CONTYROL SYSTEMS REVISION FOR MODULE 2 2015

What is a System?
Answer: When a number of elements or components are connected in a sequence to perform a specific function,
the group of elements that all constitute a System

What is Control System?

Answer: In a System the output and inputs are interrelated in such a manner that the output quantity or variable
is controlled by input quantity, then such a system is called Control System.
The output quantity is called controlled variable or response and the input quantity is called command signal or
excitation.

What are different types of Control Systems?

Answer: Two major types of Control Systems are 1) Open loop Control System 2) Closed Loop Control
Systems
Open loop Control Systems:
The Open loop Control System is one in which the Output Quantity has no effect on the Input Quantity. No
feedback is present from the output quantity to the input quantity for correction.
Closed Loop Control System:
The Closed loop Control System is one in which the feedback is provided from the Output quantity to the input
quantity for the correction so as to maintain the desired output of the system.

What is a feedback in Control System?

Answer: The Feedback in Control System in one in which the output is sampled and proportional signal is fed
back to the input for automatic correction of the error ( any change in desired output) for futher processing to
get back the desired output.

Why Negative Feedback is preferred in the Control System?

Answer: The role of Feedback in control system is to take the sampled output back to the input and compare
output signal with input signal for error ( deviation from the desired result).
Negative Feedback results in the better stability of the system and rejects any disturbance signals and is less
sensitive to the parameter variations. Hence in control systems negative feedback is considered.

What is the effect of positive feedback on stability of the system?

Answer: Positive feedback is not used generally in the control system because it increases the error signal and
drives the system to instability. But positive feedbacks
are used in minor loop control systems to amplify certain internal signals and parameters

.What is Order of the system?

Answer: Order of the system is defined as the order of the differential equation governing the system. Order of
the system can be determined from the transfer function of the system. Also the order of the system helps in
understanding the number of poles of the transfer function. For nth order system for a particular transfer
function contains 'n' number of poles.
2.What is Time response of the control system?
Answer: Time response of the control system is defined as the output of the closed loop system as a function of
time. Time response of the system can be obtained by solving the differential equations governing the system or
time response of the system can also be obtained by transfer function of the system.
3.How Time response of the system is divided?
Answer:Time response of the system consists of two parts: 1.Transient state response 2. Steady state response.
Transient response of the system explains about the response of the system when the input changes from one
state to the other. Steady state response of the system shows the response as the time t, approaches infinity
4.What are Test signals and their significance?
Answer: The knowledge of the input signal is required to predict the response of the system. In most of the
systems input signals are not known ahead of the time and it is also difficult to express the input signals
mathematically by simple equations. In such cases determining the performance of the system is not
possible.Test signals helps in predicting the performance of the system as the input signals which we give are
known hence we can see the output response of the system for a given input and can understand the behavior of
the control system. The commonly used test signals are impulse, ramp, step signals and parabolic signals.
5.What is Pole of the system?
Answer: Pole of a function F(s) is the value at which the function F(s) becomes infinite, where F(s) is a function
of the complex variable s.
6.What is Zero of the system?
Answer: Zero of a function F(s) is a value at which the function F(s) becomes zero, where F(s) is a function of
complex variable s.

What is Signal Flow Graph?

Answer: A Signal Flow Graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. By
taking Laplace transform the time domain differential equations governing a control system can be transferred
to a set of algebraic equations in s-domain. The signal Flow graph of the system can be constructed using these
equations.

What is S-domain and its significance?

Answer: By taking Laplace transform for differential equation in the time domain equations in S-domain can be
obtained. L{F(t)}=F(s)
S domain is used for solving the time domain differential equations easily by applying the Laplace for the
differential equations.

What are the basic properties of Signal Flow Graph?

Answer: The basic properties of the signal flow graph are:

• Signal Flow Graphs are applicable to linear systems

• It consists of nodes and branches. A node is a point representing a variable or signal. A branch indicates
the functional dependence of one signal on another
• A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to all outgoing branches
• Signals travel along branches only in a marked direction and is multiplied by the gain of the branch
• The algebraic equations must be in the form of cause and effect relationship

What is mathematical model of a control system?

Answer: Control system is a collection of physical elements connected together to serve an objective. The
output and input relations of various physical system are governed by differential equations. Mathematical
model of a control system constitutes set of differential equations. The response of the output of the system can
be studied by solving the differential equations for various input conditions.

Explain Mechanical Translational System?

Answer: Model of mechanical translational system can be obtained by using three basic elements Mass, Spring
and Dash-pot.

• Weight the mechanical system is represented by mass and is assumed to be concentrated at the center of
body
 • The elastic deformation of the body can be represented by the spring
• Friction existing in a mechanical system can be represented by dash-pot.

What are the Characteristics of Negative Feedback?

Answer:
Negative Feedback in a Control System has following Characteristics
Reduction in the gain at the expense of better stability of the system
Rejection of disturbance signals in the system
Low Sensitivity to parameter variations
Accuracy in tracking the steady state value
: What are the basic components of the feedback control system?
Answer: Basic components of the feedback control system are process system (open loop system), feedback
path element, error detector, and controller.

Define Transfer Function?

Answer: Transfer Function of a control system is defined as:
i) Ratio of Laplace transform of Output to the Laplace transform of the Input with zero initial conditions
ii) Transfer function is defined as the Laplace transform of Impulse response of the system with zero initial
conditions

What is the basic rule for Block Diagram Reduction Technique?

Answer: The rules of the Block Diagram reduction Techniques are designed in such a manner that any
modifications made in the diagram will not alter the input and output relation of the system

Where Servomechanism is used?

Answer: Servomechanism is used in control system where the output is pertained to vary the mechanical
position of a device.
Servo Mechanism is widely used in Governor value position control mechanism used in the power plants
where speed of the turbine is taken and processed using the transducers and final control element is brought as
mechanical movement of the value. Now a days Governor value control is done with Electronic controls using
power Thyristors. Servomechanism is also widely used in the robotic hand movements.

PI controllers are used in many industrial control applications. The main purpose of using Proportional and
Integral (PI) in process system is to improve the steady state accuracy of the system without affecting the
stability of the system.
Proportional action responds quickly to the error deviation and the integral action will act slowly but offset or
remove the steady state error, i.e, it removes the difference between the set point value and actual process value
in the plant over a period of time

The choice of having PI controller in the process system when:

• The control system should not be required fast response

• Systems consists of large disturbances and noise present during the operation of the process system
• There is only capacitive or inductive energy storage element in the process system
• There exists large transport delays in the process system

In most of the plant control applications PI or PID controllers are used. Derivative action speeds up the system
response by adding a proportional to the rate of change of feedback error. This is consequently vulnerable to the
noise in the error signals which can limits the derivative gain. Lager value of the derivative gains in the
controller will leads to instability of the system and also requires higher values of the proportional and integral
gains compared to gains required in PI controllers

• Draw a block diagram for the equation

Find T(s) = Y(s)/R(s), Algebraically and via Mason’s Gain Rule

THE TRANSFER FUNCTION OF THE SYSTEM IS
Describe the following terms as used in control systems
controlled variables -these are the variables which quantify the performance or quality of the final product.
also called output variables.
manipulated variables -these input variables are adjusted dynamically to keep the controlled variables at their
set-points.
disturbance variables -represent input variables that can cause the controlled variables to deviate from their
respective set points, also called "load" variables
DV are not adjusted
DV may or may not be measured
Set Point signal = desired level of a controlled variable
To implement a change in the operating conditions, the set-point signal is changed and the manipulated
variable is adjusted appropriately to achieve the new operating conditions.
Examples
The measured variable is the condition of the process fluid that must be kept at the designated setpoint.
Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the process variable. For example, a manufacturer may
measure flow into and out of a storage tank to determine tank level. In this scenario, flow is the
measured variable, and the process fluid level is the process variable.
The factor that is changed to keep the measured variable at setpoint is called the manipulated variable.
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the process variable. In the
temperature control loop example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel would be a load disturbance because it
would lower the temperature of the process fluid.
example
Blending system
• w1, w2 and w are mass flow rates
• x1, x2 and x are mass fractions of component A

• Controlled variable (or “output

variable”): x
• Manipulated variable (or “input
variable”): w2
• Disturbance variable (or “load
variable”): x1

Another example: Tabular Heat exchanger

Process fluid is cooled by cooling water

Controlled variable (CV): exit temperature of process fluid
Manipulated variable (MV): flow rate of cooling water
Disturbance variable (DV): inlet temperature, inlet flow rate,…

Control System Components

System, plant or process (to be controlled)

• Actuators (converts the control signal to a power signal)
• Sensors (provides measurement of the system output)
• Reference input (represents the desired output)
• Error detection (forms the control error)
• Controller (operates on the control error to form the control signal, sometimes called compensators)
3 b The following set of equations describes a closed loop control system.

i) Draw the signal flow diagram for the system. 6 mks

ii) Determine the overall gain(transfer function) by use of Mason’s gain rule. 6 mks

Steps to draw signal flow graph:

1) In the given set of instruction there are five nodes (x1, x2… x5), therefore mark five nodes as shown in
diagram a) as below.
2) Now consider the first equation, in this equation x2 is equal to the sum of four signals having different
coefficients. When we connect x1 with x2 the direction should be indicated as (1→2) because of a12, similarly
for x2 and x3 the arrow should be in the direction of (3→2) because of a32. The signal flow graph for the first
equation is shown in the diagram b).
3) Similarly, we have to follow the same procedure for all remaining equations, which are shown in figure
c), d) and e).

4) Finally figure f) shows the complete representation of the signal flow graph of the given control system.
Mason’s gain formula:
As we know the relationship between the input and output of the given control system is given by its net gain.
This net gain is also known as overall gain of the system. For determining the overall gain of the control system
Mason’s derived one formula, this formula is used for calculating the overall gain of the system, which is given
by,

Where,
• Pk represents path gain of kth forward path.
• ∆ represents determinant of the graph which is given by:
∆ = 1- (sum of loop gains of all individual loops) + (sum of gain products of all possible combinations of two
non-touching loops) – (sum of gain products of all possible combinations of three non-touching loops) + …

• ‘∆k’ represents the value of ∆ for that part of the graph which does not touch the kth forward path.
• ‘T’ is the overall gain of the given control system.
Solution:
In the given signal flow graph x1 is the input variable, whereas x5 is the output variable.
By using Mason’s gain formula, overall gain of the system is given by,
1) In the first step, we have to determine the number of forward path. Forward path means the path from
input node to the output node. So in this case we have 2 forward path (i.e. k=2) with path gains:

2) There are 5 individual loops with loop gains:

3) Now we have to find the all possible combinations of two non-touching loops (i.e. those loops which do
not contain common node) and their gain products. So such non-touching loops with there product gain is given
by:

4) Similarly, we have to find all possible combination of three non-touching loops. But in this case there are
no such combination exist.

Solved Problem on Root Locus:

Question: For a unity feedback system, G(s) = K/[s(s+4)(s+2)]. Sketch the nature of root locus showing all
details on it. Comment on the stability of the system.
Solution:
Given system is unity feedback system. Therefore H(s) = 1.
Therefore G(s) H(s) = K/[s(s+4)(s+2)].
Step 1:
Poles = 0, -4, -2. Therefore P=3.
Zeros = there are no zeros. Z=0.
So all (P-Z=3) branches terminate at infinity.
Step 2: Pole zero plot and sections of real axis.
The pole zero plot of the system is shown in figure below. Here RL denotes Root Locus existence region and
NRL denotes the non-existence region of root locus.

These sections of real axis identified as a part of the root locus as to right sum of poles and zeros is odd for
those sections.
Step 3: Angle of asymptotes
‘A line to which root locus touches at infinity is called asymptotes.’
Number of asymptotes = P-Z = 3. Therefore 3 asymptotes are approaching to infinity.

Step 4: Centroid or Centre of asymptotes.

Asymptote touches real axis at a point called centroid.
Branches will approach to infinity along these lines which are asymptotes.

Step 5: To find breakaway point, we have characteristic equation as,

As there is no root locus between -2 to -4, -3.15 can not be a breakaway point. it also can be confirmed by
calculating ‘K’ for s = -3.15. It will be negative that confirms s = -3.15 is not a breakaway point.
For s = -3.15, K = -3.079 (Substituting in equation for K). But as there has to be breakaway point
between’0’and ‘-2’, s = – 0.845 is valid breakaway point.
For s = -0.845 K = +3.079. As K is positive s = – 0.845 is valid breakaway point.
Step 6: Intersection point with imaginary axis.
Characteristic equation
s^3+6s^2 +8s+K = 0
Routh’s array:

Intersection of root locus with imaginary axis is at ±j2.828 and corresponding value of K(marginal) = 48.
Step 7 : As there are no complex conjugate poles or zeros, no angles of departures or arrivals are required to be
calculated.
Step 8: The complete root locus is as shown in figure below.
Step 9: Prediction about stability:
For 0 < K < 48, all the roots are in left half of s-plane hence system is absolutely stable.
For K(marginal) = +48, a pair of dominant roots on imaginary axis with remaining root in left half. So system
is marginally stable oscillating at 2.82 rad/sec. For 48 < K < ∞, dominant roots are located in right half of s-
plane hence system is unstable.
Stability is predicted by locations of dominant roots. Dominant roots are those which are located closest to the
imaginary axis.
4. Determine The transfer function from Vin to V2 for the two port network below Mason's gain formula.

ANSWER.

There is only one forward path:

• Vin to V1 to I2 to V2 with gain

There are three loops:

• V1 to I1 to V1 with gain
• V2 to I2 to V2 with gain
• V1 to I2 to V2 to I1 to V1 with gain
note: L1 and L2 do not touch each other
whereas L3 touches both of the other loops.
note: the forward path touches all the loops so all that is left is 1..
5. Construct the signal flow graph for the following equations

6. For the system shown below, obtain the signal flow graph and find overall gain using mason’s gain
formula. Verify result using block diagram reduction