81Br
A compound containing one bromine atom will have two molecular ion peaks
79Br = M+ peak
81Br = [M+2] peak
The ratio of the peak heights is 1:1 (they are of similar heights as their relative abundance is the
same!)
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A diatomic molecule of bromine or a compound containing two bromine atoms will have three
molecular ion peaks
79Br + 79Br= M+ peak Your notes
79Br+ 81Br = [M+2] peak
81Br + 81Br= [M+4] peak
The ratio of the peak heights is 1:2:1
Mass spectrum of compounds containing one bromine atom
Page 16 of 18
Mass Spectra & Mr

When a compound is analysed in a mass spectrometer, vaporised molecules are bombarded with a Your notes
beam of high-speed electrons
These knock off an electron from some of the molecules, creating molecular ions:
The relative abundances of the detected ions form a mass spectrum: a kind of molecular fingerprint
that can be identified by computer using a spectral database
The peak with the highest m/z value is the molecular ion (M+) peak which gives information about
the molecular mass of the compound
This value of m/z is equal to the relative molecular mass of the compound
The M+1 peak
The [M+1] peak is a smaller peak which is due to the natural abundance of the isotope carbon-13
The height of the [M+1] peak for a particular ion depends on how many carbon atoms are present in
that molecule; The more carbon atoms, the larger the [M+1] peak is
For example, the height of the [M+1] peak for an hexane (containing six carbon atoms) ion will be
greater than the height of the [M+1] peak of an ethane (containing two carbon atoms) ion
Page 17 of 18
Worked example
Your notes
Determine whether the following mass spectrum belongs to propanal or butanal
Answer:
The mass spectrum corresponds to propanal as the molecular ion peak is at m/z = 58
Propanal arises from the CH3CH2CHO+ ion which has a molecular mass of 58
Butanal arises from the CH3CH2CH2CHO+ ion which has a molecular mass of 72
Exam Tip
A mass spectrum can give lots of information about fragments of the overall compound being
analysed
Your specification states that this is not expected knowledge, you are only required to know the
implications of the M+1 peak from a mass spectrum
Page 18 of 18

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Edexcel AS Chemistry Your notes

1.1 Atomic Structure

1.1.1 Structure of the Atom

The basic structure of an atom (not to scale)

Subatomic Mass & Charge

Atomic & Mass Numbers

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Defining & Calculating Isotopes

The atomic structure and symbols of the three isotopes of hydrogen

1.1.3 Relative Mass

Relative atomic mass

Molecular & Formula Mass

1.1.4 Mass Spectrometry

( 99. 76 × 16) + (0 . 04 × 17) + (0 . 20 × 18)

(19. 9 × 10) + (80. 1 × 11)

Predicting Mass Spectra

Mass spectrum of compounds containing one bromine atom

Mass Spectra & Mr

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