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1 Unit: 6 Environmental Policies and Practices

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1 UNIT : 6

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND PRACTICES

CLIMATE CHANGE
The term "Climate is used to mean the long-term mean state of the atmosphere, including temperature, humidity and
wind. In other contexts, climate can include the biosphere, the lithosphere (Earth's crust), the oceanic state and the
cryosphere (snow and sea-ice). The climate system contains important contributions and interactions among the
lithosphere (the solid Earth), the biosphere (e.g. marine phytoplankton, topical rainforests), atmospheric and oceanic
chemistry (6.g. stratospheric ozone) and even molecular dynamics (e.g. radiative transfer).
Earth's climate is a dynamic system, which is constantly undergoing changes. Increase or decrease trends in global
average atmospheric temperature, humidity etc., is an indicative of the Earth's climate change. Such sudden and drastic
change in the Earth's climate is brought about my human activity and is termed as the anthropogenic climate change. In
recent times, this has been considered to implying mainly the emission of "greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, usually
by burning fossil fuels and increase in global atmospheric temperature.
EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
1. The weather pattern changes due to climatic changes: Some of the observed evidence of the changing Earth's
climate are the rising global temperature. Most experts agree that it's getting hotter because we burn fossil fuels like oil,
coal and gas that emit heat-trapping, greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
2. Climate change could affect the water cycle : which might mean higher risks or droughts and floods, Rainfall may
decrease leading to drought or the any are may witness eratic rainfall leading to worst and more frequent flooding.
3. Increasing global temperature increases the rate of melting of glaciers : Sea levels will rise as the polar ice caps
melt and mostly due to thermal expansion of ocean water, submerging the coastal areas.
4. Productive land, especially along the coastal regions could be lost became of rising sea levels.
5. Climate change shrink soil and increase the chances of erosion and building subsidence,
6. Brings about changes in growing seasons : It lead to bad harvests and widespread food shortages effects the growth
of crops and food grain yield. Farmers may have to grow more exotic crops to suite the changing climate.
7. Rapid global warming can affect an ecosystems chance to adopt naturally. Climate change will affect out plants and
animals.
8. Climate change will have impact on human health and it may:
(a) Increase heat related health problems,
(b) Decrease winter-related deaths,
(c) Increase number of infections caught from food and water and
(d) Increased incidences of respiratory infections, malaria and other diseases.
GLOBAL WARMING
The term "global warming" refers to the increase in the average temperature of global surface air and oceans. since about
1950 and to continuing increases in those temperatures. Global Warming is a specific example of the broader term
Climate Change and refers to the observed increase in the average temperature of the air near earth's surface and oceans
in recent decades. carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide which are the most important Green House Gases.
impacting the natural ecosystems and is expected to have substantial adverse effects in India, mainly
on agriculture on which 58 per cent of the population still depends for livelihood, water storage in the Himalayan glaciers
which are the source of major rivers and groundwater recharge, sea-level rise and threats to a long coastline and
habitations, Climate change will also cause increased frequency of extreme events such as floods and droughts. These
in turn will impact India's food security problems and water security.
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ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND PRACTICES

MEANING OF GLOBAL WARMING


Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of global surface air and oceans. This is the Increase
of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning
fossil fuels or from deforestation, which trap heat that would otherwise escape from Earth.
CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING
The various Causes of Global Warming are:
1. Green House Gases (GHG),
2. Ozone Depletion and
3. Aerosols in the Atmosphere.
1. Green House Gases
The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere during the 20th century has resulted from the growing use of energy
and expansion of the global economy. Over the century, industrial activity grew 40-fold and the emissions of gases such
as carbon dioxide (CO2) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2) grew 10-fold.
The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere alters the radiative balance of the atmosphere. The net effect is to
warm the Earth's surface and the lower atmosphere because greenhouse gases absorb some of the Earth's outgoing heat
radiation and reradiate it back towards the surface.
2. Ozone Depletion :
The return of the Sun at the end of winter triggers photochemical reactions that lead to the destruction of ozone in the
stratosphere.
The scale and suddenness of the ozone decline shocked the scientific world and led to the 1985 Vienna Convention for
the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol and subsequent amendments to eliminate certain
CFCs from industrial production. As a result of this rapid action the global consumption of the most active gases fell by
40 per cent within five years and the levels of certain chlorine-containing chemicals in the atmosphere have started to
decline.
3. Aerosols in the Atmosphere :
while absorption of solar radiation by aerosols warms the air directly instead of .allowing sunlight to be absorbed by the
surface of the Earth.
The human contribution to the amount of aerosols in the atmosphere takes many forms. Dust is a bi-product of
agriculture. Biomass buming produces a combination of organic droplets and soot particles. Industrial processes produce
a wide variety of aerosols depending on what is being burned or produced in the manufacturing process. In addition,
exhaust emissions from transport generate a rich cocktail of pollutants that are either aerosols from the outset or are
converted by chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form aerosols.
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING :
The effects of global warming have taken its toll on people, animals, birds and habitat. In fact, no continent has been
spared. In some cases, climate changes have already affects some small island nations. Impacts of Climate change in
developing countries could be significant.
1. Global warming causes a significant change in the global climate.
2. Recent years show increasing temperatures in various regions and/or increasing extremities in weather patterns.
3. Human society is highly dependent on the Earth's climate. Important economic resources such as agriculture, forestry,
fisheries and water resources will be affected.
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4. The quality and quantity of water availability for drinking water, irrigation, industrial use and electricity generation
and the health of fisheries may be affected by changes in precipitation and increased evaporation.
5. Increased rainfall may cause more frequent flooding. Warmer temperature also cause severe drought in some region
.6. Sea level rise will flood the coastal regions.
7. With global warming on increase, the species and their habits will decrease and the chances for ecosystems to adapt
naturally are diminishing.
8. Higher temperatures and increased frequency of heat waves may increase the number of related deaths and the
incidence of heat-related illness.
9. Changing patterns of precipitation and temperature may produce new breeding sites for pests, shifting the range of
infectious diseases.
10. Hotter, drier weather could increase the frequency and intensity of the wildfire, diseases and insect damage of the
forests.
11 Global Warming will lead to a weaker ozone layer, because as the surface temperature rises, the stratosphere (the
ozone layer being found in the upper part) will get colder, making the natural repair of the ozone slower.
CONTROL OF GLOBAL WARMING
In 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created by the United Nations Environment
Programmes (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to assess the scientific knowledge on global
warming. The IPCC concluded in 1990 that there was broad international consensus that climate change was human-
induced., the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), signed by over 150 countries at
the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. In 1997, at the Conference of Parties III (COP 3), Kyoto, Japan, the Kyoto conference
on climate change took place. Kyoto protocol has defined ways to achieve greenhouse gas emissions reduction as part
of the effort to address climate change issues. The global warming can be mitigated as follows:
1. Consumption of fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum should be reduced. This can be achieved depending more on
non-conventional renewable sources of energy such as wind, solar, nuclear and biogas energies.
2 Use of efficient energy conversion technologies in various sectors will reduce emissions of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere.
3. A mechanism suggested for tackling climate change and warming has been the idea of using "Carbon Sinks" to soak
up carbon dioxide. To aid in this, reforestation, or planting of new forests, have been suggested.
4. The need for public participation, especially by the economically weak population and poor countries, affected most
because of the global warming should be encouraged.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there
are also springtime polar troposphere ozone depletion events.
EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION
In fact, temporary thinning in the stratospheric ozone layer, leading to the formation of "Ozone hole was actually
detected over the Antarctica during September to November in 1985. Thinning of ozone layer or formation of ozone
hole has resulted in the penetration of ultraviolet radiations to reach the earth's surface.
(a) Increased ultraviolet radiation affects humans : It is causing sunburn, skin cancer, eye aging leading to
photokeratitis and cataracts and suppression of the immune system.
(b) Many crops : including most of the world's major food sources such as wheat, rice, com and soya beans are
particularly sensitive to ultraviolet radiation and will be damaged.
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(c) Aquatic life near the surface of the oceans : including fish, will be damaged by increased exposure to ultraviolet
rays.
(d) Industrial materials such as plastics and paints are susceptible to UV radiations and they becomeyellow and brittle.
ACID RAIN
Acid rain is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dries deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere
containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. acid rain formation result from both natural sources,
such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation and man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion. Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere
with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds. The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid
and nitric acid.
FORMS OF ACID RAIN
1. Wet Deposition
Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog and snow. If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas where the weather
is wet, the acids can fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog or mist As this acidic water flows over and through
the ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals.
2. Dry Deposition
In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall to the ground
through dry deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings, homes, care and trees. Dry deposited gases and particles can
be washed from these surfaces by rainstorms, leading to increased runoff.
EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
1. Effects of acid rain in forests: Acid deposition causes forest and soil degradation in many areas especially in high
elevation forests. It causes slower growth, injury in the plant and ultimately death of forests.
2. Effects of acid rain on food crops: Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way it harms trees resulting in
decreased food grain production.
3. Effects of acid rain on human health: The harm to human health from acid rain is not direct. In the atmosphere
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides interact in the atmosphere to form fine sulphate and nitrate particles. These particles
when inhaled caused increased illness and premature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma and bronchitis.
4. Effects of acid rain on aquatic life: The effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in the aquatic or water environment
such as, streams, lakes and marshes. Acid rain flows to streams, lakes and marshes after falling on forests, fields,
buildings and roads. This runoff water with acidic pH added into the water bodies increasing the pH of the water. Also,
the runoff acid rain water may contain aluminum from soils, which is toxic to the aquatic life. At pH 5, most fish eggs
cannot hatch and sometimes causing death of adult fishes.
5. Effects of acid rain on materials: Acid rain and the dry deposition of acidic particles contribute to the corrosion of
metals, especially the bronze and the deterioration of paint and stone like sandstone, marble and limestone. It erodes the
stone material and is commonly called as 'stone leprosy. Example: the damage caused to architectural monuments like
Taj Mahal.
6. Effects of acid rain on visibility reduction: Sulphates and nitrates that are formed in the atmosphere from Sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides emissions contribute to visibility impairment.
CONTROL OF ACID RAIN
Controlling emission of Sulphur and nitrogen gas into the atmosphere can mitigate formation of acid rain. Strategies to
be adopted for reducing the emissions are discussed below.
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1.Reducing SO2 emission


a) Before combustion: Coal is cleaned to remove Sulphur by gravitational or chemical methods. S02 emissions from
power plants can be reduced by burning coal of low Sulphur content. Subbituminous coal contains lower Sulphur content
than bituminous coal.
b) During combustion: Adapting Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) process reduces the Sulphur dioxide emissions
during the combustion process. A limestone or sand bed are crushed and fluidized. It is essential that a balance is
established between the heat liberated within the bed from fuel combustion and the heat removed by the flue gas as it
leaves. The limestone reacts with Sulphur dioxide and reduces emissions by over 90%.
c) After combustion: Sulphur from flue gas can be removed by using Wet Flue Gas Desulphurization technique
(scrubbing technique). The wet scrubber containing limestone, lime or sodium hydroxide is sprinkled against flue gas
carrying Sulphur from the boiler.
Flue gas containing Sulphur can also be subjected to dry scrubbing, which involves contact between drying gas and the
atomized liquid (alkaline based). Upon contacting the flue gas, the drying gas will convert the atomized droplets into a
dry product that can be separated and disposed of. The dry scrubbing process requires less power to complete than wet
scrubbing.
2. Reducing NOx emissions
a) During combustion: NOx emissions are reduced during combustion using a process called Overfire Air. In this
procedure, a portion of the total air required for the combustion process is diverted from the burners to an upper furnace.
b) After combustion: Catalytic reduction system involves the injection of ammonia gas upstream of the catalytic reaction
chamber. The flue gas containing nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide reacts with the ammonia gas. This reaction produces
harmless nitrogen gas that can be released into the atmosphere.
3. Other control measures
Acid deposition problem can be achieved as short-term control by applying lime. Limestone is an alkaline material and
increases the ability of the soil to act as a buffer against acidity. Reducing use of diesel reduces the emission of SO2 and
NOx from diesel fuel combustion.
IMPACT ON HUMAN COMMUNITIES AND AGRICULTURE
Human
Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes Impacts on biophysical
environments, biodiversity and other resources. The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist
Alexey Pavlov and was first used in English by British ecologist Arthur Tensely in reference to human influences on
climax plant communities. The atmospheric scientist Paul Crutzen Introduced the term "Anthropocene" in the mid-
1970s. The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution emissions that are produced as a result of human activities
but applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment.
the environmental impact depends on the production practices of the system used by farmers. The connection between
emissions into the environment and the farming system is indirect, as it also depends on other climate variables such as
rainfall and temperature.
There are two types of indicators of environmental impact: "means-based", which is based on the farmer's production
methods and "effect-based", which is the impact that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions to
the environment. An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater that is affected by the
amount of nitrogen applied to the soil. An Indicator reflecting the loss of nitrate to groundwater would be effect-based.
Some of the environmental issues that are related to agriculture are climate change, deforestation, genetic engineering,
irrigation problems, pollutants, soil degradation and waste.
Fishing
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The environmental impact of fishing can be divided into issues that involve the availability of fish to be caught, such as
overfishing, sustainable fisheries and fisheries management; and issues that involve the impact of fishing on other
elements of the environment, such as by-catch.
These conservation issues are part of marine conservation and are addressed in fisheries science programs. There is a
growing gap between how many fish are available to be caught and humanity's desire to catch them, a problem that gets
worse as the world population grows.
Similar to other environmental issues, there can be conflict between the fishermen who depend on fishing for their
livelihoods and fishery scientists who realize that if future fish populations are to be sustainable then some fisheries
must reduce or even close. The scientists stated that the decline was a result of overfishing, pollution and other
environmental factors that were reducing the population of fisheries at the same time as their ecosystems were being
degraded.
Irrigation
The environmental impact of irrigation includes the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of
irrigation and the ensuing effects on natural and social conditions at the tail-end and downstream of the irrigation
scheme.
An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river and distributes it over the irrigated area. As a hydrological result
it is found that
a) The downstream river discharge is reduced.
b) The evaporation in the scheme is increased. The groundwater recharge in the scheme is increased.
c)The level of the water table rises.
e) The drainage flow is increased. These may be called direct effects.
Effects on soil and water quality are indirect and complex and subsequent impacts on natural, ecological and socio-
economic conditions are intricate. In some, but not all instances, water logging and soil salinization can result. However,
irrigation can also be used, together with soil drainage, to overcome soil salinization by leaching excess salts from the
vicinity of the root zone.
Agricultural irrigation technologies such as high powered water pumps, dams and pipelines are responsible for the large-
scale depletion of fresh water resources such as aquifers, lakes and rivers.
Agricultural land loss and Soil erosion
Such losses are attributable not only to soil erosion, but also to salinization, loss of nutrients and organic matter,
acidification, compaction, water logging and subsidence. Human-induced land degradation tends to be particularly
serious in dry regions. Focusing on soil properties, Oldman estimated that about 19 million square kilometers of global
land area had been degraded; Dregne and Chou, who included degradation of vegetation cover as well as soil, estimated
about 36 million square kilometers degraded in the world's dry regions: Despite estimated losses of agricultural land,
the amount of arable land used in crop production globally increased by about 9 percent from 1961 to 2012 and is
estimated to have been 1.396 billion hectares in 2012
the US NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service) is statistically based and estimation uses the Universal Soil
Loss Equation and Wind Erosion Equation.
Meat production
Environmental impacts associated with meat production include use of fossil energy, water and land resources,
greenhouse gas emissions and in some instances, rainforest clearing, water pollution and species endangerment, among
other adverse effects.
Palm oil
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Palm oil, produced from the oil palm, is a basic source of income for many farmers in Southeast Asia, Central and West
Africa and Central America. It is locally used as a cooking oil, exported for use in many commercial food and personal
care products and is converted into biofuel. It produces up to 10 times more oil per unit area as soyabeans, rapeseed or
sunflowers. Oil palms produce 38% of vegetable oil output on 5% of the world's vegetable-oil farmland. Palm oil is
under Increasing scrutiny in relation to its effects on the environment.
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
Environmental law or "environmental and natural resources law is a collective term describing the network of treaties,
statutes, regulations and common and customary laws addressing the effects of human activity on the natural
environment. Environmental impact assessment (EA) is the term used for the assessment of the environmental
consequences (positive and negative) of a plan, policy, program or project prior to the decision to move forward with
the proposed action. In this context, the term 'environmental impact assessment (EIA) is usually used when applied to
concrete projects and the term 'strategic environmental assessment applies to policies, plans and programmes
Air quality laws govern the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere. Other initiatives are designed to address
broader ecological problems, such as limitations on chemicals that affect the ozone layer and emissions trading programs
to address acid rain or climate change.
Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing air pollutants, setting limits on acceptable emissions levels and
dictating necessary or appropriate mitigation technologies.
Water quality laws govern the release of pollutants into water resources, including surface water, ground water and
stored drinking water. Some water quality laws, such as drinking water regulations, may be designed solely with
reference to human health. Many others, including restrictions on the alteration of the chemical, physical, radiological
and biological characteristics of water resources, may also reflect efforts to protect aquatic ecosystems more broadly.
Regulatory areas include sewage treatment and disposal, industrial and agricultural waste water management and control
of surface runoff from construction sites and urban environments.
Waste management laws govern the transport, treatment, storage and disposal of all manner of waste, including
municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and nuclear waste, among many other types. Waste laws are generally designed
to minimize or eliminate the uncontrolled dispersal of waste materials into the environment in a manner that may cause
ecological or biological harm and include laws designed to reduce the generation of waste and promote or mandate
waste recycling.
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT
The main objective of this Act is to provide the protection and improvement of environment (which includes water, air,
land, human being, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism and properties) and for matters connected therewith.
Article 48A, specify that the State shall Endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests
and wildlife of the country and every citizen shall protect the environment (51 A). The Environment (Protection) Act is
applicable to whole of India including Jammu & Kashmir.
Environment: It includes water, air and land and the inter-relationship which exists among and between water, air and
land and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism and property.
Environmental Pollution: It means any solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in such concentration as may be or
tend to be injurious to environment and human being are known as pollutant and presence of any pollutant in the
environment in such proportion and concentration that has bearing on health and environment is termed as
"Environmental Pollution".
Handling: In relation to any substance, it means the manufacturing, processing, treatment, packaging, storage,
transportation, use, collection, destruction, conversion, offering for sale etc.
Occupier : It means a person who has control over the affairs of the factory of the premises, and includes, in relation to
any substance, the person in possession of the substance.
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The Act provide power to make rules to regulate environmental pollution, to notify standards and maximum limits of
pollutants of air, water and soil for various areas and purposes, prohibition and restriction on the handling of hazardous
substances and location of industries (Sections 3-6).
The Central Government is empowered to constitute authority or authorities for the purpose of exercising of performing
such of the powers and functions (Sec 3), appoint a person for Inspection (Sec 4), for analysis or samples and for
selection or notification of environmental laboratories. Such person or agency has power to inspect or can enter in the
premises or can take samples for analysis (Secs 10, 11) According to the section 5, the Central Govemment may issue
directions in writing to any person or officers or any authority to comply. There could be closure, prohibition of the
supply of electricity or operation or process or stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other
service.
Penalty :
Whoever Person or Owner/Occupier of companies, factories or whichever source found to be the cause of pollution may
be liable for punishment for a term which may extend to five years or with fine which may extend to one lakh rupees or
both (Sec 15, 16, 17).
FUNCTIONS OF ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT
1. Section 2 (A) of the Act defines the environment to include water and the interrelationship which exists among and
between water and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro- organisms and property.
2 The Section 3 (1), of the Act empowers the Central Government to take all such measures as deems necessary for the
purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating environment
pollution.
3.The Central Government may delegate specified duties and powers under the Environment Act to 3.many officer, State
Government, or other authority.
4.The Central Government is authorized to set new national standards for the quality of the environment (ambient
standards) as well as standards for controlling emissions and effluent discharges, to regulate industrial locations; to
prescribe procedures for managing hazardous substances; to establish safeguards for preventing accidents; and to collect
and disseminate Information regarding environmental pollution.
5. The State Government has given power to issue directions and the power to entry the right to sample by Pollution
Control Boards officials under sections 10 and 11.
6. No person shall handle or cause to be handled any hazardous substance except in accordance with such procedure
and after complying with such safeguards as may be prescribed
7. No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge or emit or permit to be discharged or emitted
any environmental pollutant in excess of such standards as may be prescribed.
8. Persons responsible for the discharge of environmental pollutants in excess of the prescribed standard should furnish
information to the authorities or agencies and is bound to prevent environmental pollution.
7. Person empowered by the Central Government can enter and inspect the industry, operation or process,
8. The Central Government or any officer are empowered to collect sample of air, water or soil or other substance from
any factory premises or other places for the purpose of analysis.
AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT
Central Board is to exercise the powers and perform the functions of a State Board in the Union territories.
POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL BOARD
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The main functions of the Central Board shall be to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air
pollution in the country.
It may
(a) Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality of air and the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution:
(b) Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programmes for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(c) Co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them;
(d) Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor Investigations and research
relating to problems of air pollution and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(e) Perform such of the function of any State Board as may be specified in and order made under sub-section (2) of
Section 18;
(1) Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central 3 @ Board may specify:
(g) Organize through mass media a comprehensive programmes regarding the prevention, control or abatement of air
pollution;
(h) Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and the measures devised for its
effective prevention, control or abatement and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
(i) Lay down standards for the quality of air,
U) Collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air pollution) Perform such other functions as
may be prescribed.
(3) The Central Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Central Board to perform its
functions under this section efficiently.
WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT
Prevention and control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or 'consent administration procedure. Discharge
of effluents is permitted by obtaining the consent of the State Water Board, subject to any condition they specify. Any
person who fails to comply with a directive of the State cannot, however, entertain in suit under this Act unless the sult
is brought by or with the sanction of the State Board.
Water Pollution Cess Act, 1977 According to this Act, anyone consuming water has to pay certain amount of cess
depending on:
1. Whether the industry is using water for industrial cooling, spraying in mine pits or boilers feed.
2. For domestic purposes.
3. In processing, whereby water gets polluted and pollutants are easily biodegradable.
4. In processing whereby water gets polluted and the pollutants are not easily bio-degradable and are toxic. Those
industries that had installed a suitable treatment plant for the treatment of industrial effluents can get a rebate of 70 per
cent on the cess payable.
WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT
The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, is an important legislation in India aimed at conserving and protecting the country's
wildlife and biodiversity. The act was enacted on August 9, 1972, and has undergone several amendments since then to
address emerging conservation issues.
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The main objectives of the Wildlife Protection Act are:


1.Protection of specified wildlife: The act provides legal protection to various species of plants, animals, and birds
classified as "protected" or "scheduled" species. Hunting, poaching, or capturing of these species is strictly prohibited.
2.Establishment of protected areas: The act facilitates the declaration of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and other
protected areas to provide safe habitats for wildlife and preserve their natural ecosystems.
3.Regulation of trade: The act prohibits the trade of animal articles and trophies derived from protected species unless
under special circumstances and with proper permits.
4. Appointing authorities: The act establishes various authorities, such as the Central and State Wildlife Boards, to
oversee wildlife conservation efforts and enforce the provisions of the act.
5.Penalties and punishments: The act prescribes stringent penalties for offenses related to wildlife, including
imprisonment and fines. These punishments act as deterrents against illegal activities harming wildlife.
6.Provisions for rehabilitation: The act includes provisions for the rehabilitation and care of displaced or injured wildlife.
7.Recognizing traditional rights: The act respects the rights and customs of certain tribal and indigenous communities
to use forest resources for their livelihoods while ensuring conservation.
The Wildlife Protection Act plays a crucial role in the conservation of India's rich and diverse wildlife. It has been
instrumental in saving several endangered species from extinction and protecting their natural habitats. However, despite
its enforcement, challenges such as habitat loss, poaching, and illegal trade continue to pose threats to wildlife in India.
Therefore, sustained efforts and public awareness are essential to safeguard the country's biodiversity for future
generations.
The Indian wild life act 1972 for the first time regulated the setting up and control of game parks to be referred to as
National Parks and declared many species as protected animals and also provided for stringent punishments for poachers
or other persons who killed wild animals. Effectively the act banned hunting for pleasure or sport.
June is celebrated all over the world as World Environment Day. Soon after the Stockholm Conference our country took
substantive legislative steps for environmental protection. The Wildlife (Protection) Act was passed in 1972, followed
by the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and subsequently the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Constitutional Provisions
The provisions for environmental protection in the constitution were made within four years of Stockholm Conference,
in 1976, though the 42nd amendment as follows
Article-48-A of the constitution provides:
"The state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard wildlife of the country."
Article 51-A (g) Provides:
It shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers
and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures." Thus our constitution includes environmental protection and
conservation as one of our
fundamental duties. Some of the important Acts passed by the Government of India are discussed here.
As of my last update in September 2021, there is no specific mention of "Article 51 _ A (g)" in relation to wildlife
protection in any widely recognized international conventions or treaties. However, it's worth noting that the language
of international agreements can change, and new agreements may have been established after my last update.
Wildlife protection is often addressed through various international and national laws, treaties, and conventions. One of
the most well-known international agreements related to wildlife conservation is the Convention on International Trade
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in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). CITES is a multilateral treaty that aims to ensure that
international trade in certain wild animal and plant species does not threaten their survival.
Different countries also have their own wildlife protection laws and regulations to safeguard their native species and
habitats. These laws may cover areas such as the prohibition of poaching, illegal trade, habitat destruction, and the
establishment of protected areas.
The passing of the Wildlife Act of 1972 constitutes an important landmark in the history of wildlife legislation in the
country. This is because of the fact that the "Forest" including "Wildlife" was then a State subject foliumin Entry 20 List
II of Seventh Schedule, Parliament had no power to make law on the same except as provided in Articles 249,250 and
252 of the constitution. Having regard to the importance of the matter, the Act has been adopted by all the States except
that of Jammu and Kashmir which has a similar law enacted for the purpose of wildlife protection. The operation of the
Act is mandatory) in the Union Territories too. 1. The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 provides the basic framework
to ensure the protection and management of wildlife. The Act was amended subsequently in 1982, 1986, 1991 and 1993
to accommodate provision for its effective implementation.
2. The rapid decline of India's wild animals and birds, one of the richest and most varied wildlife. resources of the
country has been a cause of grave concem.
3 Some wild animals and birds have already become extinct in this country and the other in danger of being so..
4. Areas which were once teeming with wildlife have become devoid of it and even in sanctuaries and National Parks
the protection afforded to wildlife needs to be improved.
5. The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1935 has become completely outdated. 6. This existing laws not only
have become outdated but also provide punishments, which are not commensurate with the offence and financial benefits
that occur from poaching and trade in wildlife produce.
Salient Features of the Act
The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 which we read today is a product of process which started long ago in 1887 for the
protection of a few wild birds and after addition of wild animals in 1912 and specified plants in 1991 it covered almost
all the wildlife resources, which need protection and management. A few salient features of the Act are as follows:

The Wildlife Act of 1972 as amended in 1982, 1986, 1991 and 1993 has 7 Chapters, 66 Sections and 6 Schedules. The
Act with its various amendments provides the necessary tool to prevent damage to the wildlife.
The rating of the Schedules I to V is in accordance with the risk of survival of the wildlife (fauna) enlisted in them.
Animals included Schedule are provided for total protection from hunting and the trade and commerce related to such
animals are strictly regulated. The schedule VI has been added to include the specified plant species to be protected by
the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 1991.
3. An expert committee, constituted by the Indian Board of Wildlife considers amendments to the Act, as and when
necessary.
4.With the amendment of the Act in 1991, powers of the State Govemment have been withdrawn almost totally. Now
the State Governments are not empowered to declare any wild animal a vermin. Further by addition of provision,
immunization of livestock within a radius of 5 km from a National
Park or sanctuary has been made compulsory. Broadly speaking the amendment provides the follows:
1. Greater powers to enforcement authority.
2. Greater say to individuals or NGOs in matter concerning wildlife protection. The Central Government Officers as
well as individuals now can file complaints in the court for offences.
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3. NGOs like WWF-India and Traffic-India will make available technical and legal guidance when needed.
4. More impact on wildlife trade.
5. Setting up of a Central Zoo Authority.
6. Greater protection to wildlife through prohibiting hunting of wild animals other than vermin.
7. Provision to prohibit collection and exploitation of wild plants which are threatened with extinction.
8. Provision to extract and deal in snake venom for producing life saving drugs. 9. Provision to ban trade in Africa ivory.
10. Enhanced punishments for isolations. 11. Payment of rewards to persons helping in apprehension of offenders Land
(prevention & control) Act.
FOREST CONSERVATION ACT
As of my last update in September 2021, there is no specific "Forest Conservation Act 1980" in India. However, there
is a significant piece of legislation related to forest conservation in India known as the "Forest (Conservation) Act,
1980."
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 is an important environmental law enacted by the Indian Parliament to regulate the
diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes. The main objective of this act is to conserve and protect the forests and
wildlife in the country. It aims to restrict the de-reservation of forest areas and the diversion of forest land for various
developmental activities.
Key features and provisions of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, include:
1.Prior approval for diversion: The act requires prior approval from the central government for the diversion of forest
land for non-forest purposes like industrial projects, mining, infrastructure development, etc.
2.Compensatory afforestation: Any diversion of forest land must be compensated by afforestation or reforestation in
an equivalent area of non-forest land. This is to ensure that the environmental impact of the diversion is mitigated.
3.National Board for Wildlife: The act establishes the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) to promote and coordinate
the conservation and development of wildlife habitats.
4.State Forest Departments: The act emphasizes the role of State Forest Departments in the conservation and
management of forests.
5.Penalties: The act also includes provisions for penalties and punishment for offenses related to the illegal diversion
of forest land.
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, was a significant step in addressing the conservation concerns related to India's
forests and protecting the rich biodiversity and wildlife present in these areas.
Please note that the legislative information might change over time, so it is essential to check for any updates or
amendments to the act if there have been any changes since my last update in September 2021.
Techniques of Foreign Conservatism
Techniques of forest conservation are used to improve forested areas and to make the available resources sustainable.
1. Afforestation : Instead of taking resources from existing natural forests, afforestation is a process used to plant to
trees and use them as resources instead of naturally existing forests. Afforestation is a way to create a forest.
Afforestation occurs when the planting of trees is introduced to an area that previously had no trees. This creates habitat
for wildlife, recreational areas, and commercial use while not causing harm to natural forests.
2. Reforestation : Reforestation is another method to sustain forests by improving existing forested areas. Reforestation
is a method of planting trees in an existing forested area. This method is used in reaction to deforestation. When forests
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are removed without reestablishment they can be reforested by planting trees in the same area to rebuild the existing
forest.
3.selective logging: is another method used to meet the needs of both the forests and humans seeking economical
resources. Selective logging is the removal of trees within a stand based on size limitations. This technique allows for
forest regeneration to occur between and after the selective harvest cycles.
4. Controlled burn: Although it can be threatening if it is not controlled, fire is a successful way to conserve forest
resources. Controlled burn is a technique that is used to manage forests. Fire can benefit the ecosystem within a forest.
Fire is natural and it is also a tool of foresters used to improve the forests. It renews the forest undergrowth and also
stimulates the germination of trees species. In some species of trees such as the Sequoia, seedlings remain in dormancy
until broken by fire. As a result, these species cannot reproduce without fire.
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
Montreal Protocol
believe you meant the "Montreal Protocol," not "Montreal protocol." The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty
designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances
(ODS). It was agreed upon in 1987 and has been considered a significant success in international environmental
cooperation.
The ozone layer is a crucial part of Earth's atmosphere that helps to protect life on the planet by absorbing harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. However, human-made substances, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and other ozone-depleting substances, were found to be damaging the ozone layer
and causing the formation of the so-called "ozone hole" over Antarctica.
The Montreal Protocol mandated the phase-out of the production and consumption of these ozone-depleting substances
to protect the ozone layer. Over time, many countries phased out the use of these substances and switched to safer
alternatives. As a result of the Montreal Protocol's implementation, the ozone layer is showing signs of recovery, though
it will still take several decades for it to return to pre-1980 levels.

Kyoto Protocols
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets.
Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the
atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed
nations under the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities."
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and
are referred to as the "Marrakesh Accords. Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.
The Object and Purpose of the Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol to the 1992 UNFCCC, serves to give effect to the UNFCCC's objective of reducing human-induced
greenhouses gases (GHGs) in an effort to address climate change, guided by the UNFCCC's key principles of
PRECAUTION, INTERGENERATIONAL EQUITY, sustainable development, and COMMON BUT
DIFFERENTIATED RESPONSIBILITIES and RESPECTIVE CAPABILITIES, As a logical extension of this last
principle, Parties to the Kyoto Protocol are placed into one of two categories:
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1.Developed countries, referred to as Annex I countries who are subject to binding GHG emissions reductions targets
and reporting requirements involving an annual greenhouse gas inventory and supplementary information to
demonstrate compliance with the Protocol, including minimizing adverse impacts on developing countries, and
2.Developing countries, referred to as Non-Annex I countries, which are not subject to GHG emissions reduction
commitments, though they may take part in the Clean Development Mechanism. Operationalizing the aims of the Kyoto
Protocol - the work of COP/MOP
An association of the Parties that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, known as the Conference of the Parties serving as
the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (COP/MOP), meets around the same time as the UNFCCC COP and is
the highest decision-making body of the Kyoto Protocol. The most recent meeting of Kyoto Protocol Parties took place
at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali, December 2007.
NATURE RESERVES
A nature reserve (natural reserve, bio-reserve, preserve or conserve) is a protected area of importance for wildlife, flora,
fauna or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for conservation and to provide
special opportunities for study or research,
TRIBAL POPULATION RIGHTS
Tribal or indigenous populations often have distinct historical, cultural, and territorial ties to their ancestral lands, and
they may face challenges related to land rights, self-governance, language preservation, and preservation of their
traditional knowledge. Recognizing and upholding their rights is essential for promoting social justice, inclusivity, and
human rights.
Some key aspects of tribal population rights include:
1.Land and Resource Rights: Many tribal communities have been living on their lands for generations. Ensuring their
land rights includes recognition of their ancestral domain and access to natural resources, which are vital for their
traditional livelihoods and cultural practices.
2.Self-Governance: Indigenous communities often have their own systems of governance and decision-making
processes. Respect for self-governance involves allowing these communities to have a say in matters that directly affect
them, such as local policies and development initiatives.
3.Cultural Preservation: Preserving and promoting tribal cultures, languages, and traditional practices is crucial for
maintaining the diversity of human heritage. Governments should support initiatives that aim to protect and revitalize
indigenous cultures.
4.Healthcare and Education: Access to quality healthcare and education is essential for tribal communities' well-being
and empowerment. Ensuring healthcare facilities, educational institutions sensitive to their culture, and providing
opportunities for higher education are important steps to improve their living standards.
5.Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC): FPIC is a principle that obliges governments and corporations to seek
the approval of indigenous communities before implementing projects or activities that may affect their lands or
resources. It is a crucial aspect of respecting their autonomy and land rights.
6.Protection from Discrimination and Exploitation: Indigenous communities have often faced historical
discrimination and marginalization. Laws should protect them from any form of discrimination, exploitation, or forced
assimilation.
7.Legal Recognition and Representation: Legal recognition of indigenous communities and their rights is necessary
for safeguarding their interests. Adequate representation in decision-making bodies, including government institutions,
can ensure their voices are heard.
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8.International Instruments: International organizations like the United Nations have developed conventions and
declarations, such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), to protect the
rights of indigenous communities globally.
It's important to note that the specific rights granted to tribal populations may vary depending on the country or region
they reside in, as well as the prevailing legal framework and political climate. Efforts to protect tribal population rights
require ongoing dialogue, collaboration, and the promotion of social and political awareness.
RIGHTS AND HUMAN WILDLIFE CONFLICTS IN INDIAN CONTEXT
Human-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative impact on
people or their resources or wild animals or their habitat. It occurs when growing human populations overlap with
established wildlife territory, creating reduction of resources or life to some people and/or wild animals. The conflict
takes many forms ranging from loss of life or Injury to humans and animals both wild and domesticated, to competition
for scarce resources to loss and degradation of habitat
Conflict management strategies earlier comprised lethal control, translocation, regulation of population size and
preservation of endangered species. Recent management approaches attempt to use scientific research for better
management outcomes, such as behaviour modification and reducing Interaction. As human wildlife conflicts inflict
direct, indirect and opportunity costs, the mitigation of human wildlife conflict is an important issue in the management
of biodiversity and protected areas. As human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is
displaced. Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate sources.
Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife resulting in conflict.

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