Chemical Bonds:

- Covalent bonds: formed when two atoms share a pair of valence electrons.
o Molecule: consists of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds. When two atoms share a pair of valence electrons the bond formed is said to be a
single bond. When a pair of atoms share two pairs of valence electrons, the bond formed is said to be a double bond. Different atoms have different
electronegativity, meaning some atoms have a higher tendency to attract electrons. Because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen the oxygen end
of the water molecule has a partial negative charge. Therefore, we say water is a polar molecule.
- Hydrogen bonds: forms when a partially positive hydrogen (𝛿–) atom from one molecule is weakly attracted to the partial negative charge (𝛿–) of an atom in another
molecule. In living cells, the electronegative partners are usually oxygen or nitrogen atoms
- Ionic bonds: an ion is an atom or a molecule that carries a charge. Cations and anions form an attraction which is called an ionic bond
o Cation: positively charged molecules that have lost one electron.
o Anion: negatively charged molecules that have gained an electron

Compounds:

- Inorganic: compounds that do not contain carbon. Include water, salts, and many acids and bases
- Organic: compound that contain carbon. Include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids

Water: The volume of a cell is usually between 60 and 80% water. Water is the most important inorganic compound for living organisms

- High heat capacity: amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C. Water helps moderate climate because of its high heat capacity.
- High heat of vaporization: amount of heat energy required to change water from a liquid to a gas state. The basis of evaporative cooling—heat must be absorbed from
the environment in contact with the water.
- Polar solvent: polar molecules tend to be hydrophilic. Substances that are ionic or polar often dissolve in water due to hydrogen bonds. Nonpolar molecules are called
hydrophobic because they tend to aggregate with other nonpolar molecules
- Reactivity: necessary part of hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions
- Cushioning: protects certain organs from physical trauma, e.g., cerebrospinal fluid
- Density: ice floats because water is less dense when it is solid
- Cohesion: water molecules resist coming apart from one another. Results in surface tension. This helps water move through plants

Carbon: Living things are considered to be carbon based. Carbon atoms are able to form 4 stable bonds making it a highly versatile atom. Carbon’s versatility allows for an infinite
number of different molecules to be formed.

Functional groups: Covalently linked carbon atoms for a skeleton upon which specific functional
groups may be attached. R-groups differ in their size, shape, reactivity, and interactions with
water. Hydroxyl, amino, carboxyl, or sulfhydryl functional groups are more chemically reactive
than those with side chains composed of only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

- Nonpolar R-groups are hydrophobic. The do not readily dissolve in water but will
sooner aggregate with other hydrophobic molecules.
- Polar R-groups are hydrophilic. They form hydrogen bonds and readily dissolve in
water.

Macromolecules: Four kinds of organic molecules are present in all living things: proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids. Most are polymers made of smaller monomers. We call these
polymers macromolecules.

Condensation: Monomers polymerize to form polymers. The reaction of polymerization is called a

condensation reaction because it produces a water molecule.

Hydrolysis: Polymers disintegrate to form monomers. This reaction is called hydrolysis

because a water molecule is used in the process

Carbohydrates: Plants make carbohydrates through photosynthesis and store them as starch
We use the energy in carbohydrates to live. Molecules in which carbon is flanked by
hydrogen and hydroxyl groups: H—C—OH. They contain a carbonyl (-C=O) group,
several OH functional groups, and many high energy C–H bonds.

Glucose: Cells use glucose (monosaccharide) as an energy source. The linear form of
glucose is rare. In solution, almost all glucose molecules spontaneously react to form one
of two ring structures, called the α and β forms of glucose. The two forms exist in
equilibrium, but the β form is more common because it is slightly more stable than the α
form. During cellular respiration, cells oxidize glucose molecules converting the stored energy to a form that can
be readily used for cell work. Glucose is oxidized so that organelles called the mitochondria can make ATP.
Glucose monomers (monosaccharides) can form covalent bonds called glycosidic linkages. Glycosidic linkages
can be α or β.

- a-glucose chains: Store chemical energy. Helix structure

o Starch: plant energy storage
o Glycogen: animal energy storage
- b-glucose chains: form fibrous structures. Straight chains held by H-bonds. Highly packed and
difficult to hydrolyze. Ex: chitin, peptidoglycan, cellulose
Proteins: chains of amino acids. Amino acids have carboxyl and amino groups—they function as both acid and base.
The side chain varies from one amino acid to the other. There are 20 different amino acids. Amino acids bond
together covalently by peptide bonds to form the polypeptide chain.

- Enzymes: Protein Catalysts. Speed up chemical reactions.

- Antibodies: These are proteins that protect the body from pathogens.
- Motor Proteins and Contractile proteins: Motor proteins can move molecules around inside of the cell.
Contractile proteins contract muscles in animals allowing them to move.
- Signalling Molecules: Cells can communicate by sending protein signals from one cell to the other.
These molecules are often hormones.
- Structural Molecules: Proteins can give a cell shape.
- Transport Molecules: These proteins can move molecules in and out of the cell

Structures: Note that protein structure is hierarchical. Quaternary structure is based on tertiary structure, which is based in part on
secondary structure. All three of the higher-level structures are based on primary structure. The combined effects of primary,
secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structure allow for amazing diversity in protein form and function

- Primary structure: refers to the linear sequence of amino acids. Side groups within the amino acid chain interact causing
the protein to fold into secondary and tertiary structures
- Secondary structure: Ultimately the primary structure of a protein determines its higher structure and function.
Sometimes a change of one amino acid can have drastic effects on protein function. Hydrogen bonds form between the
carbonyl groups in the protein backbone causing them to bend. This bending is referred to as the protein’s secondary
structure and occurs in two patterns.
o a-helices
o b-pleated sheets
- Tertiary structure: result of interactions between R-groups in a polypeptide chain or between R-groups
and the peptide backbone. These interactions are responsible for a protein 3-dimensional shape.
Interactions between R-groups can include hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals
interactions, covalent disulfide bonds, ionic bonds
- Quaternary structure: Several polypeptide chains can interact to form one protein. The bonding of two
or more polypeptide subunits produces quaternary structure

Folding & Function: Proteins fold spontaneously when they are produced in a cell. They fold into an energetically
stable form that can be disrupted by high temperatures or exposure to low pH. When a protein unfolds due to high
temperature or high pH it is said to be denatured and cannot function normally. There are proteins that fold
proteins. They are called molecular chaperones

Lipids: non-polar, hydrophobic compound. Consist of long chains of hydrocarbons (C-H). 14-20 carbon atoms.
Basic unit is the fatty acid A fatty acid is a hydrocarbon chain (fatty) bonded to a carboxyl group (COOH: carboxylic acid). Fats and oils are triglycerides—simple lipids—made of
three fatty acids and 1 glycerol. Glycerol: 3 —OH groups— an alcohol.

- Fats and oils: energy storage

- Steroids: Cholesterol
- Phospholipids: cell membranes

Fatty acid: nonpolar hydrocarbon with a polar carboxyl group—carboxyl bonds with hydroxyls of glycerol in an
ester linkage

- Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds between carbons. It is saturated with hydrogen atoms (max # of
H’s per C). Ex: animal fats. Solid at room temperature
- Unsaturated fatty acids: some double bonds in carbon chain. Ex: plant fats. liquid at room temperature
o monounsaturated: one double bond.
o polyunsaturated: more than one double bond

Steroids: lipid molecules containing a complex of four carbon rings Very important in structure of cell membranes
& hormones determining sexual characteristics

Phospholipids: do not dissolve in water. They are amphipathic i.e., they have a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic
tail. Water molecules interact with the hydrophilic heads but not with the hydrophobic tails. This drives the hydrophobic tails together Phospholipids in water do not dissolve but
rather spontaneously form either:

- Micelles: Heads face the water and tails face each other.
- Phospholipid bilayers (lipid bilayers): Heads and tails align to make a double layer of phospholipids. Make spherical structures called liposomes.

Plasma membrane: selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell. The general structure of a biological
membrane is a double layer of phospholipids. The plasma membrane is semipermeable

Nucleic acids: The genetic code for life: A book of instructions for making an organism. There are two types of nucleic acids: Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA has deoxyribose) and
Ribonucleic acids (RNA has ribose). RNA and DNA have similar basic structure, with small but significant differences. Acids are Polymers: A polynucleotide is made up of
nucleotides. Made up of:

- a sugar molecule (pentose sugar)

- a nitrogenous base
- a phosphate group
Nucleotides: polymerize (link together) through a condensation reaction to form a phosphodiester link (a covalent bond). Link is between the phosphate group on the 5' carbon of
one nucleotide and the hydroxyl group (– OH) on the 3' carbon of another. Alternating sugars and phosphates form the backbone of the molecule. The strand has a 5’ end and a 3’
end. 5’ end has a phosphate group and the 3’ end has a ribose sugar. The sequence of nucleotides is the molecule’s primary structure.

DNA: double stranded. The two strands in a DNA molecule have complementary base pairs. Guanine binds to Cytosine and Adenine binds to Thymine (C-G or A-T). The bases are
joined together by hydrogen bonds. There are 3 hydrogen bonds between C and G and two hydrogen bonds between A and T. The complementary strands of DNA are
“antiparallel”. The 5’ end of one strand is the 3’ end of the other. In DNA, the paired chains of nucleotides twist together into a double helix. The double helix is considered DNA’s
secondary structure. It can be denatured. Each time a cell divides, it has to copy its DNA Complementary base pairing provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication – Each
strand can serve as a template for formation of a new complementary strand – if you know sequence of one strand you can deduce the sequence of the 2nd one.

RNA: Each time a cell divides, it has to copy its DNA Complementary base pairing provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication – Each strand can serve as a template for
formation of a new complementary strand – if you know sequence of one strand you can deduce the sequence of the 2nd one.

Protein synthesis: Proteins are made from one or more polypeptide The primary structure of each polypeptide is coded for by one gene The creation of a polypeptide (and
eventually a protein) involves: Copying the information of a gene and transferring this information out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm (outside nucleus and combining amino
acids together according to the information coded for in the gene to create a specific polypeptide

- Transcription: Is the process of making an RNA copy of a gene. This RNA molecule is
called mRNA. Once made, the mRNA molecule exits the nucleus. DNA & RNA are
both made up of nucleotides and therefore ‘speak’ the same language. During
transcription, the DNA double strand separates temporarily into single strands. RNA
nucleotides bind to complimentary DNA nucleotides from only one of the two strands
(referred to as the template strand). The enzyme that catalyzes this process is called
RNA polymerase. For any gene that is about to be expressed, an mRNA copy of the
gene must be produced. The mRNA produced is complementary to the template strand
of the DNA molecule from which it is being transcribed.
- Translation: Is the process of making a polypeptide chain using an mRNA strand as a
template. Translation happens on a structure called a ribosome. Once the mRNA
molecule is transcribed, it undergoes some modification and exits the nucleus through
nuclear pores. Once in the cytoplasm, mRNA combines with tRNA and a ribosome – 2
molecules needed to convert the information stored in mRNA into a polypeptide. mRNA is threaded through the ribosome and as it moves through the ribosome, amino
acids are added to a growing chain, making a polypeptide. Each amino acid (protein monomer) is added to a specific 3 nucleotide sequence called a codon. For
example, UGG translates to the amino acid Tryptophan (Trp).
- Elongation of polypeptide chains: During the elongation stage, amino acids are added one by one to the preceding amino acid at the C-terminus of the growing chain.
Each addition involves proteins called elongation factors and occurs in three steps: codon recognition, peptide bond formation, and translocation. Translation proceeds
along the mRNA in a 5′ to 3′ direction
- tRNA: stands for transfer RNA. tRNA molecules seek out amino acids which are floating freely in the cytoplasm – each tRNA molecule can only bind to a specific
amino acid. the appropriate tRNA then binds to the appropriate codon and adds its amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain. one end binds to mRNA codon while
other end holds next amino acid in sequence. the end that binds to mRNA is a 3-nucleotide sequence called anticodon  anticodon complementary to the codon (that’s
why a specific tRNA binds to a specific codon). tRNA molecules are reusable in translation

Cell: first unifying theory of biology. Cells are the fundamental units of life. All organisms are composed of cells. All cells come from preexisting cells. All organisms are made of
cells. Many organisms are single-celled. The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can live. Cells are the basic structural and physiological units of all living organisms. Cells
are both distinct entities and building blocks of more complex organisms.

Membrane proteins: proteins are embedded within the framework of the phospholipid molecules. The functions of these proteins include Membrane Proteins. Transporting
substances across the membrane. Serving as enzymes to catalyze specific reactions within the cell. Providing cell structure i.e., creating the cytoskeleton. Metabolic requirements
set upper limits on the size of cells, namely the need for substances to cross the plasma membrane. The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical. As the surface area
increases by a factor of n2, the volume increases by a factor of n3. Small cells have a greater surface area relative to their volume. Small cell size allows:

- Efficient uptake of oxygen

- Waste products are released – must be removed from cell
- Exchanges food, gases, nutrients take place thru cell surface

As a cell becomes larger, its volume increases at a greater rate than its surface area (plasma membrane). Volume determines the amount of chemical activity in the cell per unit
time. Surface area determines the number of substances that can pass the cell boundary per unit time.

Cytoplasm & Cytosol: The cytosol is the aqueous part within the cell where the organelles are found. Most cellular metabolism occurs in the cytosol. High concentration of
proteins within the cytosol makes the fluid gelatinous. The term cytoplasm refers to the cytosol and the organelles suspended within the cytosol.

Ribosome: found on the rough endoplasmic reticulum and floating free in the cytosol of the cell. Ribosomes are where proteins are synthesized. Messenger RNA is threaded
through a ribosome and “read” to produce chains of amino acids, ie proteins. Ribosomes do not have a membrane and therefore are not considered organelles

Prokaryotic cells: Have no nucleus. DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid. No membrane-bound organelles

Eukaryotic cells: Eukaryotic cells can be up tov10 times larger than prokaryotes. Nucleus present that contains the chromosomes. Animals, plants and fungus are made entirely of
eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are far more complex because they contain compartments, called organelles, which are also membrane-bound (to be discussed next lecture)

Nucleus: The nuclear membrane (nuclear envelope) is the membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane is a double membrane, ie 2
phospholipid bilayers. Nuclear pores in the envelope control the passage of molecules to and from the nucleus. The nuclear side of the envelope is lined by the nuclear lamina, a
network of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus. The nucleolus is a dark part inside of the nucleus where chromosomes for producing ribosomal RNA are
located. Ribosomes are assembled here.
Endoplasmic reticulum: accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells. The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope. The literal
translation of endoplasmic reticulum is “inside formed network”. Two kinds:

- Rough (with ribosomes attached): The interior is called the lumen. The rough ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope. The synthesis of proteins to be secreted by
the cell. Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes on the rough ER (the studs on the ER). New proteins are folded, processed and packaged in the rough ER lumen
- Smooth (without ribosomes): Synthesis of fatty acids and phospholipids. Produces enzymes that breakdown poisonous molecules (including drugs like alcohol).
Contains a supply of Ca2+.

Golgi apparatus: formed by a series of stacked flat membranous sacs called cisternae. Processes, sorts, and ships proteins synthesized in the rough ER. Contains glycosylation
enzymes that add a glycosyl group to a protein. Membranous vesicles carry materials to and from the organelle.

Peroxisome: globular organelles bound by a single membrane. Centre of oxidation reactions. Specialized peroxisomes in plants called glyoxysomes are packed with enzymes that
oxidize fats to form a compound that can be used to store energy for the cell

Lysosomes: single membrane-bound structures containing approximately 40 different digestive enzymes. Lysosomes are found in animal cells. Lysosomes are used for digestion
and waste processing.

Mitochondria: sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP. Nearly all eukaryotic cells. They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner
membrane folded into cristae. The inner membrane creates two compartments: intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix. Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix. Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP. Have their own DNA and manufacture their own ribosomes.

Chloroplast: found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis. Most plant and algae cells have plastids. Plastids become specialized and can become chloroplasts that, like
mitochondria, have a double membrane and contain their own DNA. Chloroplasts contain membrane-bound, flattened vesicles called thylakoids, which are stacked into piles called
grana. Outside the thylakoids is the solution called the stroma. Chloroplasts convert light energy to chemical energy – in other words, they perform photosynthesis.

Endosymbiont theory: An early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed a non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell, which formed an endosymbiont relationship with its host. The host cell
and endosymbiont merged into a single organism, a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion. At least one of these cells may have taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the
ancestor of cells that contain chloroplasts.

Cell wall: Fungi, algae, and plants have a stiff outer cell wall that protects the cell. In plants and algae, the cell wall’s primary component is cellulose. In fungi, the primary
component is chitin. Some plants have a secondary cell wall containing lignin.

Vacuole: large membrane-bound structures found in plants and fungi. Some contain digestive enzymes. Some vacuoles are specialized for digestion. Most vacuoles are used for
storage of water and/or ions to help the cell maintain its normal volume

Chromosome: combination of a DNA molecule and specialized proteins

called histones

Mitosis: Results in identical body cells. Occurs during growth and repair

- Interphase
o G1: diploid number of chromosomes
o S: DNA replication
o G2: chromosomes composed of pair of
chromatids
- Prophase
o Chromosomes start to condense
o Spindle apparatus forms.
o Nuclear envelope breaks down
- Metaphase
o Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate,
under tension from the spindle
o Sister chromatids of each chromosome are
captured by microtubules from opposite spindle
poles
- Anaphase
o Sister chromatids separate from one another and are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell
- Telophase
o Spindle disappears
o Nuclear envelope re-forms around each set of chromosomes
o Nucleolus reappears in each new nucleus
o Chromosomes start to decondense
- Cytokinesis
o Division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells
o For plants: daughter cells separate by cell plate

Mutations: Spontaneous mutations can occur during DNA replication, recombination, or repair. Mutagens can be a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic information
(usually DNA) of an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations. Anything that can bring about a mutation in DNA is called a mutagen.

Cancer: a disease of the cell characterized by excessive cell growth and division. Lose the ability to respond to this regulatory system. Stop performing their specialized function in
the organism. Metastasis is the release of cancerous cells into the blood stream. Leads to tumour formation in other areas of the body. Treatments:

- Radiotherapy: use of ionization radiation for local treatment of tumour. Can be used as primary or secondary treatment. Depends on size, location, and stage of tumour.
Some side effects: Damage to treated area (e.g. redness), swelling, dryness
- Chemotherapy: releasing cytotoxic substances intravenously (usually) in order inhibit rapidly dividing cells. Affects other actively dividing cells of the body Some side
effects: hair loss, low WBC/RBC/platelet count, reduced immunity, nausea & vomiting, fatigue

Meiosis: nuclear division for the formation of haploid reproductive cells (egg and sperm; spores) in 2n organisms. Meiosis produces cells that differ genetically from the parents,
and from each other, which results in genetically different offspring
 - Interphase
o G1: diploid number of chromosomes
o S: DNA replication
o G2: chromosomes composed of pair of
chromatids
- Prophase
o Chromosomes start to condense
o Crossing over of homologous pairs
o Spindle apparatus forms.
o Nuclear envelope breaks down
- Metaphase
o Homologues line up at the metaphase plate,
under tension from the spindle
- Anaphase
o Homologues separate from one another and are
pulled towards opposite poles of the cell
o Sister chromatids remain attached to one
another
- Telophase
o Spindle disappears
o Nuclear envelope re-forms around each set of chromosomes
o Nucleolus reappears in each new nucleus
o Chromosomes start to decondense
- Cytokinesis
o Division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells
- Prophase
o Chromosomes start to condense
o Spindle apparatus forms.
o Nuclear envelope breaks down
- Metaphase
o Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate, under tension from the spindle
o Sister chromatids of each chromosome are captured by microtubules from opposite spindle poles
- Anaphase
o Sister chromatids separate from one another and are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell
- Telophase
o Spindle disappears
o Nuclear envelope re-forms around each set of chromosomes
o Nucleolus reappears in each new nucleus
o Chromosomes start to decondense
- Cytokinesis
o Division of the cytoplasm to form four new cells

Polyploidy: Organisms with complete extra sets (3n, 4n, and higher) of
chromosomes are called polyploid. Polyploidy can prevent meiosis because not
all chromosomes will have a homolog (i.e., 3n) and anaphase I will not take
place.

Gene: A segment of DNA located in a specific site on a specific chromosome

that contains the info for making one particular protein

Allele: Variations of the same gene. Each parent contributes one allele for each
gene; the alleles can code for the same version of the trait (both code for a long
nose) or different versions (one codes for a long nose, the other for a short one)

Homozygote: two identical alleles at a particular locus. Pure breeding produces identical offspring when self-fertilized (true breeding)

Heterozygote: two different alleles at a particular locus. Hybrids are a mix of two different pure lines

Blending inheritance: parental traits blend such that their offspring have intermediate traits

Inheritance of acquired characteristics: parental traits are modified and then passed on to their offspring

Dominant (upper case): allele

that masks the presence of
another different allele

Recessive (lower case): allele

whose presence is masked by a
Dominant Allele

Law of segregation: the two

copies of a gene separate when
an individual makes gametes. 2
alleles segregate into different
gametes during egg & sperm
formation (2n > n) When two
gametes unite, alleles become
paired again (n+n >2n)

Law of independent assortment:

Alleles of different genes assort
independently during gamete
formation. This means you can get any combinations of alleles in a gamete IF they are not on the same chromosome.
Doesn’t always apply to genes on the same chromosome; but chromosomes do segregate independently.
Dihybrid cross: cross between F1 offspring of two individuals that differ in two traits of particular interest. Two pairs of alleles on nonhomologous chromosomes and therefore not
genetically linked. Each pair of alleles inherited independently. Each pair of segregates during meiosis independently of one another

Multiple alleles: Sometimes, multiple alleles influence the phenotype of a particular gene, increasing the number of possible phenotypes.

Incomplete dominance: when heterozygotes have a phenotype that is intermediate to the two homozygotic phenotypes. I.e., red and white allele gives pink. This occurs as a dose
responsive expression of a gene. In this example there is some red in the petals.

Codominance: When a heterozygote expresses the pheynotypes of both alleles at once it is called codominance. It’s not intermediate. Example: a person with the “A” and “B”
alleles for blood type are phenotypically AB, meaning they can accept blood type A and blood type B from donors.

Pleiotropy: A single gene can sometimes have multiple effects

Epistasis: phenotypic expression of one gene is influenced by another gene

Polygenic inheritance: is caused by the combined effect of several genes

Genetic linkage: Some alleles do not assort independently. Genetic linkage occurs when
particular genetic loci or alleles for genes are inherited jointly. Linked genes tend to be inherited
together because they are located near each other on the same chromosome. The genes are on
the same chromosome and therefore do not assort independently into gametes (in humans,
ovum and spermatozoa) during meiosis

Absolute linkage: rare. Genes may recombine during prophase I of meiosis by crossing over.
Chromosomes exchange corresponding segments. The exchange involves two chromatids in the
tetrad; both chromatids become recombinant.

Sex linkage: Sex chromosomes pair during meiosis I and then segregate during meiosis II. This
results in gametes with either an X or a Y chromosome. Females produce all X gametes. Males
produce half X gametes and half Y gametes.

X-linked inheritance: Females have two alleles for X-linked genes, i.e. genes that are found on
the X chromosomes. Males only have one. In drosophila (and humans) males are said to be hemizygous. Results in inheritance patterns wherein males and females inherit a
different number of alleles for genes on sex chromosomes. Chromosomes other than sex-chromosomes are called autosomes. We say that genes on autosomes are said to show
autosomal inheritance. X-linked inheritance gave a lot of support to the chromosome’s theory of inheritance.

Pedigree: trace a trait that results from a single gene and can allow someone to determine whether or not inheritance of the trait is recessive, dominant, autosomal or sex-linked. In
a pedigree, if two unnafected individuals have an affected child, the pedigree is showing a recessive trait. If every affected individual in the pedigree has at least one affected
parent, this is evidence of a dominant trait. If the trait is recessive and we observe that males inherit a particular trait more than females, this is evidence of a sex-linked trait.
Evolution: accumulation of inherited change within a population over time (does not refer to changes that occur in an individual within its lifetime)

Natural selection: Differential contribution of offspring to the next generation by various genetic types belonging to the same population. Results in change in the genetic makeup
(i.e., frequency of alleles) of the population. Can alter the frequency distribution of heritable traits in three ways, depending on which phenotypes in a population are favored. Acts
on phenotype. For example, individuals that are Aa and AA have different genotypes, but they have the same phenotype (A), so are outwardly the same. Individuals that are aa will
be different phenotypically (a) and may survive and reproduce better than A individuals.

- Directional selection: Favors individuals possessing extreme values of a trait (like fur color in mouse or long necks in giraffes, coloration in peppered moths), which
causes the population to move in a particular direction. Most common during periods of environmental change or when members of a population migrate to a new
habitat with different environmental condition.
- Disruptive selection: Occurs when environmental conditions favor individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range over those with intermediate phenotypes. May
occur in an area that provides different resources.
- Stabilizing selection: Favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes. Acts against individuals who deviate too far from the average, favors the
average. Example: sizes in lizards: large lizards may be subject to predation, small lizards have a hard time defending territories, natural selection favors the average

Four observations leading to the theory of evolution by natural selection:

1. Population size: For any species, population sizes would increase exponentially if all individuals that are born reproduced successfully i.e. fish can lay thousands of
eggs. But populations size tends to be stable in size. Except for seasonal fluctuations. Carrying capacity (K) refers to the number of individuals who can be supported
in each area within natural resource limits.
2. Resource availability: Environmental resources are limited. Production of more individuals than the environment can support leads to a struggle for existence among
individuals of a population, with only a fraction of their offspring surviving. Organisms compete for limited resources: food, water, light, space, or by predators,
disease, unfavorable environmental conditions.
3. Variation in population: Members of a population vary extensively in their characteristics. No two individuals are exactly alike. Variation is inheritable. Survival
depends in part on inherited traits. Individuals whose inherited traits give them a high probability of surviving and reproducing are likely to leave more offspring than
other individuals.
4. Individuals who survive an reproduce: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce. Will lead to a gradual change in a population, with favorable
characteristics accumulating over generations.

Five pieces of evidence for Darwin’s theory:

1. Evolutionary homology: Is similarity resulting from common ancestry. Homologous structures between organisms. Are anatomical resemblances that represent
variations on a structural theme that was present in a common ancestor. Human forearm, cat forelimb, whale front flipper, bat wing – different in appearance but
strikingly similar arrangements of bones, muscles, and nerves. Examples: embryonic development and vestigial organs
2. Molecular homology: Molecular evidence for evolution includes the universal genetic code and conserved sequence of amino acids in proteins and of nucleotides in
DNA. Genetic code virtually universal. Triplet (sequence of 3 nucleotides in DNA) codes for a particular codon (mRNA) > codes for a particular amino acid Universal
code: evidence for a common ancestor. Genes that are shared among organisms inherited from a common ancestor.
3. Biogeography: The geographic distribution of species. Formed an important part of his theory of evolution. Species tend to be more closely related to other species
from the same area than to other species with the same way of life that live in different areas. Continents once joined together. As time evolved each continental plates
moved (plate tectonics). This resulted in populations becoming isolated in different environments, evolved differently.
4. Homoplasy: Homoplasy occurs when characters are similar but are not derived from a common ancestor. Homoplastic features demonstrate that organisms with
separate ancestors may adapt in similar ways to similar environmental demands. Convergent evolution. Some similar mammals that have adapted to similar
environments. Have evolved independently from different ancestors. Convergent evolution does not provide information about ancestry.
5. Fossil record: The succession of forms observed in the fossil record. Is consistent with other inferences about the major branches of descent in the tree of life. The
fossil record shows that evolutionary changes have occurred over time in various groups of organisms. Over longer time scales, fossils document the origin of major
groups of organisms. For example, considerable evidence suggests that prokaryotes are the ancestors of all life and should precede all eukaryotes in the fossil record. In
fact, the oldest known fossils are prokaryotes. The fossil record provides evidence about the pattern of evolution.

Uniformitarianism: held that geologic processes had not changed throughout Earth’s history. Natural processes that operate in the universe now, have always operated in the
universe in the past, and at the same rates. Therefore by understanding geological process at the present we may understand or provide an explanation to some event that occurred
in the past

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: a population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is not evolvingDescribes a model situation in which allele frequencies do not change. If allele
frequencies remain constant, after one generation, genotype frequencies occur in these proportions:

- Genotype AA Aa aa
- Frequency p2 2pq q2

If alleles in the gamete pool exactly

mirror those in the parent generation,
and if they meet up randomly (in an
infinitely large number of events), there
is no reason—in fact, no way—for
allele and genotype frequencies to
change from one generation to the next.

Mutation: a random change in the genetic code

Genetic drift: Affects the genetic makeup of the population but, unlike natural selection, through an entirely random process. So, although genetic drift is a mechanism of
evolution, it doesn’t work to produce adaptations. One allele may be eliminated from population purely by chance regardless of if beneficial or harmful. Statistically, the smaller a
sample the greater the chance of deviation from a predicted result. Genetic drift also affects small populations that colonize a new region. Colonizing population is unlikely to have
all the alleles present in the whole population.

- Genetic bottlenecks: Occurs when the numbers of individuals in a large population are drastically reduced by a disaster. By chance, some alleles may be
overrepresented, and others underrepresented among the survivors. Some alleles may be eliminated altogether. Genetic drift will continue to change the gene pool until
the population is large enough to eliminate the effect of chance fluctuations. If populations are reduced to a small number of individuals, a population bottleneck,
genetic drift can reduce the genetic variation.
- Founder effect: Occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population. Can affect allele frequencies in a population. Small fraction of a population
establishes a new colony, they bring with them only a small fraction of the genetic variability in the original population. Allele frequency of newly found population
different than those of the parent population. A population forced through a bottleneck is likely to lose much genetic variation. Example: Greater prairie chickens in
Illinois were reduced to about 50 birds in the 1990s; California fan palms are now restricted to a few oases in southern California

Gene flow: Consists of the movement of alleles among populations. Alleles can be transferred through the movement of fertile individuals or gametes (for example, pollen). Alleles
can move from one population to another (increase genetic variability). Gene flow tends to reduce differences between populations over time. Gene flow is more likely than
mutation to alter allele frequencies directly. Can increase and decrease fitness in a population.

- Neutral variation: Is genetic variation that appears to confer no selective advantage. Neutral alleles serve as a reservoir of allelic variation. The diversity of human
fingerprints seems to confer no selective advantage to some individuals over others. Eye color in humans is an example of a neutral variation. Most of the DNA
differences between humans that are found in untranslated parts of the genome appear to confer no selective advantage.

Sexual selection: Is natural selection for mating success. It can result in sexual dimorphism, marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics.

- Intrasexual selection: Direct competition among individuals of one sex (usually males) for mates of the opposite sex. Example: physical battles between individuals,
- Intersexual selection: Occurs when individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from individuals of the other sex. Every time a female
chooses a mate based on appearance or behavior; she perpetuates the alleles that caused her to make that choice.

Speciation: The process by which one species splits into two or more daughter species. During the gradual separation of species, two populations at various stages of becoming a
new species will exist. Reproductive isolation is an important component of the process of speciation. If individuals within a population mate with one another but not with
individuals of other populations, they are an independent evolutionary unit separate branches on the tree of life.

- Allopatric speciation: occurs when populations are separated by a physical barrier. Thought to be the dominant mode of speciation.
- Sympatric speciation does not require physical isolation. Can result from:
o Polyploidy: The presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division. More common in plants than animals
▪ Allopolyploid: Is a species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species (more common than autopolyploid) In subsequent
generations, various mechanisms may transform a sterile hybrid into a fertile polyploid. These polyploid hybrids are fertile with each other but
cannot breed with either parent species.
▪ Autopolyploid: Is an individual that has more than two chromosome sets, all derived from a single species. Nondisjunction of gametes by
meiosis, results in diploid gametes. If they self-fertilize the offspring would have four sets of chromosomes, they would be tetraploids.
o Habitat Differentiation: Sympatric speciation can also result from the appearance of new ecological niches.
o Sexual selection

Hybrid zone times: Is a region in which members of different species mate and produce hybrids. Hybrids are the result of mating between species with incomplete reproductive
barriers.

- Reinforcement: When hybrids are less fit than members of parental species, natural selection strengthens prezygotic reproductive barriers, reducing the formation of
unfit hybrids. This process of reinforcement strengthens reproductive barriers, especially between sympatric species.
- Fusion: When the barriers to reproduction in the hybrid zone are weak, gene flow may weaken the reproductive barriers between species. The process of speciation
may reverse, causing the two hybridizing species to fuse into one.
- Stable: Many hybrid zones are stable. The hybrids continue to be produced.

Reproductive isolation: the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring

- Habitat isolation: Two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers
- Temporal isolation: Species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix their gametes
- Behavioral isolation: Courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are effective barriers
- Mechanical isolation: Morphological differences can prevent successful mating
- Gametic Isolation: Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species
- Reduced hybrid viability: Genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrid’s development
- Reduced hybrid fertility: Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile
- Hybrid breakdown: Some first-generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with another species or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are
feeble or sterile

Gradualism: Evolution proceeds continuously over long periods. Species descend from a common ancestor and through time a gradually change or diverge from the ancestor
occurs as they acquire unique adoptions. Fossils records incomplete (rarely see all stages)

Punctuated equilibrium: In the history of a species long periods of stasis (no evolutionary) change are punctuated (or interrupted) by short periods of rapid speciation (that are
perhaps triggered by changes in the environment). In punctuated equilibrium, speciation occurs in a relatively short period (thousands of years)

Phylogeny: Is the evolutionary history of relationships among organisms or their genes.

- Homologous: Similarity of parts or organs of different organisms caused by evolutionary derivation from a corresponding part or organ in a remote ancestor
- Analogous: Similarity of parts or organs of different organisms but not of same origin
- Divergent evolution: Results in derived traits that differ from the ancestral traits.
 - Convergent evolution: Independently evolved traits subjected to similar selection pressures may become superficially similar.
- Monophyletic: one taxon contains an ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor, and no other organisms.
- Polyphyletic: A group that does not include its common ancestor.
- Paraphyletic: A group that does not include all descendants of a common ancestor
- Taxon: is any group of species that we designate or name (e.g., vertebrates). A taxon that consists of all the descendents of a common ancestor is called a clade

Extinctions and Adaptive Radiation:

- Mass extinction: Is the rapid extinction of a large number of lineages scattered throughout the tree of life. A mass extinction occurs when at least 60 percent of the
species present are wiped out within 1 million years. Mass extinctions are caused by catastrophic events. Result from extraordinary, sudden, and temporary changes in
the environment; they cause extinction randomly with respect to individuals’ fitness under normal conditions.
- Background extinctions: typically occur when normal environmental change, emerging diseases, or competition reduces certain populations to zero. Are thought to
result primarily from natural selection.

Known extinctions:

1. Cambrian explosion: refers to the sudden appearance of fossils resembling modern phyla in the Cambrian period (535 to 525 million years ago). The Cambrian
explosion provides the first evidence of predator-prey interactions. Triggers:
a. Higher oxygen levels made aerobic respiration more efficient.
b. The evolution of predation exerted selection pressure for prey defense strategies, driving morphological divergence.
c. New niches beget more new niches. The ability to exploit new niches created new niches for predators, driving speciation and ecological diversification.
d. New genes, new bodies. Mutations increased the number of Hox genes in animals and made it possible for larger, more complex bodies to evolve.
2. End-Permian extinction: Resulted in the disappearance of 90 percent of all species. Triggers:
a. Flood basalts called the Siberian traps added enormous quantities of heat, CO 2, and sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere. This led to intense global warming
and the formation of toxic sulfuric acid.
b. Oceans became completely or largely anoxic meaning that they lacked oxygen. These conditions are fatal to organisms that rely on aerobic respiration.
c. Sea level dropped dramatically during the extinction event, reducing the amount of habitat available for marine organisms.
d. Low oxygen concentrations and high CO2 levels in the atmosphere may have restricted terrestrial animals to small patches of low-elevation habitats.
3. Cretaceous extinction: Organisms that went extinct include about half of all marine species and many
terrestrial plants and animals, including most dinosaurs. What killed dinosaurs:
a. The impact hypothesis for the extinction of dinosaurs proposes that an asteroid struck Earth
65 mya, resulting in the extinction of an estimated 60–80% of the multicellular species alive.
b. Conclusive evidence—including iridium, shocked quartz, and microtektites found in rock
layers dated to 65 mya, as well as a huge crater off Mexico’s Yucatán peninsula—has led
researchers to accept the impact hypothesis.

Adaptive Radiations: is when rapid speciation in a single lineage is followed by divergence into many different
adaptive forms. The Hawaiian silverswords fulfill the three hallmarks of an adaptive radiation: They are a
monophyletic group. They speciated rapidly. They diversified ecologically. Biologists use the term niche to describe
the range of resources that a species can use and the range of conditions that it can tolerate. Silverswords occupy a
wide array of niches. Two general mechanisms can trigger adaptive radiations: new resources, and new ways to
exploit resources. One of the most consistent triggers of adaptive radiations is ecological opportunity—the availability
of new types of resources and new ways to exploit resources. Biologists have documented adaptive radiations of the
Anolis lizards of the Caribbean islands. On the two islands studied, the same four ecological types eventually evolved,
because the islands had similar varieties of habitats. Therefore, similar adaptive radiations took place independently
on the two islands, triggered by the available environment and lack of competition. Mammals underwent an adaptive
radiation after the extinction of terrestrial dinosaurs. The disappearance of dinosaurs (except birds) allowed for the
expansion of mammals in diversity and size. Other notable radiations include photosynthetic prokaryotes, large
predators in the Cambrian, land plants, insects, and tetrapods.

Viruses: Aren’t alive (no metabolism, can’t reproduce without a host cell, no cell membrane). Are acellular. Most are
composed only of nucleic acids and some proteins. They consist of a central core of DNA or RNA, surrounded by a
capsid of proteins. Do not: Regulate transport of materials into and out of themselves; Perform any metabolic
function. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. They use the host cell’s DNA replication and protein synthesis
machinery to reproduce themselves. Genome of DNA or RNA. Nucleic acid is single- or double-stranded. Simple or
complex shape. Whether virion is surrounded by a membrane or not. Type of organism it infects. Manner of the infection.

- Phage: Reproduces immediately and kills the host cell—lytic cycle (polio, rabies, measles, colds)—cell bursts and releases progeny viruses. Postpones reproduction by
integrating its nucleic acids into the host cell’s genome—lysogenic cycle (EBV, HPV, Herpes).

Prokaryotes: Thrive almost everywhere, including places too acidic, salty, cold, or hot for most other organisms. Most prokaryotes are microscopic, but what they lack in size they
make up for in numbers. There are more in a handful of fertile soil than the number of people who have ever lived. Prokaryotes occupy every know niche in the world. Most
prokaryotes are unicellular, although some species form colonies. Most prokaryotic cells are 0.5–5 µm, much smaller than the 10–100 µm of many eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic
cells have a variety of shapes. The three most common shapes are spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals (Gram-negative, motile, chemoheterotrophic; they have unique axial
filaments (modified flagella) that rotate. Many are human parasites, some are pathogens (syphilis, Lyme disease), others are free living).

- Archaea: Lack peptidoglycan in their cell wall. Have a wide variety cell walls - but none contain peptidoglycan. Some are protein, some glycoprotein, some
carbohydrate. Have membrane lipids, which are quite different than those of either bacteria or eukaryotes (branched phospholipids). DNA and RNA structure differs
from those of the Bacteria. Have unique DNA/RNA sequences not found in bacteria or eukaryotes:
o Extremophiles: typically found in extreme environments
o Methanogens: Found in anaerobic environments, release methane as a waste product of cellular metabolism. Many live in mud at the bottom of lakes and
swamps because it lacks oxygen, and some live in the intestinal tracts of animals.
o Extreme Halophiles: Found in the dead sea and other extremely saline lakes.
 o Extreme thermophiles: grow in hot environments (45 to 104C) .
- Gram stain: Is a valuable tool for identifying specific bacteria based on differences in their cell walls.
o Gram positive means cell wall (peptidoglycan, a beta-glucose chain, polysaccharide, carbohydrate) is outside of cell membrane. Vulnerable to penicillin
and ampicillin.
o Gram negative cell wall, protected by cell membrane. Resistant to penicillin and ampicillin
- Bacteria: Emphasize symbioses. Bacteria can form root nodules in plants, helping plants to fix nitrogen. Bacteria can also be important decomposers. Some bacteria,
like E.coli help mammals get vitamins from undigested food. Some bacteria help herbivores break down cellulose.
o Pathogen: is a biological agent that can cause disease to its host (parasitism).
▪ Exotoxin: can cause damage to the host by destroying cells or disrupting normal cellular metabolism
▪ Endotoxin: but are released only when the cells are disrupted or destroyed, causes fever, body aches, and other symptoms of infections
o Saprophytes: an organism that acts as a decomposer by absorbing nutrients from dead organic matter.
o Symbiosis: an ecological relationship between organisms of two different species that live together in direct contact.
o Mutualism: a symbiotic relationship in which both partners benefit. Most mutualisms are facultative, meaning the partners can successfully live apart.

Protist: Are eukaryotes and thus have organelles and are more complex than prokaryotes. Most protists are unicellular, but there are some colonial and multicellular species.
Protists have evolved diverse cell structures, ecological roles, and life histories Protists vary in size, structure, mode of locomotion, and reproduction. Most protists are motile.
Reproduction ranges from asexual to sexual modes. Most protists are aquatic (terrestrial protists are found in moist environments). Protists may be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
Unicellular to multicellular. There is great diversity of microbial eukaryotes. Most are microscopic, but some are large (e.g., giant kelp). Many are constituents of plankton—free
floating, microscopic, aquatic organisms. Plankton that are photosynthetic are called
phytoplankton.

- Plant-like: ex. algae (autotrophic), Photoautotrophs, which contain chloroplasts.

o Desmids: are single-celled green algae which can only be found in
fresh water. Each cell consists of two symmetrical cellulose-walled
halves usually with a pronounced constriction in between (isthmus).
The nucleus is usually located in the isthmus. Desmids reproduce by
fission, the cells divide. Desmids assume a variety of highly
symmetrical and generally attractive shapes. Most desmids are single
celled and bear a superficial resemblance to diatoms but differ in being
green and having a cell wall composed of cellulose instead of silica.
o Zooxanthellae: are unicellular yellow brown (dinoflagellate) algae
which live symbiotically with corals. Zooxanthellae provide the corals
with food in the form of photosynthetic products. In turn, the coral
provides protection, CO2, nitrogenous products, and access to light for
the zooxanthellae.
o Diatoms: are unicellular algae with unique glass-like cell walls
composed of hydrated silica embedded in an organic matrix. The lacey
network of holes and grooves in diatom walls enable live diatoms to
withstand immense pressure, providing a defense for them from the
crushing jaws of predators. Unicellular organisms that have a yellow-
brown chloroplast that enables them to photosynthesize. They do one-
fifth of the carbon fixation on Earth. Diatoms are major primary
producers in the ocean, and in fresh waters.
o Red algae: are reddish in color due to an accessory pigment call
phycoerythrin, which masks the green of chlorophyll. Some species
are important commercially because they produce agar. Agar is used to
grow bacteria in a laboratory. Alginates are used as stabilizers in
frozen desserts, emulsifiers in salad dressings, and thickeners in
chocolate milk and cream cheeses.
o Dinoflagellates: are a diverse group of aquatic photoautotrophs and
heterotrophs. Most are unicellular photosynthetic, flagellated. They are
abundant components of both marine and freshwater phytoplankton.
Each has a characteristic shape that in many species is reinforced by
internal plates of cellulose. Two flagella make them spin as they move
through the water. Phytoplankton forms the basis for most food chains.
- Animal-like: (heterotrophic) Heterotrophs, which absorb organic molecules or
ingest larger food particles. Cilia, pseudopodium, flagella
- Fungus-like: (heterotrophic) Absorb nutrients from its surrounding environment. Amoeba. Slime molds, water molds. Like fungi: have hyphae & produce spores.
Unlike fungi: cellulose cell walls & may have multiple flagella.
o Water molds: Thrive in aquatic habitats. They were once considered fungi based on morphological studies, but their cell walls are composed of cellulose
rather than chitin. They have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. They have filaments (hyphae) that facilitate nutrient uptake. Most are
decomposers or parasites. Thrive on dead and decaying organic matter in the water. Some are plant parasites on land.
o Slime molds: Extends pseudopodia through decomposing material, engulfing food by phagocytosis. Most fungi are composed of threadlike filaments of
eukaryotic cells called hyphae, collectively referred to as a mycelium. Slime molds are composed of a multinucleate mass of protoplasm mass of naked
protoplasm (hence the slime) with no cell walls in its vegetative state. Spore formation when conditions become harsh.
- Pathogens: Transmitted by bite of an infected fly. Symptoms: recurring fevers, enter central nervous system, lethargic, difficulty speaking, walking. If untreated can
cause death

Fungi: Eukaryotic organism. Cell walls composed of chitin (polymer of beta-glucose) and not cellulose. Fungi are heterotrophs and absorb nutrients from outside of their body.
Fungi use enzymes to break down a large variety of complex molecules into smaller organic compounds. Essential for most terrestrial ecosystems for recycling vital nutrients.
They range from unicellular organisms (yeasts) to large, complex structures (i.e. mushroom). Most fungi are multicellular. Grow best in moist habitats but can found almost
everywhere. Fungi are diverse and widespread. Despite their diversity, fungi share key traits, most importantly the way in which they derive nutrition. Fungi are heterotrophs but
do not ingest their food. They secrete exoenzymes that break down complex molecules, and then they absorb the smaller compounds. Body is a mycelium—composed of tubular
filaments called hyphae. Hyphae cell walls have chitin. Some hyphae have incomplete cross walls or septa and are called septate. Coenocytic fungi lack septa. A fungal mycelium
has a large surface area-to-volume ratio. Good for absorptive nutrition; But water loss also high fungi are mostly in moist environments. Fungi disperse by producing spores.
Spores are produced in spore-producing structures, sporangia. Sporangia vary in shape depending on the species. Carried by wind and water or animals. When a fungal spore lands
in a suitable spot, it germinates to form a mycelium. The hyphae infiltrate the substrate and obtains nutrients (organic compounds) for growth.

- Zygomycota – Mold
- Basidiomycota – Club fungus
- Ascomycota – Sac Fungus
- Decomposers: Fungi important in decomposition of dead plant material. They perform essential recycling of chemical elements between the living and nonliving
world. Many species involved in: Break down of wood & leaves, some nutrients absorbed & used, rest return to soil recycled by plants, slow process – years to break
down a log. Nutrition absorption:
o Saprobes: absorb nutrients from dead organic matter
o Parasites: absorb nutrients from living hosts
o Mutualists: both partners benefit
- Mycorrhizae: Association between plant roots and fungal hyphae. Mycorrhizae colonize the roots of over 90% of all vascular plants! Fungus acquires carbon from
plant. Fungus provides plant with nutrients, water, pathogen resistance, increased resistance to toxic elements in the soil. Fungus wraps around the plant roots. Web of
hyphae penetrates soil around roots, increase surface area for water and mineral absorption. Mycorrhizal fungi extend the volume of soil explored by the root system.
Mycorrhizal fungi, therefore, aid in nutrient uptake. Mycorrhizae are essential to almost all vascular plants to increase water and mineral uptake. The fungus gets
sugars and proteins from the plant. Fungus may also protect plant against disease organisms. Mycorrhizae are enormously important in natural ecosystems and
agriculture. They increase plant productivity.

Plants: Characteristics of an embryophytes (land plant): non-motile, terrestrial, multicellular, eukaryotic, cellulose in cell wall, most contain chlorophyll and produce own organic
compounds (autotrophic)

- Non-vascular
o bryophytes (mosses): need water to reproduce, small to allow water absorption across membrane, dominant gametophyte generation.
- Vascular
o seedless vascular plant (ferns, pteridophyte): requires water for reproduction.
o gymnosperms (coniferophyte): wind carries spores/gametes.
o angiosperms (magnoliophyte): uses animals to carry spore/gametes > pollination.

Animals: Animal cells are eukaryotic. They each have a nucleus and organelles surrounded by membranes. Most Animals cells are specialized to perform specific functions.
Groups of cells organized into tissues, organs, organ systems. All animals are ingestive. Heterotrophs. Some eat plants, some eat animals, and some eat both. Ability to move from
one place to another. Respond quickly and appropriately to changes in the environment (nervous and
muscle tissue unique to animals). Sexual reproduction

- Parazoa: lack any real tissues.

- Eumetazoa: has real tissues and organs.
- Triploblastic: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
- Radial symmetry: symmetry around a central axis
- Bilateral symmetry: left and right side are symmetrical.
- Coelomate: possesses coelom between body wall and digestive cavity
- Acoelomate: no true body cavities
- Pseudocoelomate: fluid-filled body cavity separating the gut from the body wall but isn’t
lined by the mesoderm.
- Protostomes: mouth develops before the anus
- Deuterostomes: anus develops before the mouth
- Gastrovascular cavity: food goes in, and waste goes out the same cavity.