7 Climate Change and Building Efficiency

7.1 Introduction to climate change

In general usage, "Weather" and "climate" are not defined properly. The “weather” is the
fluctuating state of the atmosphere around us, characterised by the temperature, wind,
precipitation, clouds and other weather elements. Weather has only limited predictability.
Beyond a week or two individual weather systems are unpredictable. “Climate” refers to the
average weather in terms of the mean and its variability over a certain time-span and a certain
area. Climate varies from place to place, depending on latitude, distance to the sea, vegetation,
presence or absence of mountains or other geographical factors. Climate varies also in time; from
season to season, year to year, decade to decade or on much longer time-scales, such as the Ice
Ages. Statistically significant variations of the mean state of the climate or of its variability,
typically persisting for decades or longer, are referred to as “climate change”.
Climate change refers to a long-term shift in global weather patterns and temperatures,
particularly due to human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural
practices. The increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly
carbon dioxide, is causing the planet to warm up at a rate that is faster than natural processes.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global average
temperature has increased by about 1.1°C above pre-industrial levels, and it is projected to
continue rising if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the current rate. This warming trend has
far-reaching consequences, including melting glaciers, rising sea levels, more frequent and
severe weather events such as droughts, floods, and hurricanes, as well as changes in plant and
animal populations and ecosystems. The impacts of climate change are already being felt across
the world and without urgent action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the effects are expected
to become even more severe in the coming decades, with implications for human health, food
security, and the economy.
7.2 Climate system
The climate system is the complex, interactive system that drives Earth's climate. The primary
components of the climate system include:

1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. It plays a crucial
role in regulating the Earth's temperature, absorbing and reflecting solar radiation, and
distributing heat around the planet. The Earth’s atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen
(N2, 78.1% volume), oxygen (O2, 20.9% volume) and argon (Ar, 0.93%). These gases have
only limited interaction with the incoming solar radiation and they do not interact with the
infrared radiation emitted by the Earth. However there are a number of trace gases, such as
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3), which do absorb
and emit infrared radiation. These so called greenhouse gases, with less than 0.1% by

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 volume, play an essential role in the Earth’s energy budget. Earth atmosphere contains water
vapour (H2O), which is also a natural greenhouse gas. Because these greenhouse gases
absorb the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and emit infrared radiation up- and
downward, they tend to raise the temperature near the Earth’s surface.

2. Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere includes all of the Earth's water, including oceans, lakes,
rivers, and groundwater. The hydrosphere plays a vital role in the Earth's climate by storing
and redistributing heat and influencing atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns.
3. Cryosphere: The cryosphere includes all the frozen water on Earth, such as glaciers, ice
caps, and sea ice. The cryosphere influences the Earth's climate by reflecting solar radiation,
regulating the Earth's temperature, and influencing ocean circulation patterns.
4. Land surface: The land surface includes all of the Earth's landmasses, including forests,
grasslands, deserts, and urban areas. The land surface influences the Earth's climate by
absorbing and reflecting solar radiation, exchanging heat and moisture with the atmosphere,
and influencing atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns.
5. Biosphere: The biosphere includes all living organisms on Earth, including plants, animals,
and microorganisms. The biosphere plays a crucial role in the Earth's climate by exchanging
gases and moisture with the atmosphere, influencing the Earth's albedo, and storing carbon.

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7.3 Green house effect
The natural greenhouse effect is a process by which green house gases in the Earth's atmosphere
trap some of the heat that radiates from the Earth's surface and prevent it from escaping into
space. This process is necessary to maintain the Earth's temperature at a level that is suitable for
life to exist on the planet. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the Earth's surface would be
much colder, making it uninhabitable for most life forms.

The increased concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere resulting from human activities has led
to an increase in the amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere, which is called as enhanced
green house effect. This causing the Earth's temperature to rise, leading to global warming and
climate change.
7.4 Causes of climate change
The primary causes of climate change include:
1. Human activities: The primary cause of climate change is the increased concentration of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide, resulting from human
activities such as burning fossil fuels for energy, deforestation, and land-use changes. These
activities have led to an enhanced greenhouse effect, which is causing the Earth's temperature
to rise.
2. Natural factors: Natural factors, such as changes in solar radiation, volcanic eruptions, and
variations in the Earth's orbit, can also contribute to climate change. These factors can cause
variations in the Earth's climate over long time periods.
3. Land use changes: Changes in land use, such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture,
can also contribute to climate change by altering the amount of carbon dioxide in the

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 atmosphere, changing the Earth's albedo, and altering atmospheric and oceanic circulation
patterns.
4. Industrial processes: Industrial processes, such as cement production, also contribute to
climate change by releasing significant amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
5. Population growth: The world's population has grown significantly in the past few decades,
and this growth has led to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions as more energy is
consumed, more land is used for agriculture and development, and more waste is generated.
7.5 Consequences of climate change
Some of the consequences of climate changes are as follow
1. Extreme weather events: Climate change has caused an increase in the frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, hurricanes, and
wildfires.
2. Rising sea levels: As global temperatures continue to rise, melting glaciers and ice caps lead
to a rise in sea levels, causing coastal flooding and erosion.
3. Loss of biodiversity: Climate change has a significant impact on the natural world, leading to
habitat loss and changes in ecosystems, resulting in the extinction of many plant and animal
species.
4. Public health impacts: Climate change is linked to several public health impacts such as heat
stress, respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and increased transmission of vector-borne
diseases like malaria and dengue fever.
5. Food and water scarcity: Climate change leads to changes in precipitation patterns and water
availability, which affect agriculture and food security. It also leads to water scarcity,
reducing the availability of clean water for drinking and other uses.
6. Economic impacts: Climate change has significant economic impacts, such as property
damage from extreme weather events, loss of productivity, and increased healthcare costs.
7.6 Key indicators of global climate change
Some of the key indicators of global climate change that are widely used by scientists and
policymakers to monitor and assess the impacts of climate change. These indicators include:
1. Global surface temperature: Global surface temperature is one of the most widely used
indicators of climate change. Since the late 1800s, the average global temperature has
increased by about 1°C, with the majority of this warming occurring in the past few decades.
As per the Paris Agreement, which is a global agreement adopted in 2015 under the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the global warming target is
to limit the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial
levels and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C.
2. Sea level rise: Global sea levels have risen by about 20 cm since the late 1800s, with most of
this rise occurring in the past few decades. Rising sea levels are a result of the thermal
expansion of seawater and the melting of glaciers and ice caps.

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3. Arctic sea ice extent: Arctic sea ice extent has been declining rapidly since the 1980s. The
Arctic has lost about 40% of its sea ice extent in the past few decades, with the rate of loss
accelerating in recent years.
4. Ocean acidity: The acidity of the world's oceans has increased by about 30% since the
Industrial Revolution, primarily due to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
7.7 Climate change impacts on building design
Buildings are responsible for a significant portion of global energy consumption, accounting for
around 40% of total energy consumption globally, according to the International Energy Agency
(IEA). The energy consumption of a building depends on various factors such as the building's
design, size, location, and the behavior of occupants. The major sources of energy consumption
in buildings are heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, lighting, and
appliances. Climate change and efficient building design are closely related as buildings are
responsible for a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions. According to the International
Energy Agency (IEA), buildings account for approximately 28% of global greenhouse gas
emissions. Therefore, improving building efficiency is critical to reducing carbon emissions and
mitigating the impacts of climate change. Climate change has a significant impact on building
design as it affects the way buildings are constructed, operated, and maintained. Followings are
the factors of climate change that can directly impact on how the buildings will be designed in
future.
 Increased temperatures: As global temperatures rise, buildings need to be designed to
maintain comfortable indoor temperatures without relying heavily on energy-intensive air
conditioning. For instance, buildings need to be designed to provide adequate ventilation and
cooling to ensure the comfort of occupants. Similarly building orientation and insulation can
also be the way to combat the increased temperature.
 Extreme weather events: Climate change is also leading to more frequent and severe extreme
weather events such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires. Buildings in areas prone to these
events need to be designed to withstand them, with features such as reinforced roofs, impact-
resistant windows, and waterproofing.
 Rising sea levels: With sea levels rising due to climate change, buildings located in coastal
areas need to be designed to protect against flooding and storm surges. This may involve
elevating the building, using flood-resistant materials, and incorporating drainage systems.
 Energy efficiency: Climate change is leading to a greater focus on energy efficiency in
building design. This includes using materials that have a lower carbon footprint, designing
buildings to maximize natural light and ventilation, and incorporating renewable energy
systems such as solar panels and wind turbines, using energy efficient appliances.
 Water conservation: Climate change is also leading to water scarcity in some regions, making
it important to design buildings that are water-efficient. This includes using low-flow

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 plumbing fixtures, harvesting rainwater, and using graywater systems to reuse the water from
shower, sinks and washing machine for non potable use.
7.8 Climate change adaption and mitigation
Climate change mitigation means avoiding and reducing emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere to prevent the planet from warming to more extreme temperatures.
Climate change adaptation means altering our behavior, systems, and—in some cases—ways of
life to protect our families, our economies, and the environment in which we live from the
impacts of climate change. The more we reduce emissions right now, the easier it will be to
adapt to the changes we can no longer avoid. Mitigation actions will take decades to affect rising
temperatures, so we must adapt now to the change that is already upon us—and will continue to
affect us in the foreseeable future. Adaptation strategies can be implemented at different scales,
from individual households to entire regions or countries.
7.9 Climate change model
A climate change model is a computer program that uses mathematical equations to simulate and
predict the Earth's climate system. These models take into account a wide range of factors,
including atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, greenhouse gas concentrations, solar
radiation, and land surface characteristics. Climate change models use data from observations of
the past and present to make predictions about the future. They can be used to assess the impacts
of human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, on the climate system, and to
evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation strategies. There are many different
climate change models, ranging from simple models that focus on a specific aspect of the climate
system to complex global climate models that simulate the entire Earth system. These models are
continually refined and updated as new data becomes available and as scientists gain a better
understanding of the complex interactions that drive the Earth's climate.
A very very simple climate change model can be as follow

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Around the world, different teams of scientists have built and run models to project future
climate conditions under various scenarios for the next century. So the groups can make a fair
comparison of their results, they run the same experiment. Because each climate model is
slightly different, the results show a a range of projections. Though yearly values projected for
temperature and precipitation differ among the models, the trend and magnitude of change is
fairly consistent. Global climate model results from groups around the world project that global
temperature will continue to increase. They also show that human decisions and behavior we
choose today will determine how dramatically climate will change in the future.
7.10 Climate change scenario
A climate change scenario is a projection of how the Earth's climate might change in the future
based on different assumptions about future greenhouse gas emissions, economic and population
growth, and technological development. Climate change scenarios typically use climate models
to simulate the response of the Earth's climate to different levels of greenhouse gas emissions
and other factors. Climate change scenarios are usually presented in the form of a range of
possible outcomes, rather than a single prediction, because there is uncertainty about how the
climate will respond to future emissions. According to IPCC, there are 4 scenarios: business-as-
usual, low-emissions, control policies scenario and accelerated policies scenario. Climate

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change scenarios are used to inform decision-making and planning in a range of sectors,
including energy, agriculture, water management, and infrastructure. By exploring different
scenarios, decision-makers can better understand the risks and opportunities associated with
different pathways of greenhouse gas emissions and develop strategies to mitigate or adapt to the
impacts of climate change.
 Scenario A (Business-as-Usual) assumes that few or no steps are taken to limit greenhouse
gas emissions. Energy use and clearing of tropical forests continue and fossil fuels, in
particular coal, remain the worid's primary energy source. A business-as-usual scenario of
climate change refers to the projection of future climate change based on the assumption that
the world will continue with its current greenhouse gas emissions trajectory without any
significant efforts to reduce emissions or mitigate their impacts. This scenario assumes that
there will be no significant changes in government policies, technological advancements, or
public awareness and behavior related to climate change. Under a business-as-usual scenario,
global greenhouse gas emissions would continue to rise, leading to an increase in global
temperatures and other climate-related impacts. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) has projected that under a business-as-usual scenario, global temperatures
could rise by 2.6°C to 4.8°C above pre-industrial levels by the end of the century.
 Scenario В (Low Emissions Scenario:) This scenario is referred to as the "middle-of-the-
road" scenario and assumes that some efforts will be made to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions such that the energy supply mix of fossil fuels shifts towards natural gas, large
efficiency increases are achieved, deforestation is reversed and emissions of CFCs are
reduced by 50% from their 1986 levels. But it will not be sufficient to limit global warming
to below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. Under this scenario, global greenhouse gas
emissions peak around 2040 and decline thereafter. By the end of the century, global
emissions are projected to be about 50% lower than their peak. This scenario assumes that
there will be some technological advancements, moderate changes in government policies,
and some changes in public awareness and behavior related to climate change. The IPCC
projects that under Scenario B, global temperatures would rise by 2.6°C to 3.8°C above pre-
industrial levels by the end of the century.
 Scenario С (Control Policies Scenario): This scenario assumes that there will be a
significant shift towards low-carbon technologies, policies, and behaviors, leading to a rapid
and sustained decline in greenhouse gas emissions. It also assumes that a shift towards
renewable energies and safe nuclear energy takes place in the latter part of the next century,
CFC gases are phased out and agricultural emissions (methane and nitrous oxide) are limited;
an equivalent doubling of pre-industrial carbon dioxide will occur in about 2050. Under
scenario C, global greenhouse gas emissions peak around 2020 and decline rapidly thereafter,
reaching net zero emissions by around 2070. This scenario assumes that there will be
significant technological advancements, strong government policies, and widespread changes

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 in public awareness and behavior related to climate change. The IPCC projects that under
Scenario C, global temperatures would rise by 1.5°C to 2.5°C above pre-industrial levels by
the end of the century. This scenario would still have significant impacts on the planet, but
they would be less severe than under Scenario B or business-as-usual scenarios.
 Scenario D (Accelerated Policies Scenario): This scenario assumes that there will be a rapid
and comprehensive shift towards low-carbon technologies, policies, and behaviors, leading to
a sustained decline in greenhouse gas emissions. There will be a rapid shift to renewable
energies and safe nuclear energy takes place early in the next century, stringent emission
controls in industrial countries and moderate growth of emissions in developing countries.
This scenario, which assumes carbon dioxide emissions are reduced to 50% of 1985 levels,
stabilizes equivalent carbon dioxide concentrations at about twice the pre-industrial levels
towards the end of the next century. Under Scenario D, global greenhouse gas emissions
peak around 2015 and decline rapidly thereafter, reaching net zero emissions by around
2050. This scenario assumes that there will be significant technological advancements, very
strong government policies, and widespread changes in public awareness and behavior
related to climate change. The IPCC projects that under Scenario D, global temperatures
would rise by 1.3°C to 1.9°C above pre-industrial levels by the end of the century. This
scenario would have less severe impacts on the planet than the other scenarios

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7.11 Building energy use
More than 90% of the time we spend is indoors, either at home or at work. Residential and
commercial building energy use makes up a sizeable portion of a nation's overall energy
consumption. Water heating and refrigeration contribute for majority of building energy use
since they are in constant use. On the other hand, cooking and other appliances such as
computers and TVs generally account for only small percentages of building energy
consumption, owing to their intermittent use. The amount of energy we use is significantly
influenced by the level of electrification, urbanization, building area per person, climate, and
national and municipal regulations that support efficiency. In many countries, buildings consume
more energy than transport and industry. The International Energy Agency (IEA) statistics
estimate that globally, the building sector is responsible for more electricity consumption than
any other sector, 42 %. In general, industrialized nations have higher building energy
consumption. As a result, development has a significant impact on the energy demand from the
building sector, suggesting that as nations become more prosperous, building efficiency becomes
more important.
7.12 Energy efficiency of a building
The energy efficiency of a building is the extent to which the energy consumption per square
metre of floor area of the building measures up to established energy consumption benchmarks
for that particular type of building under defined climatic conditions. An energy-efficient
building uses less energy to provide the same level of comfort and functionality as a less efficient

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building. Building energy consumption benchmarks are representative values for common
building types against which a building’s actual performance can be compared. The benchmarks
are derived by analyzing data on different building types within a given country. The main
benefit from measures to improve energy efficiency buildings is lower energy costs but there are
usually other benefits to be considered too. Energy efficiency measures are meant to reduce the
amount of energy consumed while maintaining or improving the quality of services provided in
the building. Among the benefits likely to arise from energy efficiency investments in buildings
are:
 Reducing energy use for space heating and/or cooling and water heating;
 Reduced electricity use for lighting, office machinery and domestic type appliances;
 Lower maintenance requirements;
 Improved comfort;
 Enhanced property value.
In developing countries where electricity is intermittent and power rationing is frequent, there is
a large demand for diesel or renewable energy-based backup/ stand-by power generation from
end-users. Reducing power and energy requirements in buildings reduces the capital outlay
required and the running costs of these stand-by systems.

7.13 Energy conservation potential

7.14 Energy performance and thermal comfort

The quantity of energy used annually by a building is referred to as its energy performance. It
gives the indication of how efficiently a building uses energy to meet its heating, cooling,
lighting, and other energy-related needs. It changes depending on the building, which uses more
or less energy, as well as its mode of operation and energy-related equipment. A building's
energy performance can be evaluated through energy consumption, energy cost, and energy
intensity, and so on. One common way to evaluate a building's energy performance is to
calculate its energy use intensity (EUI), which is the amount of energy used per unit of floor
area. EUI is typically expressed in units of energy per square foot (or meter) per year. By
comparing a building's EUI to that of similar buildings, it is possible to assess whether the
building is more or less energy-efficient than others. Improving a building's energy performance
can lead to a variety of benefits, including lower energy bills, reduced greenhouse gas emissions,
and improved indoor comfort.

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7.15 Energy efficient building technologies
Energy efficient building technology is a set of techniques and materials used in the design and
construction of buildings to reduce energy consumption and minimize environmental impact.
Here are some areas in which there are lots of innovations for energy efficient building
technologies:
 Insulation: Proper insulation of walls, floors, and roofs can help prevent heat loss in the
winter and heat gain in the summer, reducing the need for heating and cooling.
 High-performance windows: Windows with multiple panes, low-emissivity coatings, and
insulated frames can help reduce heat transfer, keeping the building more comfortable
and reducing energy consumption.
 Energy-efficient lighting: LED lighting uses up to 75% less energy than traditional
incandescent lighting, and it can last up to 25 times longer.
 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems: High-efficiency HVAC
systems can reduce energy consumption by up to 50%, while also improving indoor air
quality.
 Renewable energy systems: Solar panels, wind turbines, and other renewable energy
sources can be used to generate electricity on-site, reducing dependence on fossil fuels.
 Passive design: Building design can be optimized to take advantage of natural light,
ventilation, and thermal mass to reduce energy consumption without relying on
mechanical systems.
 Smart controls: Automated controls for lighting, HVAC systems, and other building
systems can optimize energy use and improve comfort levels.
By incorporating these and other energy-efficient building technologies, buildings can reduce
their energy consumption, lower their environmental impact, and save money on energy costs
over time.

7.16 Energy efficient building design principles,

Some of the energy efficient building design principles are
7.16.1 Passive building design
Passive building design is an approach to building design that aims to reduce the building's
energy consumption by optimizing its design and taking advantage of natural heating, cooling,
and ventilation systems. The goal of passive building design is to create a comfortable, healthy,
and energy-efficient building without relying on active mechanical systems. Here are some key
features of passive building design:
 Orientation: The building is oriented to take advantage of natural sunlight and shading.
South-facing windows are maximized to allow for passive solar heating, while shading
devices are used to block unwanted solar gain in warmer months.

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 Insulation: High levels of insulation are used in the building envelope, including the walls,
roof, and foundation, to reduce heat loss and gain.
 Air sealing: The building envelope is designed to be airtight to reduce the amount of air
leakage, which can lead to energy loss and uncomfortable drafts.
 High-performance windows: Windows with high-performance glazing, frames, and seals are
used to reduce heat loss and gain and improve overall energy efficiency.
 Ventilation: Natural ventilation is utilized through carefully placed windows and vents, as
well as mechanical ventilation systems that use heat recovery to reduce energy consumption.
 Thermal mass: Materials with high thermal mass, such as concrete or masonry, are used to
help regulate the building's temperature and reduce the need for heating and cooling. The
thermal mass provide the delayed benefits in heating and cooling.
7.16.2 Efficient building envelope
The building envelope refers to the physical barrier between the interior and exterior of a
building, which includes the walls, roof, windows, doors, and foundation. The building envelope
plays a crucial role in maintaining the building's thermal performance, protecting against
moisture and air infiltration, and providing a comfortable and healthy indoor environment for
occupants. Some key components of the building envelope are
 Walls: The walls of the building envelope can be made from various materials, such as wood,
masonry, or concrete. High levels of insulation and air sealing are important in reducing
energy loss and improving energy efficiency.
 Roof: The roof of the building envelope is typically designed to protect the interior from rain,
snow, and other weather elements. Insulation and ventilation are important components of a
well-designed roof system.
 Windows and doors: Windows and doors are critical components of the building envelope, as
they provide access to natural light and ventilation while also contributing to heat gain and
loss. Energy-efficient windows and doors with high-performance glazing and frames can
reduce energy consumption and improve comfort.
 Foundation: The foundation of the building envelope provides structural support and also
helps protect against moisture and air infiltration. Proper drainage and insulation are
important for maintaining a healthy indoor environment.
 Air sealing: Air sealing refers to the process of sealing gaps and cracks in the building
envelope to reduce air leakage, which can lead to energy loss and uncomfortable drafts.

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