Atomic Structure

Head to savemyexams.
com for more awesome resources
YOUR NOTES
AS Chemistry AQA 
1.1 Atomic Structure
CONTENTS
1.1.1 Fundamental Particles
1.1.2 Mass Number & Isotopes
1.1.3 Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry
1.1.4 Shells & Orbitals
1.1.5 Electron Configuration
1.1.6 Ionisation Energy
1.1.7 Ionisation Energy: Trends & Evidence
Page 1 of 34
© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
1.1.1 Fundamental Particles YOUR NOTES


Structure of an Atom
All matter is composed of atoms, which are the smallest parts of an element that can take
place in chemical reactions
Atoms are mostly made up of empty space around a very small, dense nucleus that
contains protons and neutrons
The nucleus has an overall positive charge
The protons have a positive charge and the neutrons have a neutral charge
Negatively charged electrons are found in orbitals in the empty space around the nucleus
The basic structure of an atom (not to scale)
Page 2 of 34
Subatomic Particles YOUR NOTES

Subatomic particles are the particles an element is made up of and include protons, 
neutrons and electrons
These subatomic particles are so small that it is not possible to measure their masses and
charges using conventional units (such as grams and coulombs)
Instead, their masses and charges are compared to each other using ‘relative atomic
masses’ and ‘relative atomic charges’
These are not actual charges and masses but they are charges and masses of particles
relative to each other
Protons and neutrons have a very similar mass so each is assigned a relative mass of 1
whereas electrons are 1836 times smaller than a proton and neutron
Protons are positively charged, electrons negatively charged and neutrons are
neutral
The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are:
Relative mass & charge of subatomic particles table
 Exam Tip
The relative mass of an electron is almost negligible.
The charge of a single electron is -1.602 x 10-19 coulombs whereas the charge of a
proton is +1.602 x 10-19 coulombs, however, relative to each other, their charges are
-1 and +1 respectively.
Page 3 of 34
Atoms: Key Terms YOUR NOTES

The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom 
and has symbol Z
The atomic number is equal to the number of electrons present in a neutral atom of an
element
Eg. the atomic number of lithium is 3 which indicates that the neutral lithium atom has 3
protons and 3 electrons
The mass number (or nucleon number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom and has symbol A
The number of neutrons can be calculated by:
Number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number
Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons
 Exam Tip
The mass (nucleon) and atomic (proton) number are given for each element in the
Periodic Table
Page 4 of 34
1.1.2 Mass Number & Isotopes YOUR NOTES


Subatomic Structure of Atoms & Ions
The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, because the nucleus contains the
heaviest subatomic particles (the neutrons and protons)
The mass of the electron is negligible
The nucleus is also positively charged due to the protons
Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom, contributing very little to its overall mass, but
creating a ‘cloud’ of negative charge
The electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus and negatively charged
electrons orbiting around it is what holds an atom together
The mass of the atom is concentrated in the positively charged nucleus which is attracted to
the negatively charged electrons orbiting around it
An atom is neutral and has no overall charge
Ions on the other hand are formed when atoms either gain or lose electrons, causing them
to become charged
The number of subatomic particles in atoms and ions can be determined given their
atomic (proton) number, mass (nucleon) number and charge
Protons
The atomic number of an atom and ion determines which element it is
Page 5 of 34
Therefore, all atoms and ions of the same element have the same number of protons YOUR NOTES
(atomic number) in the nucleus 
E.g. lithium has an atomic number of 3 (three protons) whereas beryllium has atomic
number of 4 (4 protons)
The number of protons equals the atomic (proton) number
The number of protons of an unknown element can be calculated by using its mass number
and number of neutrons:
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Number of protons = mass number - number of neutrons
 Worked Example
Determine the number of protons of the following ions and atoms:
1. Mg2+ ion
2. Carbon atom
3. An unknown atom of element X with mass number 63 and 34 neutrons
Answers
Answer 1: The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 indicating that the number of
protons in the magnesium element is 12
Therefore the number of protons in a Mg2+ ion is also 12
Answer 2: The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6 indicating that a carbon atom has 6
protons in its nucleus
Answer 3: Use the formula to calculate the number of protons

Number of protons = 63 - 34
Number of protons = 29
Element X is therefore copper
Electrons
An atom is neutral and therefore has the same number of protons and electrons
Ions have a different number of electrons to their atomic number depending on their charge
A positively charged ion has lost electrons and therefore has fewer electrons than
protons
Page 6 of 34
A negatively charged ion has gained electrons and therefore has more electrons than YOUR NOTES
protons 
 Worked Example
Determine the number of electrons of the following ions and atoms:
1. Mg2+ ion
2. Carbon atom
3. An unknown atom of element X with mass number 63 and 34 neutrons
Answers
Answer 1: The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 suggesting that the number of
protons in the neutral magnesium atom is 12
However, the 2+ charge in Mg2+ ion suggests it has lost two electrons
It only has 10 electrons left now
Answer 2: The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6 suggesting that the neutral carbon
atom has 6 electrons orbiting around the nucleus
Answer 3: The number of protons of element X can be calculated by:
Number of protons = 63 - 34
Number of protons = 29
The neutral atom of element X therefore also has 29 electrons
Neutrons
The mass and atomic numbers can be used to find the number of neutrons in ions and
atoms:
Number of neutrons = mass number (A) - number of protons (Z)
 Worked Example
Determine the number of neutrons of the following ions and atoms:
1. Mg2+ ion
2. Carbon atom
3. An unknown atom of element X with mass number 63 and 29 protons
Answers
Answer 1: The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 and its mass number is 24
Page 7 of 34
Number of neutrons = 24 - 12 YOUR NOTES

Number of neutrons = 12 
The Mg2+ ion has 12 neutrons in its nucleus

Answer 2: The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6 and its mass number is 12
Number of neutrons = 12 - 6
Number of neutrons = 6
The carbon atom has 6 neutrons in its nucleus
Answer 3: The atomic number of an element X atom is 29 and its mass number is 63
Number of neutrons = 63 - 29
Number of neutrons = 34
The neutral atom of element X has 34 neutrons in its nucleus
Page 8 of 34
Isotopes YOUR NOTES

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and 
electrons but a different number of neutrons
The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and then
the mass number
E.g. carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon containing 6 and 8 neutrons
respectively
The atomic structure and symbols of the three isotopes of hydrogen
Page 9 of 34
RAM from Mass Spectra YOUR NOTES

Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties 
Chemical properties
Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics
This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells
Electrons take part in chemical reactions and therefore determine the chemistry of an
atom
Physical properties
The only difference between isotopes is the number of neutrons
Since these are neutral subatomic particles, they only add mass to the atom
As a result of this, isotopes have different physical properties such as small differences in
their mass and density
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that contain the same number of
protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons.
These are atoms of the same elements but with different mass numbers
Because of this, the mass of an element is given as relative atomic mass (Ar) by using the
average mass of the isotopes
The relative atomic mass of an element can be calculated by using the relative abundance
values
The relative abundance of an isotope is either given or can be read off the mass
spectrum
Ar =
(relative abundance isotope 1 × mass isotope 1) + (relative abundance isotope 2 × mass isotope 2) etc
100
Page 10 of 34
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Calculating relative atomic mass of oxygen
A sample of oxygen contains the following isotopes:
What is the relative atomic mass of oxygen in this sample, to 2dp?

1. 16.00
2. 17.18
3. 16.09
4. 17.00
Answer
The correct answer option is 1
( 99. 76 × 16) + (0 . 04 × 17) + (0 . 20 × 18)

Ar = 100
Ar = 16.0044
Ar = 16.00
 Worked Example
Calculating relative atomic mass of boron
Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron using its mass spectrum, to 1dp:
Page 11 of 34
Answer YOUR NOTES

(19. 9 × 10) + (80. 1 × 11) 
Ar = = 10 . 801 = 10 . 8
100
Page 12 of 34
1.1.3 Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry YOUR NOTES


Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry
Mass Spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique
It is the most useful instrument for accurate determination of the relative atomic mass
of an element, based on the abundance and mass of each of its isotopes
It is also used to find the relative molecular mass of molecules
As a sample passes through the mass spectrometer, a spectrum is produced of mass /
charge ratio against abundance
The spectrum can be used to find the relative isotopic abundance, atomic and molecular
mass and the structure of a compound
The peak with the highest mass is the molecular ion peak, M+, and the peak which has the
largest abundance (tallest peak) is called the base peak
There are several types of mass spectrometer, but all of them are based on an ionised
sample being accelerated through the mass spectrum, and being separated based on the
ratio of their charge to their mass
Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry
This is a common form of mass spectrometry, where all particles of the sample to be
analysed are ionised to form 1+ ions
These 1+ ions are then accelerated to high speeds, deflected through the spectrometer
and then arrive at the detector
As they hit the detector, the mass spectrum graph is produced
The whole of the apparatus is kept under a high vacuum to prevent any ions that are
produced from colliding with molecules in the air
Inside the time of flight mass spectrometer

There are 4 key stages in time of flight mass spectrometry:
Ionisation
Page 13 of 34
Acceleration YOUR NOTES

Ion drift 
Detection
Stage 1: Ionisation
There are two key ways in which the sample could be ionised:
Electron Impact (or electron ionisation)
Electrospray Ionisation
Electron Impact Ionisation
This method of ionisation is used for elements and substances which have a lower
molecular mass
The sample is vaporised and then bombarded with high energy electrons
The electrons are 'fired' from an electron gun
The electron gun is a hot wire filament which emits electrons as a current runs through
it
As the sample is bombarded by these electrons, an electron is knocked off each particle,
forming a 1+ ion
X (g) → X+ (g) + e-
The 1+ ions which have been formed are called molecular ions, or M+ ions
These are then attracted towards a negatively charged plate
This accelerates them through the mass spectrometer
The molecular ion can be broken down further, or fragmented
The fragments are also accelerated through the sample and hit the detector, causing
different peaks to show on the mass spectrum which is produced
Electrospray Ionisation
This method is used for substances which have a higher molecular mass
Unlike with electron impact ionisation, fragmentation is unlikely to happen
This is often called a soft ionisation technique
For this method, the sample is dissolved in a volatile solvent
The solvent is injected into the mass spectrometer using a hypodermic needle
This produces a fine mist or aerosol
The needle is attached to a high voltage power supply, so as the sample is injected, the
particles are ionised by gaining a proton from the solvent
X (g) + H+ → XH+ (g)
The solvent evaporates and the XH+ ions are attracted towards a negatively charged plate
This accelerates them through the mass spectrometer
Page 14 of 34
YOUR NOTES

Time of Flight Mass Spectrometer

Stage 2: Acceleration
The 1+ ions formed from either ionisation method are accelerated using an electric field
They are all accelerated to have the same kinetic energy
This is important for you to remember when completing calculations
Since all 1+ ions will have the same kinetic energy, their velocity will depend on their mass
Lighter ions will move faster and heavier ions will move slower
Stage 3: Ion Drift (in the flight tube)
The 1+ ions will pass through a hole in the negatively charged plate and move into a flight
tube
This is where the name 'Time of Flight' comes from
The time of flight of each 1+ ion in this tube depends on their velocity
Again, this is important to remember when completing calculations
Stage 4: Detection
Once they have pass through the mass spectrometer, the 1+ ions will hit a negatively
charged 'detector' plate
As they hit this electric plate, they gain an electron
This gaining of an electron discharges the ion, and causes a current to be produced
This size of the current is proportional to the abundance of those ions hitting the
plate and gaining an electron
The detector plate is connected to a computer, which produces the mass spectrum
Page 15 of 34
YOUR NOTES

Key Equations for Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry

where
KE = kinetic energy of the particles (J)
m = mass of the particles (kg)
v = velocity of the particles (ms-1)
t = time of flight of the particles (s)
d = the length of the flight tube (m)
 Exam Tip
Remember: All particles in the mass spectrometer are accelerated to the same
kinetic energy.
The time of flight is proportional to the square root of the mass of the ions, showing
that the lighter the ion the faster it will pass through and the quicker it will hit the
detector.
The heavier the ion, the slower it will travel and the longer it will take to hit the
detector.
Page 16 of 34
1.1.4 Shells & Orbitals YOUR NOTES


Electron Shells
Shells
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the electron configuration
Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in principal energy levels or principal quantum
shells
Principal quantum numbers (n) are used to number the energy levels or quantum shells
The lower the principal quantum number, the closer the shell is to the nucleus
So, the first shell which is the closest to the nucleus is n = 1
The higher the principal quantum number, the greater the energy of the shell and the
further away from the nucleus
Each principal quantum number has a fixed number of electrons it can hold
n = 1 : up to 2 electrons
Subshells
The principal quantum shells are split into subshells which are given the letters s, p and d
Elements with more than 57 electrons also have an f shell
The energy of the electrons in the subshells increases in the order s < p < d
The order of subshells appear to overlap for the higher principal quantum shells as seen in
the diagram below:
Page 17 of 34
YOUR NOTES

Electrons are arranged in principal quantum shells, which are numbered by principal
quantum numbers
Orbitals
Subshells contain one or more atomic orbitals
Orbitals exist at specific energy levels and electrons can only be found at these specific
levels, not in between them
Each atomic orbital can be occupied by a maximum of two electrons
This means that the number of orbitals in each subshell is as follows:
s : one orbital (1 x 2 = total of 2 electrons)
p : three orbitals ( 3 x 2 = total of 6 electrons)
d : five orbitals (5 x 2 = total of 10 electrons)
f : seven orbitals (7 x 2 = total of 14 electrons)
The orbitals have specific 3-D shapes
s orbital shape
The s orbitals are spherical in shape
Page 18 of 34
The size of the s orbitals increases with increasing shell number YOUR NOTES
E.g. the s orbital of the third quantum shell (n = 3) is bigger than the s orbital of the first 
quantum shell (n = 1)
p orbital shape
The p orbitals have a dumbbell shape
Every shell has three p orbitals except for the first one (n = 1)
The p orbitals occupy the x, y and z axes and point at right angles to each other, so are
oriented perpendicular to one another
The lobes of the p orbitals become larger and longer with increasing shell number
Representation of orbitals (the dot represents the nucleus of the atom) showing spherical s
orbitals (a), p orbitals containing ‘lobes’ along the x, y and z axis
Note that the shape of the d orbitals is not required
Page 19 of 34
YOUR NOTES

An overview of the shells, subshells and orbitals in an atom

Ground state
The ground state is the most stable electronic configuration of an atom which has the
lowest amount of energy
This is achieved by filling the subshells of energy with the lowest energy first (1s)
The order of the subshells in terms of increasing energy does not follow a regular pattern at
n = 3 and higher
The ground state of an atom is achieved by filling the lowest energy subshells first
Page 20 of 34
Electron Arrangement Summary YOUR NOTES

Each shell can be divided further into subshells, labelled s, p, d and f 
Each subshell can hold a specific number of orbitals:
s subshell : 1 orbital
p subshell : 3 orbitals
d subshell : 5 orbitals
f subshell : 7 orbitals
Each orbital can hold a maximum number of 2 electrons so the maximum number of
electrons in each subshell are as follows:
s : 1 x 2 = total of 2 electrons
p : 3 x 2 = total of 6 electrons
d : 5 x 2 = total of 10 electrons
f : 7 x 2 = total of 14 electrons
Summary of the Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms Table
Page 21 of 34
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 The three p orbitals are labelled px, py and pz, but you do not need to include this in

your electron configurations!
Page 22 of 34
1.1.5 Electron Configuration YOUR NOTES


Deducing the Electron Configuration
The Periodic Table is split up into four main blocks depending on their electron
configuration
Elements can be classified as an s-block element, p-block element and so on, based on
the position of the outermost electron:
s block elements
Have their valence electron(s) in an s orbital
p block elements
Have their valence electron(s) in a p orbital
d block elements
Have their valence electron(s) in a d orbital
f block elements
Have their valence electron(s) in an f orbital
The principal quantum shells increase in energy with increasing principal quantum
number
E.g. n = 4 is higher in energy than n = 2
The subshells increase in energy as follows: s ＜ p ＜ d ＜ f
The only exception to these rules is the 3d orbital which has slightly higher energy than
the 4s orbital
Because of this, the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbital
All the orbitals in the same subshell have the same energy and are said to be degenerate
E.g. px, py and pz are all equal in energy
Page 23 of 34
YOUR NOTES

Relative energies of the shells and subshells

The electron configuration gives information about the number of electrons in each shell,
subshell and orbital of an atom
The subshells are filled in order of increasing energy
The electron configuration shows the number of electrons occupying a subshell in a specific
shell
Writing out the electron configuration tells us how the electrons in an atom or ion are
arranged in their shells, subshells and orbitals
This can be done using the full electron configuration or the shorthand version
The full electron configuration describes the arrangement of all electrons from the 1s
subshell up
Page 24 of 34
The shorthand electron configuration includes using the symbol of the nearest YOUR NOTES
preceding noble gas to account for however many electrons are in that noble gas 
Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons
Negative ions are formed by adding electrons to the outer subshell
Positive ions are formed by removing electrons from the outer subshell
The transition metals fill the 4s subshell before the 3d subshell but lose electrons from
the 4s first and not from the 3d subshell (the 4s subshell is lower in energy
Full Electron Configurations
Hydrogen has 1 single electron
The electron is in the s orbital of the first shell
Its electron configuration is 1s1
Potassium has 19 electrons
The first 2 electrons fill the s orbital of the first shell
They then continue to fill subsequent orbitals and subshells in order of increasing
energy
The 4s orbital is lower in energy than the 3d subshell, so it is therefore filled first
The full electron configuration of potassium is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Shorthand Electron Configurations
Using potassium as an example again:
The nearest preceding noble gas to potassium is argon
This accounts for 18 electrons of the 19 electrons that potassium has
The shorthand electron configuration of potassium is [Ar] 4s1
 Worked Example
Write down the full and shorthand electron configuration of the following elements:
1. Calcium
2. Gallium
3. Ca2+
Answer
Answer 1:
Calcium has 20 electrons so the full electronic configuration is:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
The 4s orbital is lower in energy than the 3d subshell and is therefore filled first
The shorthand version is [Ar] 4s2 since argon is the nearest preceding noble gas to
calcium which accounts for 18 electrons
Answer 2:
Page 25 of 34
Gallium has 31 electrons so the full electronic configuration is: YOUR NOTES
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p1 
[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1

Even though the 4s is filled first, the full electron configuration is often written in
numerical order. So, if there are electrons in the 3d sub-shell, then these will be written
before the 4s
Answer 3:
What this means is that if you ionise calcium and remove two of its outer electrons, the
electronic configuration of the Ca2+ ion is identical to that of argon
Ca2+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Ar is also 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Exceptions
Chromium and copper have the following electron configurations, which are different to
what you may expect:
Cr is [Ar] 3d5 4s1 not [Ar] 3d4 4s2
Cu is [Ar] 3d10 4s1 not [Ar] 3d9 4s2
This is because the [Ar] 3d5 4s1 and [Ar] 3d10 4s1 configurations are energetically stable
Presenting the Electron Configuration
Electrons can be imagined as small spinning charges which rotate around their own axis in either a
clockwise or anticlockwise direction
The spin of the electron is represented by its direction
Electrons with similar spin repel each other which is also called spin-pair repulsion
Electrons will therefore occupy separate orbitals in the same subshell where possible, to
minimize this repulsion and have their spin in the same direction
E.g. if there are three electrons in a p subshell, one electron will go into each px, py and
pz orbital
Electron configuration: three electrons in a p subshell

Electrons are only paired when there are no more empty orbitals available within a subshell,
in which case the spins are the opposite spins to minimize repulsion
E.g. if there are four electrons in a p subshell, one p orbital contains 2 electrons with
opposite spin and two orbitals contain one electron only
Page 26 of 34
The first 3 electrons fill up the empty p orbitals one at a time, and then the 4th one pairs YOUR NOTES
up in the px orbital 
Electron configuration: four electrons in a p subshell

Box Notation
The electron configuration can be represented using the electrons in boxes notation
Each box represents an atomic orbital
The boxes are arranged in order of increasing energy from bottom to top
The electrons are represented by opposite arrows to show the spin of the electrons
E.g. the box notation for titanium is shown below
Note that since the 3d subshell cannot be either full or half full, the second 4s electron
is not promoted to the 3d level and stays in the 4s orbital
The electrons in titanium are arranged in their orbitals as shown. Electrons occupy the
lowest energy levels first before filling those with higher energy
 Exam Tip
You can use full headed arrows or half headed arrows to represent electrons in your
box notations.
Page 27 of 34
1.1.6 Ionisation Energy YOUR NOTES


Ionisation Energies
The Ionisation Energy (IE) of an element is the amount of energy required to remove one
mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of
gaseous ions
Ionisation energies are measured under standard conditions which are 298 K and 101 kPa
The units of IE are kilojoules per mole (kJ mol-1)
The first ionisation energy (IE1) is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of atoms of an element to form one mole of 1+ ions
E.g. the first ionisation energy of gaseous calcium:
Ca(g) → Ca+ (g) + e- IE1 = +590 kJ mol-1
Trends in Ionisation Energies
Ionisation energies show periodicity - a trend across a period of the Periodic Table
As could be expected from their electron configuration, the group 1 metals have a relatively
low ionisation energy, whereas the noble gases have very high ionisation energies
The size of the first ionisation energy is affected by four factors:
Size of the nuclear charge
Distance of outer electrons from the nucleus
Shielding effect of inner electrons
Spin-pair repulsion
First ionisation energy increases across a period and decreases down a group
A graph showing the ionisation energies of the elements hydrogen to sodium

Ionisation energy across a period
The ionisation energy across a period generally increases due to the following factors:
Page 28 of 34
Across a period the nuclear charge increases YOUR NOTES

This causes the atomic radius of the atoms to decrease, as the outer shell is pulled 
closer to the nucleus, so the distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons
decreases
The shielding by inner shell electrons remain reasonably constant as electrons are
being added to the same shell
It becomes harder to remove an electron as you move across a period; more energy
is needed
So, the ionisation energy increases
Dips in the trend
There is a slight decrease in IE1 between beryllium and boron as the fifth electron in boron is
in the 2p subshell, which is further away from the nucleus than the 2s subshell of beryllium
Beryllium has a first ionisation energy of 900 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is
1s2 2s2
Boron has a first ionisation energy of 800 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is 1s2
2s2 2px1
There is a slight decrease in IE1 between nitrogen and oxygen due to spin-pair repulsion in
the 2px orbital of oxygen
Nitrogen has a first ionisation energy of 1400 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is
1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Oxygen has a first ionisation energy of 1310 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is 1s2
2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1
In oxygen, there are 2 electrons in the 2px orbital, so the repulsion between those
electrons makes it slightly easier for one of those electrons to be removed
From one period to the next
There is a large decrease in ionisation energy between the last element in one period, and
the first element in the next period
This is because:
There is increased distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons as you have
added a new shell
There is increased shielding by inner electrons because of the added shell
These two factors outweigh the increased nuclear charge
Ionisation energy down a group
The ionisation energy down a group decreases due to the following factors:
The number of protons in the atom is increased, so the nuclear charge increases
But, the atomic radius of the atoms increases as you are adding more shells of
electrons, making the atoms bigger
So, the distance between the nucleus and outer electron increases as you descend
the group
The shielding by inner shell electrons increases as there are more shells of electrons
These factors outweigh the increased nuclear charge, meaning it becomes easier to
remove the outer electron as you descend a group
Page 29 of 34
So, the ionisation energy decreases YOUR NOTES

Ionisation Energy Trends across a Period & going down a Group Table 
Page 30 of 34
1.1.7 Ionisation Energy: Trends & Evidence YOUR NOTES


Ionisation Energies: Equations
The second ionisation energy (IE2) is the energy required to remove the second mole of
electrons from each +1 ion in a mole of gaseous +1 ions, to form one mole of +2 ions
The third ionisation energy (IE3) is the energy required to remove the third mole of
electrons from each +2 ion in a mole of gaseous +2 ions, to form one mole of +3 ions
And so on...
The electrons from an atom can be continued to be removed until only the nucleus is left
This sequence of ionisation energies is called successive ionisation energies
Successive Ionisation Energies of Beryllium Table
 Exam Tip
Remember: Equations representing ionisation energies must have gaseous (g)
state symbols for the atoms and ions but not for the electrons.
You will lose the mark in your exam if you do not include the state symbols, even if the
question does not specify for you to include them.
Page 31 of 34
Successive Ionisation Energies YOUR NOTES

Successive ionisation energies of an element 
The successive ionisation energies of an element increase
This is because once you have removed the outer electron from an atom, you have formed
a positive ion
Removing an electron from a positive ion is more difficult than from a neutral atom
As more electrons are removed, the attractive forces increase due to decreasing shielding
and an increase in the proton to electron ratio
The increase in ionisation energy, however, is not constant and is dependent on the atom's
electronic configuration
Taking calcium as an example:
Ionisation Energies of Calcium Table
The first electron removed has a low IE1 as it is easily removed from the atom due to the
spin-pair repulsion of the electrons in the 4s orbital
Page 32 of 34
The second electron is more difficult to remove than the first electron as there is no spin- YOUR NOTES
pair repulsion 
The third electron is much more difficult to remove than the second one corresponding to
the fact that the third electron is in a principal quantum shell which is closer to the nucleus
(3p)
Removal of the fourth electron is more difficult as the orbital is no longer full, and there is
less spin-pair repulsion
The graph shows there is a large increase in successive ionisation energy as the electrons
are being removed from an increasingly positive ion
The big jumps on the graph show the change of shell and the small jumps are the change
of subshell
 Exam Tip
It gets more difficult to remove electrons from principal quantum shells that get
closer to the nucleus, as there is less shielding and an increase in attractive forces
between the electrons and nuclear charge.
Be careful with interpreting successive ionisation energy graphs, especially if you
are not given every successive ionisation energy and are just shown part of the
graph - you should count the electrons from left to right!
It is a good idea to label the shells and subshells on ionisation energy graphs in an
exam so that you do not make the mistake of reading the graph backwards.
Successive ionisation data can be used to:

Predict or confirm the simple electronic configuration of elements
Confirm the number of electrons in the outer shell of an element
Deduce the Group an element belongs to in the Periodic Table
By analyzing where the large jumps appear and the number of electrons removed when
these large jumps occur, the electron configuration of an atom can be determined
Na, Mg and Al will be used as examples to deduce the electronic configuration and
positions of elements in the Periodic Table using their successive ionisation energies
Successive Ionisation Energies Table
Page 33 of 34
YOUR NOTES

Sodium
For sodium, there is a huge jump from the first to the second ionisation energy, indicating
that it is much easier to remove the first electron than the second
Therefore, the first electron to be removed must be the last electron in the valence shell
thus Na belongs to group I
The large jump corresponds to moving from the 3s to the full 2p subshell
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Magnesium
There is a huge increase from the second to the third ionisation energy, indicating that it is
far easier to remove the first two electrons than the third
Therefore the valence shell must contain only two electrons indicating that magnesium
belongs to group II
The large jump corresponds to moving from the 3s to the full 2p subshell
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Aluminium
There is a huge increase from the third to the fourth ionisation energy, indicating that it is far
easier to remove the first three electrons than the fourth
The 3p electron and 3s electrons are relatively easy to remove compared with the 2p
electrons which are located closer to the nucleus and experience greater nuclear charge
The large jump corresponds to moving from the third shell to the second shell
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Page 34 of 34

Atomic Structure

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atomic Structure

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atomic Structure

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Head to savemyexams.

com for more awesome resources

1.1 Atomic Structure

1.1.1 Fundamental Particles YOUR NOTES

The basic structure of an atom (not to scale)

Subatomic Particles YOUR NOTES

Atoms: Key Terms YOUR NOTES

1.1.2 Mass Number & Isotopes YOUR NOTES

Answer 3: Use the formula to calculate the number of protons

Number of neutrons = 24 - 12 YOUR NOTES

The Mg2+ ion has 12 neutrons in its nucleus

Isotopes YOUR NOTES

The atomic structure and symbols of the three isotopes of hydrogen

RAM from Mass Spectra YOUR NOTES

What is the relative atomic mass of oxygen in this sample, to 2dp?

The correct answer option is 1

( 99. 76 × 16) + (0 . 04 × 17) + (0 . 20 × 18)

Answer YOUR NOTES

1.1.3 Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry YOUR NOTES

Inside the time of flight mass spectrometer

Acceleration YOUR NOTES

Time of Flight Mass Spectrometer

Key Equations for Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry

1.1.4 Shells & Orbitals YOUR NOTES

Note that the shape of the d orbitals is not required

An overview of the shells, subshells and orbitals in an atom

Electron Arrangement Summary YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

1.1.5 Electron Configuration YOUR NOTES

Relative energies of the shells and subshells

[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1

Electron configuration: three electrons in a p subshell

Electron configuration: four electrons in a p subshell

1.1.6 Ionisation Energy YOUR NOTES

A graph showing the ionisation energies of the elements hydrogen to sodium

Across a period the nuclear charge increases YOUR NOTES

So, the ionisation energy decreases YOUR NOTES

1.1.7 Ionisation Energy: Trends & Evidence YOUR NOTES

Successive Ionisation Energies YOUR NOTES

Successive ionisation data can be used to:

You might also like