MODULE 1

Functional English

Module Description

Unit 1.1 Tenses, Voice, Direct and Indirect speech

Unit 1.2 Critical Reading, Spotting errors, Sentence completion, Sentence

rearrangement.
Table of Contents

Unit 1.1 Tenses, Voice, Direct and Indirect speech

Aim

Instructional Objectives

Learning Outcomes

1.1.1 Tenses

Self-Assessment Questions

1.1.2 Voice

Self-Assessment Questions

Summary

Terminal Questions

Answer Keys

Activities

Glossary

Bibliography

e-References

Video links
 Image credits

Tenses

Etymology - The word “tense” is derived from Old French tens “time,” from Latin
tempus “time.”

Definition - In English language, the tense is defined as the form of verb used to
describe the time and the state of the action. The action performed in a period
determines the verb tense. The main verb tenses are the present, past, and future.

The main verb tense is classified into four forms depending upon the aspect of time.
Therefore, the total 12 verb tenses are used to describe any kind of action at any time in
the present, past or future.

The 12 Tenses

Present Past Future

Simple Present / The Simple Past/ The Past Simple Future/ The Future
Present Indefinite Indefinite Tense Indefinite Tense
Tense

The Present The Past Continuous The Future Continuous Tense

Continuous Tense Tense

The Present Perfect The Past Perfect Tense The Future Perfect Tense
Tense

The Present Perfect The Past Perfect The Future Perfect Continuous
Continuous Tense Continuous Tense Tense
 The Present Indefinite Tense

a) This form of present tense is used to describe an action that is habitual, regular,
general truth, custom, practice, repeated action etc.

Usually, these kinds of actions are expressed by the adverbs of frequency such as
often, seldom, always, occasionally etc.

For example

1) He drinks coffee daily.

2) The Sun rises in the east.
3) I occasionally watch movies.

b) This form of present tense is used to express permanent nature of the subject and
principles.

For example

1) The snake bites.

2) Water boils at one hundred degrees Celsius.

c) This form of present tense is used to describe an action having a future reference.

For example

1) Rohan arrives from London tomorrow.

2) He leaves his job next week.

___________________________________________________________________

Did you Know?

Adverbs of Frequency is a type of adverb. The other type of adverbs includes

Adverbs of Time, Adverbs of Manner, Adverbs of Place, Adverbs of Degree,
Conjunctive Adverbs.

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The Present Continuous Tense

a) This tense denotes an action in progress (progressive action) i.e., temporary in
nature at the time of speaking.

For example

1) She is eating pizza.

2) She is dancing on the dance floor.

b) This tense is used to refer to any action in the future i.e., future arrangement or plans.

For example

1) She is coming next week.

2) I am planning to go to a movie tomorrow.

c) This tense is used with “always” when the action happens again and again or when
the speaker is not liking the idea.

For example

1) He is always teasing others.

2) Ram is not studying. He is always playing.

d) This tense is not used with the Stative verbs. Stative verbs are those that cannot be
used to express in progressive way (- ing form cannot be used).

1) Verbs of Thinking - mind, think, mean etc.

2) Verbs of Feeling - love, want, wish etc.
3) Verbs of Perception - see, taste, smell, please etc.
4) Verbs showing Possession - own, belong, contain, possess etc.
5) Verbs in General - look, seem, become etc.

For example

1) He owns a car.
2) Krishna loves her.
3) I think, she is a miser.

In the above given examples, the simple present is used to denote the stative verbs.

In example 1, it cannot be written as “He is owning a car”. Similarly, all other stative
verbs cannot be expressed in the present continuous form.

The Present Perfect Tense

This tense is used to denote a preceding action that is formed by the present tense of
the verb have and the past participle of the main verb.

a) It denotes an action that started in the past and continues in the present.

For example

1) He has lived in Texas all his life.

2) They have known me for two years.

b) This tense is often used with adverbs and conjunctions to express the preceding
action.

Recently, just, ever, yet, till, after, lately, before, of late etc.

For example

1) There are no taxies available because the drivers have gone on strike lately.
2) I have just asked her about the movie.

c) It is also used to denote an action in the past but speaking about the experience in
the present. We often use the adverb ever to talk about experience up to the
present.

For example

1) He has played tennis ever since he was a teenager.

2) I have tasted many flavours of ice-cream and wants to try new one.

d) This tense cannot be used to denote an action that took place at a point in the past.
The point of time in the past is expressed by since, ever since, yesterday, before,
formerly, the other day, last, etc.

Hence, Present Perfect + Point of time = Simple Past

For example

1) I have come yesterday. (Incorrect)

I came yesterday (Correct).

2) She had seen her in city the other day. (Incorrect)

She saw her in city the other day. (Correct)

e) This tense is used to denote an action that refers to the time which is not yet
finished.

Next week, today, this month etc.

 For example

1) I have seen a new movie this week.

2) We have bought a new car this month.

f) This tense is to be used to express time expressions indicated by for, since, how
long, whole, all, throughout, and all along etc.

Hence, Present Indefinite + Time Expression = Present Perfect.

For example

1) She has owned this parlour since 2002.

2) I have known her for two years.

_________________________________________________________________________

Did you Know?

The difference between Point of time and Time expression

Point of time is the time which denotes any specific or proper time. e.g., in 1988, on
Thursday.

Time expression denotes the combination of both point and period of time. e.g.,
winter 1947, for two years.

_________________________________________________________________________

The Present Perfect Continuous

This tense is used to denote an action continuing from the past into the present. The
present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the verb.

Time expression can be used with continuous tense.

Hence, Continuous + Time expression = Present Perfect Continuous.

For example

1) He has been studying the same class for the last three years.
2) It has been raining for two days now.

The Past Indefinite Tense

a) This tense is used to denote a habitual action that happened in the past, Indicated
generally by often, usually, used to, occasionally, rarely, daily, always, never etc.
 For example

1) They always enjoyed visiting their friends.

2) I rarely went to the church near my home.

b) This tense can be used to denote an action that took place at a point in the past. The
point of time in the past is expressed by since, ever since, yesterday, before,
formerly, the other day, last, etc.

Hence, Present Perfect + Point of time = Simple Past

For example

1) I met your son yesterday.

2) Krishna bought a car three years ago.

c) It is used to represent an action in the past that was true.

For example

1) He lived abroad for 10 years.

2) She studied a new course AI for 3 years.

The Past Continuous Tense

a) This tense is used to denote a progressive action in the past. It is formed from the
past tense of the verb be and the -ing form of a verb.

For example

1) I was eating burger when my mother came home.

2) As she was climbing the stairs, she slipped and fell.

b) This tense is also used for a definite arrangement for future in the past.

For example

1) I asked her what she was planning next week.

2) He was leaving that night.

c) This tense is used with verbs that show change or growth.

For example

1) The city was developing quickly.

2) The hair was going grey.

d) This tense cannot be used with stative verbs.

For example
 1) When she was having exams, I wished her the best. (correct)

When she was having exams, I was wishing her the best. (incorrect)

2) Ram was having breakfast when I heard a loud noise from outside.

e) To express a progressive action in the past, the words like while, still, at the
moment, then are most used.

For example

1) My mom was washing her clothes while I was watching TV.

2) She was still doing her homework when I came.

_________________________________________________________________________

Did you know?

When is to be followed by either past continuous or simple past.

While is to be followed only by past continuous.

For example

1) While I was studying, she came. (correct)

While she came, I was studying. (incorrect)

_________________________________________________________________________

The Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect tense is formed from the verb had and the past participle of a verb.

a) This tense is to be used to referring two actions finished in the past. The preceding
action was finished before the succeeding action started.

For example

1) I had searched for the keys before my mother asked for it.
2) Rohan had met his friend before his exams started.

b) This tense is used to imply the preceding action by the use of ever, just, so far,
yet, till, by the time, recently, already, before, after etc.

For example

1) She had already taken the exam.

2) We had finished shopping before it started raining.
c) This tense is to be used to express time expressions indicated by for, since, how
long, whole, all, throughout, and all along etc.

Hence, Past Indefinite + Time Expression = Past Perfect.

For example

1) Ravi owned this hotel for six years.

2) He had known her for three years.

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

This tense is used to denote an action that started in the past and continued to
some point or another action in the past.

The time expression is used with continuous tense.

Hence, Continuous + Time expression = Past Perfect Continuous.

For example

1) His radio had been playing since 8 am yesterday. The neighbours were getting
disturbed.

2) Last night the dog had been barking for a long time.

The Future Indefinite Tense

a) This tense is used to express an action that will happen in the future.

The structure of the Simple Future Tense is.

subject + auxiliary will + main verb

For example

1) She will do her homework tomorrow.

2) Krishna will come here shortly.

Generally, words loke soon, shortly, in a few moments, tomorrow, next

year/month/week etc talks about the future action.

_____________________________________________________________
 Did you know?

Generally, ‘shall’ is used with first person of pronoun ‘I’ and ‘we.’ ‘Will’ is
used with second and third persons.

_____________________________________________________________

b) Suppose, if the main verb is ‘be’, we can use this tense to express an action with
firm plan or decision before speaking.

For example

1) Will you be at work tomorrow?

2) He will be in the college tomorrow.

The Future Continuous Tense

a) This tense is used to express an action that will happen in the future and
continues for an expected period of time.

The structure of this tense

Will + be + the present participle (the root verb+ -ing form)

For example

1) In a few years’ time we all will be living in multi-storeyed house.

2) Rajesh will be arriving soon.

b) This tense is also used to express the future indefinite tense or definite future
arrangement.

For example

1) I will be eating an ice cream today.

2) We will be working for MNC next week.

c) Like other continuous tenses, this tense cannot be used to express an action
using stative verbs.

The Future Perfect Tense

a) This tense is used to express when the preceding action will be finished
before the succeeding action begins in the future.

The structure for the Future Perfect Tense is.

 Subject + will have + past participle of the main verb.

For example

1) They will have reached the station by eight in the evening.

2) Kranti will have cooked a meal.

Sometimes preceding action is implied and indicated by the use of just,

recently, before, already, ever, so far etc.

For example

1) Pritam will have known me for ten years by next week.

2) Joshna will have baked a cake before you arrive.

b) This tense is also used to express time expression.

For example

1) She will have cooked our favourite dish since we are going home after
a long time.

The Future Perfect Continuous tense

The future perfect continuous, is a verb tense that describes actions that will
continue up until a point in the future.

The structure of future perfect continuous is.

will + have + been + the verb’s present participle (verb root + -ing).

This tense is used to denote an action that started in the past and continued
to some point or another action in the future.

For example

1) When I turn forty, I will have been playing piano for thirty-one years.
2) In June, she will have been living in Ohio for ten years.

1.1.2 Voice

Voice of a verb tells the relationship between the state of an action that the verb expresses
and the participants in the action(subject, object).

For example
 1) The teacher has punished the boy.

In the above example, the verb punish is expressed by the subject teacher and the
object boy is subjected to action.

Types of voices

1) Active voice 2) Passive voice

1) Active voice

In active voice, the doer or the actor of the subject is given more emphasis. It means
the subject is active while his action is passive. When the sentence is in active voice,
it starts with the subject.

For example

1) The teacher taught us Maths yesterday.

2) My mom prepared the meal.

The structure of the active voice is.

subject + transitive verb + object

subject + intransitive verb

2) Passive Voice

In passive voice, the sentence begins with the object, action, receiver. It emphasises
more on the object of the verb, action of the subject or recipient of the action.
Therefore, the doer of the action is passive and the object of the verb or the action of
the subject or recipient of the action is active.

For example

1) The meal was prepared by my mom.

2) The boy has been punished by the teacher.

Therefore, passive voice may be represented as follows.

Object+ to be+ past participle of transitive verb+ subject.

_________________________________________________________________________

Did you know?

Transitive verb is a verb that requires a direct object to express a complete thought.

In transitive verb does not require a direct object to express a complete thought.

_________________________________________________________________________

The verb ‘to be ‘

The verb ‘to be’ has following two uses.

1) As an auxiliary verb it is used with other verbs both in active and passive voice.
2) As a regular verb it is used in ‘No verb’ sentences.

The forms of ‘to Tenses The forms of verb No verb

be’ in passive voice

be Infinitive, Modals PP Noun

Future Indefinite
(Past Participle of Pronoun
is, am, are. Present Indefinite, Transitive verb)
Adjective
was, were. Past Indefinite
Adverb
Been Perfect (Present,
Past, Future)
being
Continuous
(Present, Past,
Future), Participle

For example

Future Indefinite

1) The children should be taught good manners.

Past Indefinite

1) Krishna was punished for his negligence.

1.1.3 Direct and Indirect Speech

What is Narration?

It is act of reporting the words of speech. This reporting can be done in two ways.

1) Direct speech.
2) Indirect speech.

Direct speech

The actual words of the speaker are quoted in the speech marks in the direct
speech.

For example

My mom said, “She is extremely beautiful”.

Indirect speech

The actual words of the speaker are transformed into simple language without reporting in
speech marks.

For example

Direct speech: She said,” I am eating an ice cream.”

Indirect speech: She said she was eating an ice cream.

The following are some rules to be followed when changing from direct to indirect speech.

1) Changing time expression

When you are speaking about the past, the time reference no longer applies and it is
necessary to change the time expressions.

For example

 Direct speech: “I am calling my brother tomorrow.”

 Indirect speech: She said she was calling her brother the following day.

2) Using ‘say’ or ‘tell’.

As an alternative to using ‘say’ we can also use ‘tell’ (‘told’ in the past) in reported
speech, but in this case you need to add the object pronoun.

For example:

 He told me he was going to call Amir.

 She told us she had already finished the order.

3) Reporting orders and request

a) When giving an order, the imperative form is used to write a speech. In
imperative form, the verb without subject is written.

For example

1) “Don’t shout!”.
2) “Call me later.”

In indirect speech
1) She told us not to shout.
2) You told me to call you later.

b) Reporting questions

When you report a question you need to change the interrogative form into an
affirmative sentence, putting the verb tense one step back, as with
normal reported speech.

For example

 Direct speech: “Do they live here?”

 Indirect speech: You asked me if they lived here.

For the questions that start with when, why etc., the interrogative form is
changed into affirmative sentence.

 Direct speech: “Where do they live?”

 Indirect speech: You asked me where they lived.
 Table of Contents

Unit 1.2 Critical Reading, Spotting Errors, Sentence completion, Sentence

rearrangement.

Aim

Instructional Objectives

Learning Outcomes

1.2.1 Critical Reading

Self-Assessment Questions

1.2.2 Spotting Errors

Self-Assessment Questions

1.2.3 Sentence Completion

Self-Assessment Questions

1.2.4 Sentence Rearrangement

Self-Assessment Questions

Summary

Terminal Questions

Answer Keys

Activities

Glossary

Bibliography

e-references

Video links

Image credits
1.2.1 Critical Reading

What is critical reading?

Critical reading is an important precursor to critical writing. The critical

reading is important at all stages of the academic study, but it is prominently
useful while writing article critique or literature review.

The important characteristic features of critical reading are:

 To carefully examine the arguments and evidence given.

 To observe the implications of the strengths and flaws in the reading text.
 To understand the implicit and explicit ideas of the reading text.
 To examine the possibility of different interpretations by different audiences.
 To finally decide the reliability and accuracy of the tone, truths, diction etc., of
the reading text.

Need of critical approach to reading

The critical approach to reading the text is reliable on the fact that irrespective of
the research, technicality of the subject matter, it is vital to examine the author(s)
decisions during the research and writing process and disregard the blind
acceptance of these decisions.

A practical starting point, therefore, is to consider anything you read not as fact, but
as the argument of the writer. Taking this starting point, you will be ready to engage
in critical reading.
You must be ready to take the academic debate after the critical reading to ensure
the accuracy of the examined features of the reading text.

Critical reading does not have to be all negative

The real purpose or the intention behind the critical reading lies in assessing the
strength of the evidence and arguments taken in the text. It is not always to find the
flaws in the text but to identify whether the text is based on well-reasoned argument
and evidence.

Therefore, the critical reading helps in identifying the strong and weak articles and
gives a big picture to the audience.

Evidence

The examination of evidence is dependent upon the nature of the subject, discipline
and the kind of writing. In the technical and scientific texts, the evidence may
include information on the facts, truths, theories, measurements, equipment and
many other factors where the scope of personal interpretation is less and more on
the specific guidance available to deal with them.

On the other end, where the scope of personal interpretation is high in the areas
like literature, themes in a novel, translation to other languages etc.

In these cases, the evidence may include items such as quotes from interviews,
extracts of text, and diagrams showing how themes might connect.

Whatever the subject, discipline the reader examines, it is imperative to look for the
rationale of the argument, interpretation of the evidence, implicit and explicit
meaning within the text.

Broadening the definition of evidence

Just considering the factual data to assess the reading narrows the scope of
evidence interpretation and limits the differentiation of the strong and weak
arguments. To overcome this, broadened definition of evidence helps in giving a big
picture of the reading text. This encompasses

 the context upon which the data collected.

 the method of data collection.
 the factors considered for analysing the data.

 the rationale for the interpretations made and the conclusions drawn.
 the relevance of, and the use made of the theoretical perspective, ideology, or
philosophy that is underpinning the argument.

Linking evidence to argument

The arguments given based on the evidence collected cannot be complete without
the right interpretation and presentation of the evidence.

The term ‘argument’ in this context means the carefully constructed rationale for
the enquiry, and for the place of its results within the academic arena.

The basic questions to the evidence collected like

 Why the authors relied on that particular evidence?

 What was the method chosen to collect the evidence?
 What factors justifies the rationale behind the argument?
 How the conclusions drawn link to the wider context of their enquiry.

Sources

Descriptive details you may want to record about sources.

 Interpretative questions about the sources

Some basic questions from the critical reader about the reading text gives the big
picture of the context. This list is a mix of arts and science-based questions, as there
are several areas of common interest.

 Rationality of the themes and arguments

 Did the text support any bias elements?
 How well the interpretations inferred?

 Is there any link between the claim and the conclusion

 How appropriate are the comparisons that are used?
 Did the factual data or the interpreted data resonates the reality?
 Have any ethical considerations been adequately addressed?

The critical reading is vital in several ways, and it is important to strategically follow an
appropriate methodology for critical reading to deliver an error less report or thesis. Some
important steps like note taking, source questioning increases the reliability and time factor.

1.2.2 Spotting Errors

Words, phrases, and sentences written in English is error free only when a candidate has
complete knowledge of parts of speech and grammar.

What exactly we must see to spot the errors in a sentence are given below

 Parts of Speech

Eight parts of speech

 Type of sentence

 Punctuations
  Singularity and Plurality

The correct representation of the nouns in singular or plural form.

For example

1) The girls are dancing. (Correct)

2) The girls is dancing. (Incorrect)

Self-Assessment Questions

Directions: Some of the sentences are grammatically correct and some are incorrect. Find
out which part of the sentence has an error and mark that part. If there is no error, mark that
part as your answer.

1) The General with over one thousand officers and soldiers have

aaaaaaaaa
1) aa text
surrendered to the Indian troops who are patrolling the valley. No error

A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D

2) One of the important benefits of machine age is that our standard of life has

Improved. No error

A. A
B. B
 C. C
D. D

3) Just when Alfred Nobel’s discoveries were beginning to bring him rewards, which

were to make him one of the richest man of his day, an anti-Nobel campaign was

started in France. No error

A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D

4) There is no evidence to show that information technology secrets are more

vulnerable in India than Britain or the U.S. No error

A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D

5) His tradition-bound attitude was a constant source of dissatisfaction among the

younger members of the family. No error

A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D

1.2.3 The Sentence Completion

The Sentence Completion Questions are framed to evaluate the vocabulary and
knowledge of the finer distinction among words.

The best way of mastering the Sentence Completion Questions is by improving the
comprehension ability through reading newspapers, understanding the structure of
the sentence, knowing the slight difference between the meaning of the words.

The following exercises helps to guide them in choice of selecting the best of the
alternatives.

Self-Assessment Questions
 Directions: Four alternatives a, b, c and d are given under each sentence, you are
required to select most suitable alternative to fill in the blank/blanks in the sentence
to make it meaningful.

1) My mother upset the kettle of boiling water and __________ her right hand badly.

A. wounded
B. sizzled
C. scorched
D. scalded

2) Sharing heavy responsibilities with colleagues does not involve loss of prestige or
__________ of the authority of an institute’s Head.

A. deterioration
B. decrease
C. diminution
D. loss

3) He was so convinced that people were driven by __________ motives that he

believed there was no such thing as a purely _______ act.

A. necessary; lodge
B. binding; pay.
C. obligatory; submit.
D. possible; remit

4) The mill workers were not ________ with their low wages and non - payment of
wages for last three months__________ fuel to the flames.

A. good; put.
B. satisfied; added.
C. joyful; poured.
D. pleased; directed.

5) The child was so spoiled by her indulgent parents that she became ________
when she did not receive all of their attention.

A. sullen
B. elated
C. discreet
D. suspicious

1.2.4 Sentence Rearrangement

It refers to rearranging the parts of a sentence into a meaningful paragraph.

 There are several types of sentence rearrangement

Type 1: The Basic Format

In this type, all the statements are given in a jumbled form and we need to arrange them
to give a meaningful sequence.

For example

A. He borrowed some money from his neighbour for me.

B. However, he promised to get the money I needed.
C. Since I had no money with me, I decided to borrow from my friend.
D. But he had no money with him to lend me.

The correct sequence is DCEBA.

Type 2: Static First statement

In this type, the first statement given is static and all the other statements are given in a
jumbled form and we need to arrange them to give a meaningful sequence.

1: It is well known that

A. youngsters in the cities and the villages

B. The effect
C. of the cinema
D. on the school and college going
E. is very bad.

The correct sequence is BCDAE.

Type 3: Static last statement

In this type, the last statement given is static and all the other statements are given
in a jumbled form and we need to arrange them to give a meaningful sequence.

A. We line up even for our filthy public toilets and to pay the electricity
bills.
B. We wait eternally at railway crossings, ration shops and bank
counters.
C. Particularly so in Europe where it is claimed that God is dead and
religion defunct.
D. Hence, the fact that millions, and mostly the youth, made it to the
funeral of Pope John Paul II, braving long journeys and queuing for
hours on end, is truly remarkable.
E. Europeans are not used to the serpentine queues we encounter in the
Indian subcontinent.

S6: That the European youth was willing to go through these hardships to
pay tribute to a spiritual head was unthinkable.
 The correct sequence is EDCBA

Type 4: Static first and last statement

In this type, the first and last statements given is static, and the other statements
are given in a jumbled form and we need to arrange them to give a meaningful sequence.

S1: Chanakya, by his foresight and strength of character, built up the Mauryan
Empire

S6: It is not true as some people said that Sardar Patel was not particular about the
means as long as he achieved his end.

A: They were men of iron.

B: Therefore, they were impervious to criticism and had implicit confidence in

themselves.

C: Both of them were guided by stern realism and would tolerate no deviations
from the objectives which they pursued relentlessly.

D: Similarly, Patel refashioned a compact India out of the fragments left by the
British.

The correct sequence is DCAB

Introduction to Softskills
DESCRIPTION
Soft Skills are highly demanded, and prior required skill set in the work front. In any
work place employees integrity and loyalty plays core role to protect the organization
growth and well-being. Soft Skills often associated with a person’s Emotional
Intelligence Quotient, Personality traits, socialgrace,Communication,Language,
Personal habits, Leadership, etc. That characterize relationships with the other
people, Moreover Soft skills also known as people skills and compliment the Hard
Skills to explore and enhance an individual’s relationships, job performance, personal
motivation and career prospects.

Unit 1.1 Components of Softskills

Unit 1.2 Ways to sharpen your soft skills

Unit Table of Contents

Unit 1.1 Components of Soft skills
 Aim……………………..

Instructional Objective…………………………

Learning Outcomes…………………………..

1. Character vs Personality
2. Swot Analysis

Self -Assessment Questions

Summary…………………………………………………..

Terminal Questions………………………………………….

Answer Keys………………………………………………….

Activity……………………………………………………………

Glossary……………………………………………………………..

Bibliography…………………………………………………………

e-References…………………………………………………………

Video Links……………………………………………………………

Image Credits…………………………………………………………

Keywords……………………………………………………………….

AIM

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Components of Soft skills

Soft skills are interpersonal skills which can uplift the team work objectives and significance
of the leadership. At present in any work place people are encounter with extreme stress
and anxiety disorders due to lack of interpersonal skills. Soft skills have emerging
components which reduce the stress factors and made the people to investigate their
personal and professional life purposefully. Soft skills will create ample opportunities for
every professional to refine their skills in Time management, Leadership, Critical thinking,
Decision making and strong communication.

1. Character vs Personality

Definition of Personality

Personality can be defined as a blend of mental behaviour and traits or qualities like
thinking,feeling,and acting. It is a range of enduring tendencies of an individual to
think, feel and behave in a confine manner in diverse situations. It refers to the
constructive arrangement of all your dispositions like Thoughts,Feelings,Attitude and
Emotions,etc.

Definition of Character

As part of your personality, character represents your moral,ethical,social attitudes

and beliefs. Most of the contexts character can be referred as the qualities of an
individual. A person could have good as well as bad qualities, and depending on
these qualities, we can decide the character of the particular individual but it takes
certain time to judge the character because social associations impacts the
character.
Swot Analysis

What is a SWOT analysis?

A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis is a strategy that

helps company or an organization to overcome the challenges and refine the skills to
pursue new leads.The primary objective of a SWOT analysis is to help organizations to
develop a full awareness of all the factors in making a business decision. Albert Humphrey
of the Stanford Research Institute created this method in the 1960s during a study
conducted to identify why corporate planning consistently failed. Since its creation, the
SWOT analysis has become one of the most useful tools for business owners to start and
grow their companies.

“It is impossible to accurately map out a small business’s future without first evaluating it
from all angles, which includes an exhaustive look at all internal and external resources and
threats,” Bonnie Taylor, chief marketing officer at CCS Innovations, told Business News
Daily. “A SWOT accomplishes this in four straightforward steps that even rookie business
owners can understand and embrace.”

Components of SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis will include the given categories. Though the elements and discoveries
within these categories will vary from company to company, a SWOT analysis is not
complete without each of these elements:

Strengths
Strengths describe what an organization excels at and what separates it from the
competition: a strong brand, loyal customer base, a strong balance sheet, unique
technology, and so on. For example, a hedge fund may have developed a proprietary trading
strategy that returns market-beating results. It must then decide how to use those results to
attract new investors.

Weaknesses

Weaknesses stop an organization from performing at its optimum level. They are areas
where the business needs to improve to remain competitive: a weak brand, higher-than-
average turnover, high levels of debt, an inadequate supply chain, or lack of capital.

Opportunities

Opportunities refer to favorable external factors that could give an organization a competitive
advantage. For example, if a country cuts tariffs, a car manufacturer can export its cars into
a new market, increasing sales and market share.

Threats

Threats refer to factors that have the potential to harm an organization. For example, a
drought is a threat to a wheat-producing company, as it may destroy or reduce the crop
yield. Other common threats include things like rising costs for materials, increasing
competition, tight labor supply. and so on.

SWOT Table

Analysts present a SWOT analysis as a square segmented into four quadrants, each
dedicated to an element of SWOT. This visual arrangement provides a quick overview of the
company’s position. Although all the points under a particular heading may not be of equal
importance, they all should represent key insights into the balance of opportunities and
threats, advantages and disadvantages, and so forth.

The SWOT table is often laid out with the internal factors on the top row and the external
factors on the bottom row. In addition, the items on the left side of the table are more
positive/favorable aspects, while the items on the right are more concerning/negative
elements.

How to Do a SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis can be broken into several steps with actionable items before and after
analyzing the four components. In general, a SWOT analysis will involve the following
steps.

Step 1: Determine Your Objective

A SWOT analysis can be broad, though more value will likely be generated if the analysis is
pointed directly at an objective. For example, the objective of a SWOT analysis may focused
only on whether or not to perform a new product rollout. With an objective in mind, a
company will have guidance on what they hope to achieve at the end of the process. In this
example, the SWOT analysis should help determine whether or not the product should be
introduced.
Step 2: Gather Resources

Every SWOT analysis will vary, and a company may need different data sets to support
pulling together different SWOT analysis tables. A company should begin by understanding
what information it has access to, what data limitations it faces, and how reliable its external
data sources are.

In addition to data, a company should understand the right combination of personnel to have
involved in the analysis. Some staff may be more connected with external forces, while
various staff within the manufacturing or sales departments may have a better grasp of what
is going on internally. Having a broad set of perspectives is also more likely to yield diverse,
value-adding contributions.

Step 3: Compile Ideas

For each of the four components of the SWOT analysis, the group of people assigned to
performing the analysis should begin listing ideas within each category. Examples of
questions to ask or consider for each group are in the table below.

Internal Factors

What occurs within the company serves as a great source of information for the strengths
and weaknesses categories of the SWOT analysis. Examples of internal factors include
financial and human resources, tangible and intangible (brand name) assets, and
operational efficiencies.

Potential questions to list internal factors are:

 (Strength) What are we doing well?

 (Strength) What is our strongest asset?
 (Weakness) What are our detractors?
 (Weakness) What are our lowest-performing product lines?

External Factors

What happens outside of the company is equally as important to the success of a company
as internal factors. External influences, such as monetary policies, market changes, and
access to suppliers, are categories to pull from to create a list of opportunities and
weaknesses.1

Potential questions to list external factors are:

 (Opportunity) What trends are evident in the marketplace?

 (Opportunity) What demographics are we not targeting?

 (Threat) How many competitors exist, and what is their market share?
 (Threat) Are there new regulations that potentially could harm our operations
or products?

Strengths Weaknesses
1. What is our competitive 1. Where can we improve?
advantage? 2. What products are
2. What resources do we have? underperforming?
3. What products are performing well? 3. Where are we lacking resources?
Threats
Opportunities
1. What regulations are changing?
1. What new technology can we use?
2. What are competitors doing?
2. Can we expand our operations?
3. How are consumer trends
3. What new segments can we test?
changing?

Companies may consider performing this step as a "white-boarding" or "sticky note" session.
The idea is there is no right or wrong answer; all participants should be encouraged to share
whatever thoughts they have. These ideas can later be discarded; in the meantime, the goal
should be to come up with as many items as possible to invoke creativity and inspiration in
others.

Step 4: Refine Findings

With the list of ideas within each category, it is now time to clean-up the ideas. By refining
the thoughts that everyone had, a company can focus on only the best ideas or largest risks
to the company. This stage may require substantial debate among analysis participants,
including bringing in upper management to help rank priorities.

Step 5: Develop the Strategy

Armed with the ranked list of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, it is time to
convert the SWOT analysis into a strategic plan. Members of the analysis team take the
bulleted list of items within each category and create a synthesized plan that provides
guidance on the original objective.

For example, the company debating whether to release a new product may have identified
that it is the market leader for its existing product and there is the opportunity to expand to
new markets. However, increased material costs, strained distribution lines, the need for
additional staff, and unpredictable product demand may outweigh the strengths and
opportunities. The analysis team develops the strategy to revisit the decision in six months in
hopes of costs declining and market demand becoming more transparent.

Use a SWOT analysis to identify challenges affecting your business and opportunities that
can enhance it. However, note that it is one of many techniques, not a prescription.

Benefits of SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis won't solve every major question a company has. However, there's a
number of benefits to a SWOT analysis that make strategic decision-making easier.

 A SWOT analysis makes complex problems more manageable. There

may be an overwhelming amount of data to analyze and relevant points to
consider when making a complex decision. In general, a SWOT analysis that has
been prepared by paring down all ideas and ranking bullets by importance will
aggregate a large, potentially overwhelming problem into a more digestible
report.

 A SWOT analysis requires external consider. Too often, a company may

be tempted to only consider internal factors when making decisions. However,
there are often items out of the company's control that may influence the outcome
 of a business decision. A SWOT analysis covers both the internal factors a
company can manage and the external factors that may be more difficult to
control.
 A SWOT analysis can be applied to almost every business question. The
analysis can relate to an organization, team, or individual. It can also analyse a
full product line, changes to brand, geographical expansion, or an acquisition.
The SWOT analysis is a versatile tool that has many applications.
 A SWOT analysis leverages different data sources. A company will likely
use internal information for strengths and weaknesses. The company will also
need to gather external information relating to broad markets, competitors, or
macroeconomic forces for opportunities and threats. Instead of relying on a
single, potentially biased source, a good SWOT analysis compiles various
angles.
 A SWOT analysis may not be overly costly to prepare. Some SWOT
reports do not need to overly technical; therefore, many different staff members
can contribute to its preparation without training or external consulting.

SWOT Analysis Example

In 2015, a Value Line SWOT analysis of The Coca-Cola Company noted strengths such as
its globally famous brand name, vast distribution network, and opportunities in emerging
markets. However, it also noted weaknesses and threats such as foreign currency
fluctuations, growing public interest in "healthy" beverages, and competition from healthy
beverage providers.2

Its SWOT analysis prompted Value Line to pose some tough questions about Coca-Cola's
strategy, but also to note that the company "will probably remain a top-tier beverage
provider" that offered conservative investors "a reliable source of income and a bit of capital
gains exposure."

Five years later, the Value Line SWOT analysis proved effective as Coca-Cola remains the
6th strongest brand in the world (as it was then). Coca-Cola's shares (traded under ticker
symbol KO) have increased in value by over 60% during the five years after the analysis was
completed.

To get a better picture of a SWOT analysis, consider the example of a fictitious organic
smoothie company. To better understand how it competes within the smoothie market and
what it can do better, it conducted a SWOT analysis. Through this analysis, it identified that
its strengths were good sourcing of ingredients, personalized customer service, and a strong
relationship with suppliers. Peering within its operations, it identified a few areas of
weakness: little product diversification, high turnover rates, and outdated equipment.

Examining how the external environment affects its business, it identified opportunities in
emerging technology, untapped demographics, and a culture shift towards healthy living. It
also found threats, such as a winter freeze damaging crops, a global pandemic, and kinks in
the supply chain. In conjunction with other planning techniques, the company used the
SWOT analysis to leverage its strengths and external opportunities to eliminate threats and
strengthen areas where it is weak.

Professional Skills for Managers

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 Module 2

Unit 2

Ways to Sharpen your Soft Skills

Unit Table of Contents

Unit 1.2

Ways to Sharpen your Soft Skills

Aim----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Instructional Objectives-------------------------------------------------------------------

Learning Outcomes-------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.2.1 Assertiveness, Building Confidence-------------------------------------------

Self-Assessment Questions--------------------------------------------------------------

1.2.2 Attitude, Goal Setting----------------------------------------------------------------

Self-Assessment Questions---------------------------------------------------------------

Summary------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Terminal Questions----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Answer Keys--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Activity-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Glossary---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Bibliography----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

e- References---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Video Links------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Image Credits----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Keywords----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
AIM

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Ways to Sharpen your Soft Skills

There are multiple benefits to improve your soft skills. These skills can groom the
communication and find the Top Notch paths in the professional and personal life.
Here are a few steps to improve your Soft skills.

Assertiveness

Have you always wanted to speak up for yourself ?

Are you looking for the right moves to express your feelings comfortably without
losing temper ?

 Then you need to work upon the your Assertiveness Skills.

What is Assertiveness ?

Assertiveness is a top rated skills in Soft Skills platform. In the simplest form,
Being assertive is nothing but being able to project yourself effectively to get things
done. Assertiveness is a quality of communicating your thoughts, perspectives, opinions, or
emotions confidently without being aggressive or passive.

Most of the successful people like Martin Luther King, Nelson Mandela, Bill Gates, and Elon
Musk have been thriving in past and present due to impeccable assertiveness.

How to be Assertive?

Grooming assertiveness skills is simple and easy if you practice it with rigorous
efforts and concentration.There are many strategies to refine these skills like some
of them are given below.

A. Express your thoughts clearly

 We strongly make ourselves to away from the shedding inhibitions and always
confident enough to speak your intentions clearly with out hesitance.

B. Practice your Speech

It might seen wrong to script speeches, but it is not everyone’s of tea to speak
impromptu. If you want to say something important, you can script the points out and
make sure to give enough practice on the way how you are going to put it across.
Off screen practice leads towards impeccable on screen achievement.

C.Develop Emotional Intelligence

Balancing the emotional intelligence is the foremost key to grab the healthy assertive
communication. Passive and aggressive people do face emotional turmoil, and that is the
reason they behave in a confined manner. Hence, it is the dire need to strengthen your
emotionality to develop assertiveness.

Advantages of Assertiveness Skills

Assertiveness skills are of the utmost significance in any conversation to craft

effective communication among the groups.

1. Enhances problem solving skills.

Critical thinking and problem solving is a great skill. It requires people to

understand your points very well and work on the solutions you have proposed.

2. Makes better Managers.

Managers are those who can use all the resources optimally to get the maximum
results and outputs. Assertive people are obeyed and trusted more, and that is
why they make better managers.

c. Helps in negotiating a win – win situation.

A win-win situation is the one in which both the parties are in profit, and
there no significant losses or disheartenments to any one of the
parties involved in a situation. People who are good at assertive communication can find
common ground and negotiate in such circumstances.

D. Enables Liberty in making decisions.

If there are passive or aggressive people around, there might be narrow

mindedness in the team. Assertive people are liberal, and they can embrace
distinctions in opinions and views as well as include people falling in a broad
spectrum. It enables making rational decisions.
 E. Boost Confidence.

If you are of aggressive or passive nature, you seem to get under- confident while
speaking up Infront of a large crowd. Assertiveness helps in building confidence. It
gets you confident in your skin and put forth your views firmly. Confidence boosting
is a great advantage of assertiveness skills.

F. Reduce stress and Anxiety

Stress and anxiety are considered to be the by- products of communication.

However this can be the proved untrue by adopting a particular way of communication. It
involves confidence, honesty, and respectfulness. That is why it supports your conscience
and helps you conduct yourself better. You are not scared of putting your views out there,
and that helps in better communication. It involves confidence, honesty and respectfulness.

Building Confidence:

Confidence is not something that can be learned like a set of rules; Confidence is a state of
mind. Positive thinking, practice, training, knowledge and talking to other people are all
useful ways to help improve or boost your confidence level. Confidence comes from feelings
of Well-being ,acceptance of your body and mind, belief in your own ability, skills and
experience. Confidence is an attribute that most people would like to possess.

Ways to Building Confidence:

There are two sides to improve confidence. Although the ultimate aim is to feel more
confident in yourself and your abilities it is also worth considering how you can appear more
confident to other people.

Planning and preparation:

People often feel less confident about new or potentially difficult situations perhaps the most
important factor in developing confidence is planning and preparing for the unknown.

Learning knowledge and Training:

Learning and gaining knowledge can sometimes make us feel less confident about our
capabilities to perform roles and tasks, and when this happens we need to club our
knowledge with experience. By doing something we have learned a lot about we put theory
to practice which develops confidence and adds to the learning and comprehension.

Positive Thought:
Positive thought can be a very powerful way of improving confidence.

If you believe that you can achieve something then you are likely to work hard to make sure
you do if, however, you don't believe that you can accomplish a task then you are more likely
to approach it half-heartedly and therefore be more likely to fail. The trick is convincing
yourself that you can do something - with the right help, support, preparedness and
knowledge.

Optimism is the faith that leads to achievement. Nothing can be done without hope and
confidence.

Helen Keller - Author, political activist, and lecturer. The first deaf and blind person to earn
a BA degree in the US.

There is a lot of information about positive thinking both online and in print. The basic rules
of positive thinking are to highlight your strengths and successes and learn from your
weaknesses and mistakes. This is a lot easier than it sounds, and we often dwell on things
that we are not happy with from our past - making them into bigger issues than they need to
be. These negative thoughts can be very damaging to confidence and your ability to achieve
goals.

Try to recondition the way you think about your life:

 Know your strengths and weaknesses. Write a list of things that you are good at
and things that you know need improvement. Discuss your list with friends and family
as, inevitably, they will be able to add to the list. Celebrate and develop your
strengths and find ways to improve or manage your weaknesses.
 We all make mistakes. Don't think of your mistakes as negatives but rather as
learning opportunities.
 Accept compliments and compliment yourself. When you receive a compliment
from somebody else, thank them and ask for more details; what exactly did they like?
Recognise your own achievements and celebrate them by rewarding yourself and
telling friends and family about them.
 Use criticism as a learning experience. Everybody sees the world differently, from
their own perspective, and what works for one person may not work for another.
Criticism is just the opinion of somebody else. Be assertive when receiving criticism,
 don't reply in a defensive way or let criticism lower your self-esteem. Listen to the
criticism and make sure that you understand what is being said so you can use
criticism as a way to learn and improve. See our page: Dealing with Criticism for
more information.
 Try to stay generally cheerful and have a positive outlook on life. Only complain
or criticise when necessary and, when you do, do so in a constructive way. Offer
others compliments and congratulate them on their successes. You may find our
page Offering Constructive Criticism helpful.

Talking to Others and Following Their Lead

Find yourself a confidence role-model.

Ideally this will be someone that you see regularly, a work colleague, a family member or a
friend - somebody with a lot of self-confidence who you'd like to mirror. Observe them and
notice how they behave when they are being confident. How do they move, how do they
speak, what do they say and when? How do they behave when faced with a problem or
mistake? How do they interact with other people and how do others react to them?

If possible talk to them to learn more about how they think and what makes them tick.

Speaking to and being around people who are confident will usually help you to feel more
confident. Learn from others who are successful in fulfilling the tasks and goals that you wish
to achieve - let their confidence rub off on you.

As you become more confident then offer help and advice, become a role-model for
somebody less confident.

Confidence is contagious. So is lack of confidence.

Vince Lombardi - Successful American Football coach.

Generally people are attracted to confident people - confidence is one of the main
characteristics of charisma. See our page: What is Charisma? for a full explanation.
Experience

As we successfully complete tasks and goals, our confidence that we can complete
the same and similar tasks again increases.

A simple example of this is driving a car. Most people who have been driving for some time
do so almost automatically - they don't have to think about which peddle to push or how to
handle a junction in the road, they just do it. This contrasts to a learner driver who will
probably feel nervous and have to concentrate hard. The learner lacks experience and
therefore confidence in their ability to drive.

Gaining experience and taking the first step can, however, be very difficult. Often the thought
of starting something new is worse than actually doing it. This is where preparation, learning
and thinking positively can help.

Break roles and tasks down into small achievable goals. Make each one of your goals fit
SMART criteria. That is to make goals Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Timed.
Our page Setting Personal Goals explains this in more detail.

Whatever you do, aim to become as good as you can. The better you are at doing
something the more confident you become.

Be Assertive

Being assertive means standing up for what you believe in and sticking to your
principles.

Being assertive also means that you can change your mind if you believe it is the right thing
to do, not because you are under pressure from somebody else.

Assertiveness, confidence and self-esteem are all very closely linked - usually people
become naturally more assertive as they develop their confidence.

Keep Calm
There is usually a correlation between confidence and calmness.

If you feel confident about a task then you will likely feel calm about doing it. When you feel
less confident you are more likely to be stressed or nervous.

Trying to remain calm, even when you're under stress and pressure, will tend to make you
feel more confident.

To do this it is useful to learn how to relax. Learn at least one relaxation technique that works
for you and that you can use if you're feeling stressed. This may be as simple as taking
some deliberate deep breaths both in and out. For more ideas see our page, Relaxation
Techniques.

Avoid Arrogance

Arrogance is detrimental to interpersonal relationships.

As your confidence grows and you become successful, avoid feeling or acting superior to
others. Remember - nobody is perfect and there is always more that you can learn.
Celebrate your strengths and successes, and recognise your weaknesses and failures. Give
others credit for their work - use compliments and praise sincerely. Be courteous and polite,
show an interest in what others are doing, ask questions and get involved.

Admit to your mistakes and be prepared to laugh at yourself!

Understanding and Developing Emotional Intelligence

Learn more about emotional intelligence and how to effectively manage personal
relationships at home, at work and socially.

Our eBooks are ideal for anyone who wants to learn about or develop their interpersonal
skills, and are full of easy-to-follow, practical information.
Developing Your Self-Confidence Skills

Self-confidence can diminish over time if you don't practise your skills or if you hit
set-backs. As you become more self-confident you should continue to practise your
skills to maintain and boost your confidence further.

Set yourself 'confidence targets' that require you to step out of your comfort zone and do
things that make you feel a degree of nervousness or apprehension.

Potential confidence targets may include:

 Start a task or project that you've been putting off for a long time. Often we put
off starting important tasks because they seem overwhelming, difficult or awkward to
complete. Simply making a start on such a task can boost confidence and make you
more inclined to complete it.
 Make a complaint in a restaurant if there is a problem with your order. If you
would not usually complain about a problem then doing so is a good way to improve
your confidence and assertiveness skills. Our page How to Complain, Effectively
can help with this.
 Stand up and ask a question at a public meeting or in a group. By doing this you
are making yourself the centre of attention for a few minutes.
 Volunteer to give a presentation or make a speech. For many people speaking to
a group of people is a particularly scary prospect. The best way to overcome this fear
and gain confidence is with experience.
 Introduce yourself to somebody new. This could be somewhere where people
have something in common - like at a party or a conference, making it potentially
easier to have a conversation. Or you could talk to a complete stranger in a
lift/elevator.
 Wear something that will draw attention - such as a garish colour. Personal
appearance is an important factor in self-esteem and people with lower self-esteem
tend to try not to be noticed. Make a statement and stand out in a crowd!
 Join a group or class in your community. You will potentially benefit in lots of
different ways by meeting new local people and learning new things while improving
your confidence.
 Take an unfamiliar journey on public transport. Travelling to a new place using an
unfamiliar route and with random people will make most people feel at least slightly
uncomfortable.
How do you feel about each of the ideas on the list above? Perhaps some gave you minor
feelings of butterflies whereas others filled you with dread. Although the list uses common
examples of potentially confidence-boosting tasks none may be right for you. Think of some
confidence targets that are right for you - then start with easier ones and build up.

1.2.2 ATTITUDE :

Attitude Is a psychological tendency that is opened by evaluating a specific entity with some
degree of favour or disfavour. In the evaluation process people can range from extremely
unfavourable to the extremely favourable, or can be moderate.

Attitude Factors behind the Formation of Attitudes

Culture:

o Culture exerts wide influence on an individual. Culture in itself includes

religion, tradition, customs, prohibitions, rewards and sanctions.
o Socialisation is the process by which culture carves the attitudes of the
people.
o
o Culture grooms the individual beliefs, attitudes and behaviour that are
acceptable in one’s life and society.
o For example: Consuming beef in India is generally considered taboo but in
western countries, there is no such restriction.
 Family:
o Family is the most important and closest social group for a person. It is
the nursery for attitudinal formation.
 o Parents are more influential among the family system who structure and
mould the attitude of a child.
o Extended family and sibling relationships, in particular, play an important role
in attitude formation.
 Social Groups:
o Several social groups apart from family play an important role in attitude
formation which includes friends, peers, colleagues, etc.
o Consider the voting pattern in India. There are people who do not listen to
candidate’s speeches, read newspapers or follow debates. They talk with
friends, family, etc. and vote for a candidate. Families, friends and other such
social groups most definitely influence the choice of a candidate.
 Institutions:
o A man is never alone. From cradle to grave he is under the influence of one
institution or the other.
o For example: Educational institutions like schools and colleges act as
repositories of knowledge, direct and shape the beliefs, values of a person
and thus form attitudes.
 Familiarity:
o Familiarity breeds positive attitude. Man generally has a fear of the
unknown, so anything familiar might make him or her feel at peace.
o Familiarity and classical conditioning act on emotions of an individual and
therefore shape the affective component of attitudes.

What are the Techniques to Bring Change in Attitude?

 Classical/ Pavlovian Conditioning:

o In this technique, the person is exposed to a positive and neutral stimulus
repeatedly and after some time the response to neutral stimuli becomes the
same as response to positive stimuli.
 Instrumental Conditioning:
o A process in which a positive behavior when rewarded has more chances
of repetition unlike the negative behavior which if repeated would lead to
punishment and thus less chances of repetition.
o Example:
 Parents celebrating the success of a child by praising them among
friends will form a positive attitude of the child towards success.
 Further, when parents punish the child for their mistakes, it
discourages the child from making those mistakes again.
 Social Observation:
o This involves learning from our social environment such as family, school,
media and its expression.

What are the Functions of Attitude?

 Knowledge Function:
o Attitudes have a knowledge function, which enables individuals to
understand their environment and to be consistent in their ideas and
thinking. Most attitudes serve this basic function in some measure.
 Utilitarian Function:
o Attitude helps individuals in maximizing benefits and minimizing
disadvantages while interacting with individuals, groups and situations in
their environment. Utilitarian attitudes lead to behaviour that optimizes one’s
interests.
 Performing a Social Role:
o Attitudes help perform a social role, helping in an individual’s self-expression
and social interaction.
o Subscribing to a given set of attitudes signals one’s identification with
important reference groups to express one’s core values, and to establish
one’s identity. This social role of attitudes is known as social identity function,
it underlies an individual’s desire to establish his individual and social identity.
 Maintain an Individual’s Self-Esteem:
o Attitudes can serve as defence mechanisms for handling an individual’s
internal mental conflict which reflect tensions within the individual psyche.
o The defence mechanisms hide an individual’s true motives from himself
or psychologically isolate him from groups perceived as hostile or threatening.
o Attitudes maintain self-esteem in other ways also. An individual’s attitudes
toward many things are influenced by his view on how they affect his own
self-assessment.
 For Example: Our attitudes toward our friends and social
acquaintances depend on whether we regard such association as
enhancing or lowering our social standing.

How is Attitude related to the Value System?

 A value system refers to the order and priority an individual or society grants to
ethical and ideological values.
 While two individuals or groups may share a set of common values, they may not
give equal weight or preference to those values.
What is the Difference Between Attitude and Behavior?

Attitude Behaviour

 Attitude is defined as a person’s  Behavior implies the actions,

mental tendency, which is moves, conduct or functions or an
 responsible for the way he thinks or individual or group towards other
feels for someone or something. persons.
 A person’s attitude is mainly based  On the other hand, the behavior of a
on the experiences gained by him person relies on the situation.
during the course of his life and  As opposed to, behavior expresses
observations. a person’s attitude.
 Attitude is a person’s inner thoughts  On the contrary, a person’s conduct
and feelings. is reflected by his behavior.
 The way of thinking or feeling is  Attitude is a human trait but
reflected by a person’s attitude. behavior is an inborn attribute.
 Attitude is defined by the way we
perceive things whereas behavior is
ruled by social norms.

How do Attitude Influence Behaviour?

 Positive Attitude:
o A person who has positive attitudes towards work and co-workers (such
as contentment, friendliness, etc.) can positively influence those around them.
 Example: People with a good attitude are active and productive
and do what they can to improve the mood of those around them.
 Negative Attitudes:
o A person who displays negative attitudes (such as discontentment,
boredom, etc.), will behave accordingly.
 Example: People with these types of attitudes towards work may
likewise affect those around them and behave in a manner that
reduces efficiency and effectiveness.
 Selfish Attitude:
o It will guide an individual's actions in a selfish manner.
 Example: Holding one's self-interest as the standard for decision
making.
 Logic or Rational Attitudes:
o It develops rational behaviour.
 Example: A rational person will not act superstitiously and will always
try to find rational behind any act.
 Egoistic Attitude:
 o It will result in a negative attitude and behaviour.
 Example: Elder individuals control their younger siblings even if they
are wrong to satisfy their ego of being elder.
 Attitude based on Values and Beliefs:
o It will act according to the values.
 Example: In India touching the feet of elders is guided by an
attitude of giving respect to them.

What do we understand by Moral and Political Attitudes?

 Moral Attitude:
o Morality refers to righteousness. Moral attitudes are attitudes concerned
with righteous manners. Thus, Moral attitudes is not a neutral concept. It is
a bias towards righteousness or virtuousness. Some of the moral attitudes
are:
 Goodness
 Respect
 Love & Compassion
 Selflessness
 Empathy
 Political Attitude:
o Political Attitudes are a set of which an individual approaches a political
problem and which determines his line of conduct towards that problem.
o It’s also a set of rules & regulations, customs, traditions, beliefs that
influences the political system of that country.
o The sum total of political attitudes of an individual reveals that person’s
outlook on the political aspect of social living. They define the relationship
between the citizen, govt and functions of the political system.
o Examples:
 Voting behaviour of voters in an Elections decided by political attitudes
followed by individual and political parties
 Govt policies were of socialist nature when India got independence
but after the LPG era in 1990’s India opened its economy and
followed pro market policy.
Goal Setting

Goal-setting is the process of taking active steps to achieve your desired outcome. Maybe
your dream is to become a teacher, musician or physical therapist. Each one of these dreams
involves setting and reaching small (and big!) goals. Each of these major goals can be broken
down into smaller, more attainable goals that will propel you towards success.

1. Perform a brainstorming session.

Give yourself six minutes to brainstorm a list of anything you’d like to achieve, create, do,
have, give and/or experience in the next 20 years. Write as many items down as fast as you
can in this time. Use the rocking chair test to come up with ideas: Picture yourself in
retirement, thinking back on your life from your rocking chair. What accomplishments will
you be most proud of? What will you most regret? These are your most important answers to
the question, “Why is goal setting important?”
2. Refine your goals

Setting deadlines is crucial to goal setting. Go back through your list and write one, three,
five, 10 or 20 years next to each goal to indicate how long it will take to achieve them. Some
goals take a lifetime to achieve, but make sure you are pushing yourself toward both
professional and personal growth. If you don’t know how long a goal will take – like finding
a healthy relationship – write down how long you would like it to take. Remember what Tony
says: “Goals are like magnets. They’ll attract the things that make them come true.”

3. Connect your goals to your purpose.

Go over what you’ve written. Choose your top four one-year goals. These are goals that
excite you because they are most connected to your purpose in life. Write a paragraph for
each goal explaining why you will achieve this goal within the next 12 months. This isn’t a
to-do list. This is creating a vision for your life. When you have a powerful reason “why,”
you’ll more easily discover the “how.”
4. Create SMART goals.

Now it’s time to take those big goals and break them down into smaller SMART goals. Are
your goals specific? Measurable? Achievable? Realistic? Do they have a specific timeframe?
These are the components of a SMART goal. Breaking down your goals in this way sets a
strong purpose and intention, making them more concrete and easier to achieve. You’ll also
be able to better track your progress and celebrate your successes – two keys to achieving
goals we’ll talk about next.
How to achieve your goals

Learning how to set goals is worthless if you don’t learn how to achieve goals. Set yourself
up for success by following these tips.

1. Visualize your goals

Where focus goes, energy flows, so it’s critical to focus on your goals. Visualization is one
powerful way to do this. When you visualize your goals on a daily basis as if you’ve already
achieved them, you align your purpose and values with your actions. Everyone from star
athletes to entrepreneurs uses visualization as well as practices like vision boards to help with
goal setting. You can even tape images of your goals on the mirror in your bathroom or pin
them to the wall next to your computer. If your goals involve adopting a healthy diet and
losing weight, put them on the front of your refrigerator or a kitchen cabinet.

2. Keep yourself accountable

Find a friend, family member or another person you trust and share your list of goals with
them. You can also share the list with a mentor or life coach. Sharing your list will make you
more accountable and give you a partner who will work with you through frustrations or
roadblocks. The right partner can help you transform obstacles into opportunities and stay on
track.

3. Track your progress

Have a set schedule to review both short- and long-term goal setting. This helps you track
progress as well as determine what activities are helping you and which are hindering you.
It’s important to know when you need to make alterations to your course. As Tony says,
“Stay committed to your decisions, but stay flexible in your approach.” Don’t lose sight of
your ultimate goal, but remember that life is happening for you, not to you.

4. Celebrate your successes

Goal setting doesn’t have to be a boring set of tasks to check off. When you’re planning your
goals, include ways to celebrate your successes. If you’re working toward financial freedom,
set aside a budget for a nice dinner when you reach a certain goal. Celebrate relationship
milestones. Got that promotion? Share it with the world and celebrate. It will help you stay
focused – while also being present in the moment.

Why is goal setting important? Imagine yourself older and looking back. What’s the pain
from not achieving, and what is the pleasure from having achieved your goals? Effective goal
setting helps you stay focused, keeps you accountable and is the single most important aspect
of reaching your dreams.
Module 3

Professional Writing Skills

Module Description

Unit 3.1 Academic Writing

Unit 3.2 Business Writing

Table of Contents

Unit 3.1 Writing skills

Aim…………………………………………………………………………...

Instructional Objectives…………………………………………………….

Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………………

3.1.1 Paragraph Writing…………………………………………………….

Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………

3.1.2 Report Writing…………………………………………………………

Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………

Summary………………………………………………………………………

Terminal Questions……………………………………………………………

Answer Keys……………………………………………………………………

Activity…………………………………………………………………………...

Glossary………………………………………………………………………….

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………

e-References……………………………………………………………………...

Video Links………………………………………………………………………...

Image Credits…………………………………………………………………….

Keywords………………………………………………………………………….
Aim

Instructional Objectives

Learning Outcomes
3.1 Writing skills

There are four types of writing: Expository, Descriptive, Persuasive, and Narrative.
Each type has its significance and uses for distinct purpose. A single text may include
more than one writing style.

Expository

Expository writing is one of the most common types of writing. It is written in expository
style, a style of writing that focuses on accepted facts rather than on the authors
opinion. When an author writes in an expository style, all they are trying to do is explain
a concept, imparting information from themselves to a wider audience.

For example

 Textbook
 Articles
 Recipes

 News stories (not editorials or Op-Eds)

 Business, technical, or scientific writing

Descriptive

Descriptive writing is commonly found in fiction and non-fiction as well. This style of
writing revolves around the author’s impressions via their five senses (hear, see, smell,
taste, or touch) where they try to explain the scene based on the senses. In this style of
writing, the author’s emphasis on the literary devices like metaphor etc., describes the
things in a more unique literary style.
For example

 Poetry
 Journal/diary writing
 Descriptions of Nature
 Fictional novels or plays.
 Memoirs
 Travel guides

Persuasive

Persuasive writing is the main style of writing practised in academic papers. In

persuasive style, the author persuades the audience through his justification and
reasons to convince the authors opinions and bias for the position or belief. Any
“argumentative” essay you write in school should be in the persuasive style of writing.

For example

 Cover letters

 Op-Eds and Editorial newspaper articles

 Reviews of items
 Letters of complaint
 Advertisements
 Letter of recommendation

Narrative

Narrative writing is practised in longer piece of writing, whether fiction or nonfiction. In a

narrative style, a story is depicted using the characters, settings, historical experiences.
This style imparts information that is more constructive and complete and is essentially
a story telling.

For example

 Oral histories

 Novels/Novellas
 Poetry (especially epic sagas or poems)
 Short Stories
 Anecdotes

3.1.1 Paragraph writing

Paragraph Paragraphs are the group of sentences combined, about a certain topic. A
paragraph writing is a structured way of representing the information, ideas, thoughts
etc. This is the most often way of practising in a longer piece of writing like novels,
stories, emails, essay etc for a simpler understanding and reading. We can say that a
well-structured paragraph is the essence of proficient writing.

Excellent paragraphs are an available writing skill for plenty of types of literature, and
proper writers can beautify the clarity of their news, essays, or fiction writing whilst
constructing nicely.

Structure of a Paragraph has three major parts-

 Topic sentence
 Supporting sentences
 Concluding sentence

1. Topic Sentence

The topic sentence is a specific statement that shows the main idea of the
paragraph. It is written to give a glimpse the main theme to the reader and written
carefully focussing on the word's choice to avoid ambiguity and disinterest to the
readers.

It is not necessary to write the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. It
can be put anywhere if it reflects the main topic. For instance, if the topic sentence is
written as methods to eradicate social discrimination, then in supporting sentence
you should only talk about methods, not the definition or anything else.

2. Supporting Sentences
The detailed explanation of the topic sentence is given in the supporting sentences.
The supporting sentence explains it by including quotes, facts, questions etc to
elaborate the essence and comprehensiveness of the topic.

There can be two types of Supporting sentences.

First, the major supporting sentence; this sentence completely elaborates the theme
and idea of the topic statement.

Second, a minor support sentence helps the major supporting sentence develop the
controlling idea.

3.Conclusion Sentence

A paragraph is incomplete without a good conclusion. A conclusion is the last

paragraph in any piece of writing that comprehends the elaborative part in few lines
like summary of the main topic.

A good conclusion can either be just reiterating the topic again or it could be
concluded with a few main points which were not exclusively mentioned in the
paragraph.

Elements of a Good Paragraph

A perfect and well-written paragraph comprises a key sentence, applicable

supporting sentences, and a last (or transition) sentence. This structure is
fundamental to maintaining your paragraph centred on the main concept and creating
a clear and concise photo. To add something interesting, and adding an interesting
fact in your content does not necessarily follow the conventional paragraph structure,
it is more about scene building and continuing a story. Professionally written
paragraphs are a staple of suitable flash fiction and short fiction writing, as short
testimonies need to target a principal concept. When your sentences are unified and
connected with other sentences, you can write a good paragraph.
Example of Paragraph

Global warming is defined as the increase in the average temperature of the planet
earth. This increase in the temperature was uncommon and more observed in the
last century due to anthropogenic reasons. The greenhouse gasses emissions into
the atmosphere are the main contributor of the global warming. The usage of fossil
fuels in all the spheres of life multiplied the negative effect. The effect of global
warming is more than the rise in temperature and includes undesirable effects on the
earth’s natural process. The unpredictable rainfall patterns, rapidly melting glaciers,
alarming sea level increase, coral bleaching, seasonal differences etc. To expect
similar weather changes, scientists constructed models. These climate patterns are
used to simulate the interactional responses of the sea and environment. They
predict a rise of around 2 degrees Celsius to 6 degrees Celsius in the coming years.

The soaring temperatures is an alarming bell to the world about the global response
to the undesirable consequences of the global warming. The nature protection is vital
to save the planet earth and make it more sustainable to live in.

 As you can see that the main idea of the paragraph was describing
the global warming.
 Then there are many supporting sentences supporting the main idea
and expanding it in a way that the picture becomes clear in the reader’s
mind.
 Concluding sentence “The nature protection is vital to save the planet
earth and make it more sustainable to live in” encapsulates the main
intention behind the topic and establishes a link to the above information.

Strategies to write Paragraph writing.

The strategies to write a paragraph is quite simple to understand and applies to all
kinds of paragraph writing equally. The framework for fiction is less strict than for
nonfiction. The prime thing in any paragraph writing is there must be logical and
reasonable connection between the paragraphs. These aspects aid in the coherency
of your body paragraphs, linking them together to form a unified whole around a topic
or to establish a narrative style.

1. Contemplate and write

Start writing the paragraphs only after contemplating the topic given. This gives a
chance to present the topic in a structured paragraph writing that does not loose
link and connection between the paragraphs. This can be done by doing ground
level work that includes collecting the relevant information like facts, quotes,
theories, statements etc. In this stage try to write more questions that gives the big
picture of the topic.

2. Answering

In this stage, all the answers to the questions must be given. Trying to give in
pointers provides the gist of the topic.

3. Main Idea

After information gathering, the apt one must be chosen to give the main idea that
operates as the main theme of the topic.

4. Vocabulary

The vocabulary is one of the main pillars of any piece of writing. The ideas can be
expressed only through the vocabulary that is lucid and apt.

5. Begin with the Topic sentence

 The topic sentence is an introductory sentence that must be attractive
encapsulating the theme of the topic. It must set a tone that creates an interest in
the audience and connects to the piece of writing. Even in fiction, a paragraph's
introduction either creates or extends an idea or scenario from the previous
paragraph.

Every successful paragraph starts with a central topic that the rest of the
paragraph aims to support, regardless of what style or genre you are writing for.

6. The Intermediate Sentences Should be Used to Provide Support.

Follow-up information to your main sentence or prior paragraph is included in

these sentences. These phrases are where you persuade your reader to believe
or imagine what you believe and offer them all they need to see your point of
view.

7. Make Use of Transitional Words.

Transition words help unite disparate paragraphs to generate a unified theme.

Readers will be able to trace your ideas and comprehend how they relate to one
another if you use phrases like "in addition" or "moreover," which will make for a
smoother, more enjoyable reading experience. This is especially important for
essayists and bloggers, who frequently share a single concept with their audience
at a time.

8. Conclusion

This is the last segment of the paragraph writing which reflects the main idea of
the topic in a simplified way followed by the arguments and factors.

The conclusion style differs from topic to topic. For instance, in argumentative
essay, the style ends in a questioning tone to leave the reader in thinking mode.
3.1.2 Report Writing

What is Report Writing?

The style of presenting the unbiased, objective information and facts is Report writing. The
report writing can be in both verbal and written. However, a written report is more formal
than a verbal report. There are several types of reports:
 News reports
 Academic reports
  Science reports
 Business reports
 Technical reports

Definition

Report writing is the process of organizing and presenting information in a clear, concise,
and objective manner for a specific audience. It involves gathering data, analysing it, and
presenting it in a format that is easy to understand and relevant to the topic at hand. – The
University of Wisconsin Writing Centre

Report writing is the art of communicating information that has been acquired through
research or investigation in a formal, structured manner. It involves synthesizing
information, drawing conclusions, and making recommendations based on the findings. –
The American Management Association
 Report writing is the process of creating a document that provides information, analysis,
and recommendations on a particular topic or issue. It requires the ability to organize and
present data in a logical and meaningful way, as well as to convey complex ideas in a clear
and concise manner. – The International Business Communication Standards (IBCS)

Report Writing Advantage

The advantages of the written report over the verbal report.

 A written report is recorded and listed and can be a quick reference document, which
is not possible in the verbal report.
 A written report is a distortion less document where the chances of misrepresentation
is less. On the other hand, a message can be easily misrepresented in a verbal
report.
 A written report is more convenient for lengthy and distant communication.
 A written report requires a reader to think before responding to a message.
 The facts, information, statistical data can be well presented in the written report
through figures, mind mapping, concept mapping which is not possible in the verbal
report.

Nonetheless, the report writing is not so simple and involves several prerequisites which
includes the careful study and research of the information, verify the validity of the
information, analyse and finally present the relevant factual information. It is imperative to
keep in mind , any report written must be unbiased and objective in purpose. It is a brief and
precise written for a specific audience.

Though it is not mandatory to end all the reports on advisory note but any kind of action
towards its implementation is preferred as it sets the audience to take some new challenges.

Therefore, while report writing, you must pay attention to why you are writing the report and
who has asked you to write the report. This will help you investigate the information
appropriately.

Parts of a Report

Following are the main sections of a formal report:

 Introduction
 Background
 Findings
 Conclusions
 Recommendations

Introduction
This part must begin with the elements like purpose of the report, who has ordered the
report, how the data is collected, and whether any recommendations are provided. In
addition, the introduction section may also provide information on who has written the report
and the date on which it is submitted.

Background

This section provides the background of a problem or a situation on which the report is
written. In case the report is too lengthy, then instead of introduction, an executive summary
should be written.

The purpose of an executive summary is to enable top executives and managers to get a
quick snapshot of a long report without reading the entire report. Therefore, the executive
summary comes before introduction. Of course, then there would be no background section.

Findings

The lengthy part of the report is found in the Findings section where the whole investigation
data without any interpretations and suggestions is written and presented.

Conclusions

The conclusion is given to each finding in a summarised way. The number of conclusions
are based on the number of findings. These conclusions are listed numerically in the same
order as the corresponding findings.

Recommendations

This section is the final one that gives list of recommendations based on the number of
conclusions. Each conclusion must have one recommendation and it must use the verb
should. This is because the writer is simply giving suggestions and not deciding. Therefore,
the verb ‘should’ be used instead of the verb ‘will’. However, there are exceptions:

 To give a strong recommendation: Use the verb must. For example, ‘The
team managers must ensure that the break hours are not shortened.’
 To give a weak recommendation: Use the verb could. For example, ‘Having
a coffee dispenser in the facility could boost the staff morale.’

Types of Reports

Reports are written in several ways and forms in the workplace, organisations, academics
etc. Each report serve a special purpose like the scientific report by the scientists, field report
by the policymakers, departmental report by the government employees, lab report by the
students etc.

Whatever be the purpose, all these reports share the attributes, principles, and format of
report writing, which are described above. These reports can be organised into three
groups:
  Informational reports
 Analytical reports
 News reports

Informational reports

An informational report is used to objectively present information without any analysis.

Examples of informational reports include the First Information Report (FIR), annual reports,
monthly financial reports, or employee attrition reports. These reports only report the facts as
they are.

For example, the police write an FIR to record details about a cognisable offence, such as
personal details of the complainant/informant, place, date and time of occurrence, offence,
description of the accused, witnesses, and complaint.

Similarly, a company presents an annual report to its shareholders to present details of its
business activities and finances of the previous financial year. An informational report
presents objective facts without analysing the reasons and conditions behind the reported
situation.

For example, if someone wants to study information on a field trip, then he can ask for a site
visit report. Similarly, if a manager wants to view the feedback of a training programme, then
he can ask for the training feedback report from the trainer. If the head of a department
wants to get an update on the different projects in his department, he can ask for progress
reports from different project managers.

Analytical reports

An analytical report evaluates a problem or an issue and presents the outcomes of analysis
to explain the causes of the problem, demonstrate relationships, or make recommendations.

For example, a scientific or market research report studies a problem scientifically by

developing a hypothesis, gathering data, analysing data, and presenting findings and
conclusions.

Similarly, a feasibility analysis report studies a problem and predicts whether the current
solution or alternatives will be practical or will produce the desired outcome. Whenever you
need to make a critical decision, then an analytical report is prepared. These reports help the
decision-maker(s) analyse the prevailing situation.

For example, a company wants to decide where to open a branch office in a particular area.
In this situation, an analytical report can evaluate the details of the property, such as
infrastructure, land cost, competitive stores, etc., and then recommend the best site from the
available options.

News reports
If you are working as or aspire to be a journalist, then you may need to write a press report.
A press report is a newsworthy article in a newspaper, magazine, or website. It is different
from the press release by companies. A press release is an official statement of a company
on an important subject or event. A press release generally focuses on one particular
subject, such as a milestone, a launch, an anniversary, etc.

On the other hand, a press report discusses the subject in detail. A press release is a
marketing tool used by companies to keep the general public and the media updated about
its newsworthy occasions. It helps build a company’s visibility in the minds of its customers
and community at large.

A press release is generally prepared by a company’s marketing or Public Relations (PR)

team, whereas a press report is written by an independent journalist. Therefore, a press
report presents more objective information than a press release, which is a company’s
promotional mouthpiece. Just like informational and analytical reports, a press report
requires considerable research on a subject before it is written credibly.

The author must ask the 5 W s and 1 H – who, what, where, why, when, and how. Questions
arise in the following manner:

 What happened?
 Where did it happen?
 When did it happen?
 Who was involved?

 Why did it happen?

 How did it happen?

After finding the answers, he must note down all the relevant facts that must be mentioned in
the news report. These facts can be organised into the following three groups:

 Vital and interesting facts

 Not vital but interesting facts

 Not vital, not interesting, but related facts

By organising information into the above groups, the author will be able to include all the
relevant facts into the news report. The facts must be specific. If there are gaps in the story
and the related information is not available, then questions can be marked against them so
that these can be researched further.

Next, the author must decide the type of news report he wants to write – informational or
analytical. The former will provide objective and straightforward information, whereas the
latter will also provide the author’s opinion on the subject.

After determining the type of news report to write, the author must create an outline or
structure of the report. The most common structure is an inverted triangle, where the most
important information is at the top.
A news report must provide the information that the readers want as soon as possible. If the
news report is for a newspaper, then the most important news must be above the “fold”. The
“fold” is the crease in the newspaper when it is folded in half. All the engaging stories are
above the fold. Similarly, on a website, the most important information is at the top of the
screen before one must scroll down.

A news report must be written according to the audience. The author should ask the 5Ws
with respect to the audience reaction, such as:

 Who is the audience?

 Where is the audience?
 What does the audience want to read?
 Why do they want to read it?

 When will they read it?

Structure of News Report

Finally, the structure of a news report is as follows:

 Lead
 Remaining details
 Informational news report
 Analytical news report
 Additional details
 Concluding sentence

Lead

The leading sentence of a news report is the most important section. It should tell what the
news report is all about, why it is important, and what information the rest of the news report
provides.

Remaining details

These provide the basic information of what happened, where it happened, when it
happened, who was involved, and why it was remarkable.

Informational news report

In this report, the remaining details provide more information about the newsworthy item.

Analytical news report

In this report, the remaining details also provide the opinion of the author.

Additional details
These details help the reader learn more about the newsworthy item, such as additional
facts about the subject, contact information, or interview quotes. These details comprise
transitional elements that help build the flow of information. In an analytical report, these can
also include counterarguments and their authors.

Concluding sentence

The news report should end with a concluding sentence, which repeats the leading
statement or a statement mentioning future developments.

Report Writing Process

By following the report writing process, an accurate, reliable, credible and comprehensive
report can be delivered. This process comprises of:

 Identify
 Research
 Organise

Identify

Before writing a report, identify the following parameters:

 Issue or problem: Identify the issue or problem to analyse.

 Audience: Identify who the audience is. Find out their background
information. Determine why they would want to read the report.
 Purpose: Determine the purpose for which the report will be used.
 Scope and limitations: Identify the scope of the report. Determine the
limitations of report writing.
 Expectations: Determine expectations regarding the format or structure of
the report. Identify the models available for report writing. Determine whether
there is a style guide and/or a marketing guide.

Research

To research the facts or information for report writing:

 Plan: Make a draft plan on how to analyse the problem and present the
objective of the report.
 Collect data: Collect information based on the purpose of the report.
 Analyse: Finally, analyse and evaluate the collected information.

Organise

After gathering and analysing the required information, organise it as follows:

  Main points: Identify the main points of the report. These main points should
be supported by adequate evidence.
 Additional information: Identify the supporting information that analyses and
confirms the main points. This information should be placed in appendices.
 Logical structure: Organise the entire information into a logical structure to
help the readers easily navigate to the desired part of the report.

 Write: After deciding the logical structure of the report, fill in the elements of
the report, including executive summary, main body, introduction and conclusion.
 Revise: Finally, verify if it is appropriate for the problem, audience, and
purpose.

Sample Reports

After the draft outlining, the next step involves segregating the content and put them under
the main heading. The sample given above is basically the format that is widely followed and
implemented. Few more sections can be added depending upon the requirement.

Let us look at every section in detail.

Title

The title of your report should be clear in its wording. It must say exactly what the report is
about. Remember that this isn’t a novel. Include a subtitle if necessary, making sure the font
size of each subtitle is smaller than the title.

In terms of design, your title can be designed as an inviting cover page. There needs to be a
clear hierarchy in how the title looks.
Always leave the Table of Contents page until the end. After all, you can’t write a table of
contents if you don’t know all your page numbers yet.

However, if your Body outline already has each of your section and subsection titles defined,
you can add those to the contents and leave the numbering for later.

Having a Table of Content pages makes it easy for your readers to find the information
they're most interested in quickly and easily, improving overall readability. So, you absolutely
do not want to skip this.
Likewise, the summary (also known as the abstract) of the report is best done after you’ve
finished writing the report. You can draft a summary at the beginning to help you continue
with the work, but you’ll want to revisit it at the end.

A summary is a blurb of the entire report. It must include the purpose, the process, and a
snippet of the resolution. This should be no longer than a single paragraph or two.
Introduction

In the introduction, state what the report is about and why it has been created. Depending on
the length of your report, the introduction could range from one single paragraph to an entire
page long.

For example, one paragraph is enough for a social media report introduction while an entire
page would be more suitable for an annual report.

Take this time to introduce why your topic is so important, especially if it's a research report.
You need to focus on why your readers should care about what you have uncovered.
Body

The body of your report is where all the information is put together and will be the longest
section of your report. This will likely span several (anywhere from 5-50) pages. Follow your
initial outline to maintain consistent flow in the content creation. Write the body content as
sections and subsections.

Furthermore, use bullet points and data visualization as visual cues. These will help your
audience to better understand the content of your report.
Conclusion

Close your report with a well-crafted conclusion. Formulate it as a brief summary of what
was covered within the report, and be sure to include a mention to the recommendations
section and the resources in the appendix.

This section should never bring new information to the table — instead, it should simply
summarize all of the findings you've already mentioned into one concise final section.
Recommendations

Craft the recommendations section as a set of actionable steps with smart goals associated
along with possible solutions. This section is irrelevant for school reports or book reports, but
is essential in a business setting.
Appendices

This is the section where you list all your sources if it’s a research report. You should also
add any links that are relevant to the report — or previous reports about the same topic.

You could even link an interactive version of the report you just created with Viseme. Viseme
allows you to create interactive and animated documents that can be published to the web
with a single click, offering a new dimension to your report.

A good rule of thumb when creating your appendices is to only add information that is
relevant to the report or that you referenced when writing your report. Use reference
annotations inside the report to link to the content in the appendix.
Table of Contents

Unit 3.1 Business Writing

Aim………………………………………………………………………….
Instructional Objectives…………………………………………………….
Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………………

3.1.1 Product and Process Writing…………………………………………

Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………

3.1.2 Speaking from the script……………………………………………

Self-Assessment Questions…………………………………………

Summary………………………………………………………………………

Terminal Questions……………………………………………………………

Answer Keys……………………………………………………………………

Activity…………………………………………………………………………...

Glossary………………………………………………………………………….

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………

e-References…………………………………………………………………….

Video Links……………………………………………………………………….

Image Credits…………………………………………………………………….

Keywords………………………………………………………………………….
3.1.1 Product and process writing

Product approach

The product writing is an approach to teaching writing that a student must follow to
deliver the final product. In the Product approach, the students are generally
encouraged to mimic a model text, which is usually presented and analysed at an
early stage.

Stages of a product approach:

Stage 1
Model texts are read, and then features of the genre are highlighted. For example, if
studying a formal letter, students' attention may be drawn to the importance of
paragraphing and the language used to make formal requests. If studying a story,
the focus may be on the techniques used to make the story interesting, and students
focus on where and how the writer employs these techniques.

Stage 2
This consists of controlled practice of the highlighted features, usually in isolation.
So, if students are studying a formal letter, they may be asked to practise the
language used to make formal requests, practising the 'I would be grateful if you
would…' structure.

Stage 3
Organisation of ideas. This stage is very important. Those who favour this approach
believe that the organisation of ideas is more important than the ideas themselves
and as important as the control of language.

Stage 4
The end result of the learning process. Students choose from a choice of
comparable writing tasks. Individually, they use the skills, structures, and vocabulary
they have been taught to produce the product; to show what they can do as fluent
and competent users of the language.

Process approach

Process approaches to writing tend to focus more on the varied classroom activities
which promote the development of language use: brainstorming, group discussion,
re-writing. Such an approach can have any number of stages, though a typical
sequence of activities could proceed as follows;

Stage 1
Generating ideas by brainstorming and discussion. Students could be discussing
qualities needed to do a certain job, or giving reasons as to why people take drugs
or gamble. The teacher remains in the background during this phase, only providing
language support if required, so as not to inhibit students in the production of ideas.

Stage 2
Students extend ideas into note form, and judge quality and usefulness of ideas.
Stage 3
Students organise ideas into a mind map, spider gram, or linear form. This stage
helps to make the (hierarchical) relationship of ideas more immediately obvious,
which helps students with the structure of their texts.

Stage 4
Students write the first draft. This is done in class and frequently in pairs or groups.

Stage 5
Drafts are exchanged, so that students become the readers of each other's work. By
responding as readers, students develop an awareness of the fact that a writer is
producing something to be read by someone else, and thus can improve their own
drafts.

Stage 6
Drafts are returned, and improvements are made based upon peer feedback.

Stage 7
A final draft is written.

Stage 8
Students once again exchange and read each other's work and perhaps even write
a response or reply.

A comparison
There are several ways to approach writing in the classroom. It should be said at the
beginning that there is not necessarily any 'right' or 'best' way to teach writing skills.

The best practice in any situation will depend on the type of student, the text type
being studied, the school system and many other factors. Thus, this article cannot
prescribe a system for the teaching of writing that is optimal for all teaching
 situations. Rather, I hope to describe and contrast two popular, yet very different,
approaches and examine how both can be used in the classroom.

 A product approach.
 A process approach.
 A summary of the differences
 Which approach to use?
 One or the other
 Further reading

A process approach
Process approaches to writing tend to focus more on the varied classroom
activities which promote the development of language use: brainstorming, group
discussion, re-writing. Such an approach can have any number of stages, though a
typical sequence of activities could proceed as follows.

Stage 1
Generating ideas by brainstorming and discussion. Students could be discussing
qualities needed to do a certain job, or giving reasons as to why people take drugs
or gamble. The teacher remains in the background during this phase, only
providing language support if required, so as not to inhibit students in the
production of ideas.

Stage 2
Students extend ideas into note form, and judge quality and usefulness of ideas.

Stage 3
Students organise ideas into a mind map, spider gram, or linear form. This stage
helps to make the (hierarchical) relationship of ideas more immediately obvious,
which helps students with the structure of their texts.

Stage 4
Students write the first draft. This is done in class and frequently in pairs or groups.

Stage 5
Drafts are exchanged, so that students become the readers of each other's work.
By responding as readers, students develop an awareness of the fact that a writer
is producing something to be read by someone else, and thus can improve their
own drafts.

Stage 6
Drafts are returned, and improvements are made based upon peer feedback.

Stage 7
A final draft is written.
 Stage 8
Students once again exchange and read each other's work and perhaps even write
a response or reply.

A summary of the differences

Process-driven approaches show some similarities with task-based learning, in that
students are given considerable freedom within the task. They are not curbed by
pre-emptive teaching of lexical or grammatical items. However, process
approaches do not repudiate all interest in the product, (i.e. the final draft). The aim
is to achieve the best product possible. What differentiates a process-focussed
approach from a product-centred one is that the outcome of the writing, the
product, is not preconceived.

Process writing Product writing

 imitate model text.
 text as a resource for comparison
 organisation of ideas more
 ideas as starting point.
important than ideas themselves
 more than one draft
 one draft
 more global, focus on purpose,
 features highlighted including
theme, text type, i.e., reader is
controlled practice of those
emphasised
features.
 collaborative
 individual
 emphasis on creative process
 emphasis on product
3.1.2 Speaking from the script.

Tip! While preparing the manuscript, consider who your audience is, so as to make it
effectual.

Making a speech comes to us as a ‘task’ sometimes. Be it in school, for a meeting, or at a

function; unless you are at ease with public speaking, speeches may not be everyone’s cup
of tea. A flawless and well-structured delivery is always welcome though. Memories of
delivering and listening to a variety of speeches are refreshed when confronted with
preparing for one.

Being the most effective way of communication, a speech is also a powerful medium of
addressing controversial issues in a peaceful manner. There are four types of speeches:
impromptu, extemporaneous, manuscript, and memorized. Each has its purpose, style, and
utility. We have definitely heard all of them but may not be able to easily differentiate
between them. Let’s understand what the manuscript type is like.

Definition of Manuscript Speech

This is when a speaker reads a pre-written speech word by word to an audience.

It is when an already prepared script is read verbatim. The speaker makes the entire speech
by referring to the printed document, or as seen on the teleprompter. It is basically an easy
method of oral communication.

Manuscript speaking is generally employed during official meetings, conferences, and in

instances where the subject matter of the speech needs to be recorded. It is used especially
when there is time constraint, and the content of the talk is of prime importance. Conveying
precise and succinct messages is the inherent purpose of this speech. Public officials
speaking at conferences, and their speech being telecast, is a pertinent example.

Examples

There can be various occasions where this style of speech is used. It depends on the
context of the address, the purpose of communication, the target audience, and the intended
impact of the speech. Even if it is understood to be a verbatim, manuscript speaking requires
immense effort on the part of the speaker. Precision in the delivery comes not just with exact
reading of the text, but with a complete understanding of the content, and the aim of the talk.
We have witnessed this through many examples of eloquence, like the ones listed below.

 A speech given by a congressman on a legislative bill under consideration.

 A report read out by a Chief Engineer at an Annual General Meeting.
 A President’s or Prime Minister’s address to the Parliament of a foreign nation.
 A televised news report (given using a teleprompter) seen on television.
 A speech given at a wedding by a best man, or during a funeral.
 A religious proclamation issued by any religious leader.
 A speech in honour of a well-known and revered person.
  Oral report of a given chapter in American history, presented as a high school
assignment.

Advantages and Disadvantages

 Precision in the text or the speech helps catch the focus of the audience.
 It proves very effective when you must put forth an important point in less time.
 Concise and accurate information is conveyed, especially when talking about
contentious issues.
 If you are not clear in your speech and cannot read out well, it may not attract any
attention of the audience.
 As compared to a direct speech, in a manuscript that is read, the natural flow of the
speaker is lost. So is the relaxed, enthusiastic, interactive, and expressive tone of the
speech lost.
 A manuscript speech can become boring if read out plainly, without any effort of non-
verbal communication with the audience.

Tips for an Appealing Manuscript Speech

 Use a light pastel paper in place of white paper to lessen the glare from lights.
 Make sure that the printed or written speech is in a bigger font size than normal, so
that you can comfortably see what you are reading, which would naturally keep you
calm.
 Mark the pauses in your speech with a slash and highlight the important points.
 You can even increase the spacing between words for easier reading (by double or
triple spacing the text).
 Highlight in bold the first word of a new section or first sentence of a paragraph to
help you find the correct line faster.
 Don’t try to memorize the text, highlights, or the pauses. Let it come in the flow of
things.
 Practice reading it out aloud several times, or as many times as you can.
 Try keeping a smile on your face while reading.
 Keep in mind that a manuscript speech does not mean ‘mere reading out’.
Maintaining frequent eye contact with the audience helps involving them into the
subject matter.
MODULE 4

Soft Skills at Workplace

Module Description

Unit 4.1 Time Management, Etiquette, Body Language

Unit 4.2 Presentation Skills, Public Speaking, Group Discussion

Unit 4.3 Leadership, Problem solving, Decision Making

Table of Contents

Unit 4.1 Time Management, Etiquette, Body Language

Aim

Instructional Objectives

Learning Outcomes

4.1.1 Time Management

Self-Assessment Questions

4.1.2 Etiquette

Self-Assessment Questions

4.1.3 Body Language

Self-Assessment Questions

Summary

Terminal Questions

Answer Keys

Activities

Glossary

Bibliography

e-references

Video links

Image credits
4.1.1 Time Management

Time Management

Time management is the coordination of tasks and activities to maximize the

effectiveness of an individual's efforts. The purpose of time management is to enable
people to get more, and better work done in less time.

Elements of time management include organization, planning and scheduling to best

take advantage of the time available. Time management techniques also consider an
individual's particular situation and their relevant capabilities and characteristics.

Importance of time management

The importance of time management is in its ability to assign meaning to time, letting
people make the most of their time. In a business context, it is used to set goals and
expectations for companies and their employees. Good time management skills help
employees deliver quality work and meet their goals effectively. Time management
also helps managers to understand what employees are capable of and to set
realistic goals.

Poor time management skills cause employees to miss goals and deliver poor work,
become overly stressed out and anxious, and run short of time. When time is used
inefficiently, it has deleterious effects on employees, management, and the company.

Time poverty is a result of poor or non-existent time management. People find

themselves in this state when they have too much to do and too little time to do it.
Their personal lives suffer, and they feel increasingly overwhelmed with
responsibilities and activities despite working hard.

Time management requires active decisions about what a person wants to do.
Without time management, individuals continually react to external stimuli and lose a
sense of control over their work and lives. All work takes time, but some tasks are
more valuable than others. Reallocating time to higher-value work improves both
productivity and work-life balance. Good time management creates a healthier
workplace overall.

Benefits of time management

The benefits of effective time management apply equally to the business and its
employees. Some of these benefits include the following:

 Happier employees. When employees have enough time to get their work
done, they are happier and less prone to burnout.
 Improved creativity. When not stressed by time issues, employees have the
space and energy to be more creative in their work. They can actively engage
with their work instead of passively reacting to it. This increases innovation.
 Lower absenteeism. Stressed and burned-out employees take more sick and
other time off.
  Lower turnover. With a better work experience, employees are likely to stay at
a job and not look elsewhere.
 Increased productivity. Employees who are less likely to be absent and who
enjoy their work are more productive.
 Enhanced reputation. Businesses that encourage effective time management
are known as good places to work, improving employee recruitment and
retention.

Challenges of time management

Mallary Tytel, founder of consultancy Healthy Workplaces, categorizes barriers to

effective time management as either internal or external.

Internal barriers are ones that come from the individual and are within the individual's
control. They include factors such as the following:

· Lack of self-control. An individual who lacks self-control is prone to distraction and

might miss goals because of this.

· Procrastination. People put off tasks until they feel pressured to complete them.
This is a reactive behaviour.
 · Lack of motivation. An individual might not see the reason for completing
something, choosing to do something else and setting other goals.

· Anxiety. Individuals experiencing stress likely find it harder to focus and be decisive.

· People pleasing. A person who is preoccupied with pleasing everyone inevitably

fails because other people have conflicting needs; the individual will spread
themselves too thin trying to please them all. · Multitasking. Trying to do too many
things at once, or multitasking, can mean failing at all of them.

These internal factors relate to an individual's habits, behaviours, and actions.

Though the behaviours might be unconscious or ingrained, an individual has the
power to moderate their behaviours and change the way they use time.

External barriers are factors that come from outside the individual. They include
factors such as the following:

· Workload. An individual can end up with more work than they can handle.

· Job constraints. The job or workplace might keep the individual from reaching their
goals.

· Lack of corporate resources. A company might not provide the resources

employees need to complete their jobs. For example, it might be a remote-only
position, but the company doesn't provide collaboration tools for team members to
work well remotely. · Distractions. External life factors, such as a family emergency
or a global pandemic, might disrupt an individual's ability to manage their time
effectively. Basic time wasters such as social media can also be a time suck.

External barriers, unlike internal ones, are not within the individual's control. They
come from the outside environment. However, the individual can control how they
react to these barriers.

Time management tips and techniques

Below are a few tips for achieving better time management:

 Keep a journal of activities for a week to identify the times of day that are
likely to be most productive. Use that information to guide scheduling tasks.
 Take time at the start of each workday to make a to-do list of measurable
goals and methods of reaching them.
 Schedule daily tasks according to priority and include unscheduled time in the
day.
 Manage your communication availability. Open email and instant messaging
applications at scheduled times rather than engaging with them all day. ·
Follow other email management best practices, such as processing your
email in batches and organizing messages to be dealt later.
 Assume periodic interruptions will happen and add time to specific tasks to
allow for them.
 Manage your workload. Don't agree to more work than you can comfortably
do and discuss unreasonable demands with management.

Below are some time management techniques and tools:

 Pareto analysis. Based on the Pareto principle, Pareto analysis states that
80% of consequences come from 20% of causes. It is useful for categorizing
courses of action according to their importance or value in a given context. It
helps people use resources efficiently.
 Eisenhower matrix. The Eisenhower matrix is a tool to help with prioritization
that divides tasks into urgent tasks and important tasks. The goal is to get
people to prioritize more important tasks over less important but more time-
sensitive ones that take attention from the important ones.
 · Time blocking. Time blocking is a time management method that divides the
day into specific blocks of time.
 · Getting Things Done method. The Getting Things Done method is an
approach to task management that helps individuals stop overthinking big and
small tasks, and start prioritizing them, with the goal of reducing stress levels
to increase productivity and clarity of thought. It involves writing everything
down, categorizing it by importance and then doing the tasks. · Pomodoro
technique. The Pomodoro technique breaks time into 25-minute time slots of
focused work interspersed with five-minute breaks, with a longer break after
four consecutive work intervals. This helps people resist the urge to
procrastinate and multitask.
 · Productivity apps. Productivity apps can be used to set reminders and
create schedules.

Time management and management theory

 Many of the time management techniques are used in project management to

help teams reach their goals.
 Below are some broader theories and concepts related to time management
strategies:
 · Parkinson's law. The amount of work required to complete a given task will
expand to fill the time allotted to the task, according to Parkinson's law.
 · The 70% rule. By conserving energy, people can achieve better productivity
while working at a less intense pace, according to the 70% rule.
 · Hofstadter's law. A task always takes longer than estimated to complete,
according to Hofstadter's law. People overestimate the benefits of a system --
in this case, the individual's capacity to work under a time constraint. · Pickle
jar theory. The pickle jar theory is a visual metaphor to illustrate the fact that a
person's day can be filled with many small, unimportant things that take away
space from the important things.
4.1.2 Etiquette

The word "etiquette" comes from the French word "estique," meaning to attach or
stick. Etiquette is a set of unwritten rules that apply to social situations, professional
workplaces, and relationships. Etiquette includes a wide range of behaviours,
including kindness, consideration, elegance, style, and decorum.

Need for an Etiquette

 The need lies in making an individual cultured that earns respect from peers
and society.
 Etiquette serves the idea of the “First impression is the best impression”. It
helps in giving the everlasting impression.
 Etiquette symbolises the true inner personality that helps in building an
image in the society, in and around the surroundings.

Types of Etiquette

1. Professional Etiquette: Professional etiquette is an unwritten code of conduct

regarding the interactions among the members in a business setting. When
proper professional etiquette is used, all involved can feel more comfortable, and
things tend to flow more smoothly.

Professional etiquette plays a monumental role in making a lasting positive first

impression. In professional situations, displaying proper etiquette can give you a
competitive edge over others who may not be using proper etiquette. Likewise,
failing to use the correct etiquette may result in being overlooked for employment
or losing other valuable opportunities.

Professional etiquette can be applied to many areas of an individual’s work life

including e-mails, phone calls, and business meetings.

2. E-mail Etiquette: E-mail is a form of communication that most of us are familiar

with, but writing a professional e-mail should be approached much differently
than writing an e-mail to a friend or family member. When using e-mail for
communication with businesses, potential employers, professors, or people that
you have never met before, take these tips into account:

Have an e-mail address that is mature and professional sounding. Using your first
and last name, or initials and last name, etc. are safer bets. Include an
appropriate subject line. In the subject line of the e-mail, include a short and to
the point description which accurately reflects the subject of the e-mail.
Appropriate subject lines help recipients sort and locate specific e-mails in their
inboxes; subject lines such as “Hello” do not serve any function.
 Business e-mails should contain the recipient’s name. Be sure to use formal
titles (Mr., Mrs., Ms., or Dr) unless the recipient has asked you to use his or her
first name. If you are unsure whether a female recipient is married or not, use Ms.
Be aware of your tone. You want to sound friendly and approachable in e-mails.
Proofread (or have someone else proofread) your business e-mail before sending
to make sure that your tone does not come across as disrespectful, aggressive,
or demanding. Remove emotion from your e-mail correspondences; never use e-
mail to convey anger or annoyance. Do not type in all capital letters, using all
lowercase letters is also inappropriate. Get to the point. Try to keep your e-mail
brief, while still getting your point across. Don’t ramble or repeat information, but
also don’t sound too short with the person. Be friendly and clear but get to the
point. When replying to someone else’s e-mail, be sure to provide answers to any
inquiries they made to save time and eliminate the need for follow-up e-mails.

Avoid emoticons, abbreviations, and fancy formatting. Emoticons (such as smiley

faces) do not convey professionalism in an e-mail. Abbreviations that are now
common (LOL, TTYL, “U” instead of “you,” etc.) also appear unprofessional, and
may not be understood by everyone. Fancy fonts, formats, and layouts can be
distracting, so it is best to stick to plain text when composing a professional e-
mail. Use proper spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Misspelled words and
improper use of grammar and punctuation look unprofessional. Include your full
name at the bottom of your e-mail. This will ensure that the recipient knows who
has sent them the e-mail. It is also a good idea to have your contact information
in your signature, including your postal mailing address and phone number.
Reply quickly. When someone sends you an e-mail that requires a response, be
sure to reply within 24 hours. If possible, reply as soon as you receive their e-
mail. If it will require longer than 24 hours for you to appropriately respond to the
e-mail, at least send a reply to the person acknowledging their e-mail and stating
that you are working on acquiring necessary information to respond properly. Do
not send or forward jokes, chain letters, virus hoaxes, etc. Do not e-mail this type
of material to your professional e-mail contacts. It is unprofessional and wastes
the time and inbox space of the recipient. Additionally, never send or forward an
e-mail that contains potentially offensive, obscene, or defamatory content. Take
care with confidential information. Keep in mind that e-mail is not guaranteed to
be confidential. If you need to relay sensitive information, it may be best to handle
it in person.

3. Telephone Etiquette: Oftentimes telephone calls precede face-to-face meetings

with important professional contacts. When you use proper telephone etiquette
you help to ensure that the person you are talking to will want a face- to-face
meeting to take place. When placing telephone calls:

Keep the time in mind. Be familiar with the hours of operation when trying to
reach someone at his or her place of business. Avoid calling right at closing time.
If you have been given permission to contact someone at his or her personal
telephone number, never call before 8 a.m. or after 9 p.m.
Be polite to everyone with whom you speak. Never be rude to administrative
secretaries or other support staff who may answer your call. Not only is it
unprofessional, but you can be assured that the person that you are trying to
reach (professor, potential employer, etc.) will hear about it and this will tarnish
his or her opinion of you. Identify yourself.

Clearly state your first and last name to the person answering the call and let
them know the reason for your call. Ask if this is a good time to talk. Once you’ve
been connected to the person for whom you were calling, ask him or her if this is
a good time to talk. This is especially important if you anticipate that your call will
last longer than a few minutes. If you know that a particular call will be lengthy, it
may be best to schedule a specific time to call. When leaving messages on
voicemail, speak in a pleasant tone, be concise and to the point, and be sure to
leave your first and last name, the current date and time, your telephone number,
and brief explanation of the purpose of your call. Be sure to speak clearly and
slowly enough so the listener won’t have to replay the message repeatedly to
gather the information.

When answering calls: Use a friendly tone and greeting. Smile as you pick up the
phone and say, “Hello.” As silly as it may sound, smiling while talking on the
phone affects the way you speak, causing you to sound more pleasant. Speak
clearly. Avoid eating or chewing gum while on the telephone, as the sounds will
be amplified to the person on the other end of the phone. Hold the telephone
about two finger widths away from your mouth to ensure that you do not sound
muffled. Be mindful of the volume and speed of your speech.

Always ask permission before placing someone on speaker phone or on hold.

These features should only be used if necessary. End calls on a pleasant note.
Thank the person for calling you and wish them a nice day.

Voicemail: Make sure that the recorded message on your voicemail is

professional sounding in case you should happen to miss a call from a
professional or business contact. Make sure the message is polite and states
your name. Avoid being funny or clever on your outgoing message, and do not
use slang. Return all calls as soon as possible.

Cell phones: Remember your surroundings when using cell phones for business
or professional calls. Background noise is often picked up by cell phones, so it is
a good idea to move to a quiet area before placing or receiving business or
professional calls on a cell phone. This is also done out of respect for others who
may be nearby, as they likely do not want to be forced to listen to your phone
conversation. Also be sure that you are in an area where you get good reception
to avoid dropped calls during important conversations.
4. Meeting Etiquette: When meeting professional contacts such as professors,
mentors, and potential employers, you only get one chance to make a positive
first impression.

Some factors in achieving such an impression are appropriate attire and physical
appearance, the right verbal and non-verbal communication skills, as well as
manners and good business etiquette practices.

Cell phones: Do not allow cell phone interruptions. Before meeting with a
professional contact, make sure that your cell phone or other electronic
device is on silent mode or turned off and put away to avoid interruptions.
Also, do not check your missed calls or messages during professional
meetings or conversations. You want the person or people with whom you are
meeting to see that they have your undivided attention during that time.

Physical Appearance: When attending a professional function or meeting with a

professional contact: Dress appropriately for the situation. It is better to be slightly
overdressed than underdressed. Never wear wrinkled, worn, dirty, stained, or
faded clothing. Avoid headwear, shorts, jeans, sweats or athletic clothing, t-shirts,
flip-flops, and athletic shoes. Never wear anything that fits too snugly, is low-cut,
or otherwise revealing. Shoes should be clean, conservative, free of scuffs, and
in good condition.

Jewellery should be kept simple and minimal. Any visible piercings other than
earrings should be removed. Visible tattoos should be covered. Opinions on body
art vary, so it is best not to risk being judged by your tattoos if you have them.

Grooming is important. Men should either be clean-shaven or keep facial hair

well-groomed. Avoid outlandish hairstyles. Keep fingernails clean and neatly
trimmed or filed. Women should keep make-up simple and fresh-looking. Never
groom yourself in public. Use perfume or cologne with caution. Some people are
very sensitive to smells, so it is best to limit your use of perfume or cologne, or
not wear any at all.

Introductions: State your first and last name when introducing yourself. Wear
nametags on the right side of your shirt when at a function where nametags are
being used. This makes it easy for others to view the nametag as you are
shaking hands. Keep your right hand free for shaking hands. During an
introduction, stand up if you are not already doing so. Always extend your right
hand to shake hands with the other person. When you shake hands with
someone, the web of your hand (the area between your thumb and forefinger)
should touch theirs. Your grip on their hand should be firm, but not
uncomfortable. Handshakes typically should last around 3 seconds and consist of
3 up-and-down shakes. Maintain eye contact with the person to whom you are
introducing yourself, or to whom you are being introduced, until the introduction is
complete. Remember to smile. Make a closing statement at the conclusion of
your conversation such as, “It was a pleasure to meet you.” Never simply walk
away after an introduction.
 Conversing: Use proper grammar and vocabulary. When conversing with
others in a professional environment, be sure to speak in a grammatically correct
manner, avoid the use of slang words or phrases, and never use foul language.
Show interest and respect by using good listening skills. Look at the speaker
while he or she is speaking to you and give that person your full attention. Do not
interrupt. Stay focused on what the speaker is saying. When it is your turn to
speak, make comments or ask questions about that topic. This will let the other
person know that you were in fact actively listening. Avoid topics that could be
controversial. A meeting with a professional contact is not the time to debate
controversial subjects. Topics that should be avoided in conversations with
business contact include religion, politics, money, and illegal or questionable
activities. Also remember keep romantic details and details involving health
conditions within the bounds of good taste. Stick to safe topics when making
small talk with professional contacts. Examples of safe topics include: the topic of
your meeting or the event you are attending, current events, and books and
articles which relate to the industry in which the other person is involved. Don’t
forget your body language. When engaged in a conversation with another
person, it is important to make sure that your non-verbal communication is just as
positive as what you are verbally stating. Good posture, head-nodding, eye
contact, and smiling all convey positive messages. Tightly crossed arms,
fidgeting, slumping, leaning on objects, and looking away from the other person
all indicate something negative (you appear uncomfortable or disinterested.)

5.Business Meeting Etiquette: When you’ve been invited to meet in person with
a professional contact it is important to keep a few general rules in mind to show
that you respect this person and his or her time. Doing so will help you to make a
positive impression, and will make the encounter easier for all parties involved.
Confirm your attendance as soon as possible. If for some reason you find that
you will no longer be able to attend at the previously agreed-upon time, inform
the other person(s) involved immediately and offer a sincere apology for any
inconvenience. Arrive on time. Nothing makes a bad first impression faster than
being late.

In fact, it is a good idea to arrive a few minutes early to allow for any last-minute
preparations. Be prepared. Know what you are there to discuss, and have any
questions or ideas that you may have thought of jotted down so you will not forget
them. Bring along a pen and notepad to make notes during the meeting when
necessary. Be sure to bring any additional materials that you are expected to
have. Knock before entering if you are meeting someone in his or her office. In
this environment, do not sit before being invited to do so. Have cell phone turned
off or set to silent mode. Do this before entering the meeting. Do not check your
phone or messages until leaving the meeting. Actively participate in the meeting
by asking questions and making appropriate comments. However, you should
avoid interrupting others or being critical or negative. Also, try to stay on topic.
Thank others for the opportunity to meet with them.

5. Dining Etiquette: There may be times when you will meet with a business
contact over a meal or attend a professional
function where food is involved. It is possible that you may even attend a job
interview held at a restaurant. For these reasons, it is important to know proper
dining etiquette so that you may make a good impression. Be polite to all
restaurant staff that you encounter. The people you are dining with WILL notice
your manners and the way that you treat others. Cell phones should be turned off
or on silent mode. They should not be seen or heard during the meal. Being
seated: Wait to be seated by restaurant staff or your host. When you sit down,
place purses, bags, or briefcases out of the way on the floor beside you or under
your seat. Never place these items on the table. Ordering: Do not pick up your
menu until after your host has done so. Allow your host to order first. When
choosing your meal, consider selections that will not be messy or awkward to eat.
It is best to stick to something that you are familiar with, so you will know the
proper way to eat the food. If your host is paying for the meal, avoid choosing the
priciest selections on the menu. It is wise to avoid alcoholic beverages. Your
napkin: Once you’ve been seated at the table, unfold your napkin, and place it in
your lap. Never shake out your napkin, crumple it, or stuff it into your clothing. If
you need to use it during the meal, just bring a corner of it up from your lap and
gently blot your mouth with it and return it to your lap. If you need to leave the
table during the meal, place the napkin in your chair until you return; do not put it
back on the table. If you drop your napkin onto the floor, do not retrieve it. Instead
politely ask your server for

a new one. When everyone is finished their meal and leaving the table, you may
return your napkin to the table (to the left of the plate, if the plate is still there). Do
not rest your elbows or arms on the table. Also try to avoid fidgeting in your seat,
and try to maintain good posture. Feet should be flat on the floor in front of you.
Your silverware: In a formal place setting, there may be an assortment of utensils
on either side of your plate. Forks will be to the left, while spoons and knife will be
to the right, and there may even be utensils for dessert on the table above your
plate. Each utensil serves a specific purpose (salad fork, soup spoon, tea spoon,
etc.) and the ones placed farthest away from your plate on either side are the
ones that will be used earliest in the meal as each course is delivered. You work
your way in to the utensils closer to your

plate as the meal progresses and courses are served. If you are confused about
which utensil you should be using, follow your host’s lead. Never place a used
utensil on the table or tablecloth; they should rest on the edges of your plate, with
knife at the top edge and forks and spoons on the side edges. If you drop a
utensil on the floor, do not retrieve it; politely ask your server for a new one.
When you are finished eating, you should place your fork and knife diagonally
across your plate with the sharp edge of the knife facing away from you (in the 4
o’clock to 11 o’clock position) to indicate to your server that you are finished.
Things to remember while eating: - Allow your host to begin eating or drinking
before you do so. - Bring your food toward your mouth rather than leaning in
toward the food. - Close your mouth while chewing and never speak with food in
your mouth. - Never blow on your food to cool it. - Do not eat with your fingers
unless the food is a traditional “finger food” such as a sandwich - Try to eat at the
same pace as the others at your table. - Never “double dip” into shared
 appetizers or dishes. - Do not scrape your plate with silverware. Eating Soup:
Use your spoon to lift soup by dipping in the direction opposite yourself (rather
than shovelling towards yourself) and gently move the bottom of the spoon
against the inner rim of the bowl to remove any drips before bringing the spoon
towards your mouth to sip. You may tip your bowl slightly away from you when
trying to get the last bit of soup onto your spoon. Never pick the bowl up from the
table or drink from it. Excuse yourself to the restroom should you have to remove
food from your teeth, take medication, or groom yourself in any way during the
meal. These things should never be done at the table. The Bill: Assuming that
you are the invited guest who is being treated to a meal, if the server accidentally
places the bill in front of you at the end of the meal, do not make a big deal out of
it. Wait for your host to notice the mistake and take the bill. If he or she does not
take the bill from you, politely offer to split the expense. Always be capable of
payment, even if you are of the understanding that the other person is treating
you. Always thank your host for the meal and for taking time to meet with you!!

4.1.3 Body Language

Body language is a type of nonverbal communication that relies on body

movements (such as gestures, posture, and facial expressions) to convey messages.

The gestures, postures, and facial expressions by which a person manifests various
physical, mental, or emotional states and communicates nonverbally with others.

“Body language is one of the most important ways that we communicate with others,
yet it is probably the skill that receives the least amount of attention by individuals,”
says Anne Baum, author of Small Mistakes, Big Consequences: Develop Your Soft
Skills to Help You Succeed. “It is critically important to consider your body language
as it sends nonverbal cues that can undermine the words that are being said.”

Types of non – verbal communication

1) Facial Expression: Face is the index of the mind. Any feeling like anger, sad,
anxiety, confusion, uncertainty etc. can be easily identified through the face
expression. It is mostly used to know the state of the mind and figure out the situation
of an individual.

2) Eye Contact: The Tamil poet Subramanya Bharathi has praised upright bearing and
straight eye contact. It is vital for both the listener and speaker to maintain eye
contact along with the face contact. Anyone who fails to maintain eye contact is
basically considered as suspicious in their nature. In eastern countries, subordinates
or younger people may avoid direct eye contact out of respect or deference, but it will
be misunderstood in an international context.
3) Posture: The way a person stands or sits is his posture. It is good to adopt a flexible
erect posture rather than a stiff or slouching posture. An erect posture reveals
confidence and poise. Drooping shoulders, sagging in the seat, etc., reveal a
feeling of depression and lack of interest.

4) Gestures: The movement of hand and fingers is another way of communicating the
ideas and interests of an individual. For example, a wave of the hand is a sign of
“hello” or “bye”. A thumb up sign, a movement of the index finger communicates
messages effectively.

5) Head motion: It is an important way of signalling our like or dislike towards an idea.
The appropriate nods and shakes enhances the communication.

6) Paralanguage: In oral communication situations paralanguage plays an important

role while speaking or listening. Empathetic listening (ability to imagine and share
another person’s feelings, etc.) is characterised by the use of para-language. Our
speech is affected by the volume of our voice, the speed of articulation and such
sounds made by clicking of our tongue, chuckling, etc.

7) Silence: In oral communication, “silence” is considered as an effective way of

communication. The silence is considered as a signal of agreement, acceptance and
in some cases as a signal of disagreement, disinterest, anger.

8) Listening: In oral communication, simple hearing is considered as an incomplete

communication. A good listener is one who can empathetically connect to the
speaker and assess the situation. Listening is hearing attentively and responding
appropriately. If a person inclines towards the speaker, it means that the speaker is
not clear either in the message or in his articulation. If the listener tilts his head
backwards, it shows that he is indifferent.
Table of Contents

Unit 4.2 Presentation Skills, Public Speaking, Group Discussion

Aim

Instructional Objectives

Learning Outcomes

4.2.1 Presentation Skills

Self-Assessment Questions

4.2.2 Public Speaking

Self-Assessment Questions

4.2.3 Group Discussion

Self-Assessment Questions

Summary

Terminal Questions

Answer Keys

Activities

Glossary

Bibliography

e-references

Video links

Image credits
4.2.1 Presentation Skills

Well-developed presentation skills enable you to communicate clearly, precisely,

and effectively in a variety of modes or registers and settings. It should be pointed
out that they are rated as one of the most important soft skills. The ability of
communicating with the audience and giving presentations should be seen as a
mandatory prerequisite for both the effective learning process and the successful
working life.
Thus, it is imperative to gradually increase and enhance your presentation skills
through a continuous training that will help you to become more competent, confident
and competitive.

Three types of presentation might be identified:

1. Information-giving. This is predominantly descriptive, giving, or summarising
information. You may be asked to do this as part of a mini-teaching session, sharing
theoretical or factual information. Here the point is to see what you have understood
and how you have extracted the main facts from your reading and to relay
these to the group. You will need to make decisions about what information to
include.
2. Discursive. Here you will need to debate the strengths and limitations of an
approach or develop an argument, exploring and weighing up different perspectives,
challenging your audience to accept a different viewpoint.
For this, you will need to decide your ‘angle’ – are you for or against it, weight pro
and cons? Pull your audience in, challenge and confidently debate.
3. Demonstrative. This type of presentation tends to be used in the context of
training: for example, when demonstrating your ability to illustrate your understanding
of a technique or teaching a practical skill to others.

Preparation

The crucial elements of any presentation are the information that you must deliver
and the audience that have to receive it. The best presentations are focused with a
precise aim and the supplied information is appropriate and addresses the clear-cut,
unambiguous question. Poorly prepared presentations are those which include just a
bit of everything.

The main challenge is to try to fit all gathered information that you usually consider
relevant into the time that is allocated. It should be pointed out your presentation has
to be brief, clear and precise, and provide backup for more complex ideas. A
potentially good presentation might be weakened by packing it with excessive details
and losing a sense of key ideas and conclusions you want to communicate to the
audience.

Thus, it would be useful to write down the aims of your presentation. Focus
particularly on what new knowledge or awareness you want the audience to have
gained – what will the audience know, understand, or be able to do by the end of the
session that they did not know, or understand or were not able to do before?

Structure

Whether the audience can understand what you are trying to communicate will be
determined by how you structure your presentation. You should focus on the
development of a clear structure that will help to map out and guide you in your
preparations and in your final delivery.

Some authors are quite prescriptive in their approach and suggest that you should
limit your thinking to the rule of three.

As a very general principle, the rule of three is offered.

1. Tell them what you are going to tell them.
2. Tell them.
3. Tell them what you have told them.

The structure of your presentation will depend on the topic that you are dealing with,
but in general there should include:
• An introduction, outlining the aim of your presentation and the areas your talk will
focus on
• The main body, containing the substance of your talk and developing the ideas
outlined in the introduction
• A conclusion, drawing together the main points and containing the ‘take home
message’ for the audience.

1. Introduction

It is of key importance to get a good beginning. Apart from introducing yourself and
subject of your presentation, you should plan carefully about what point of entry will
stimulate your audience and at the same time, form a springboard into the main
topics of your delivery. Once the ground rules have been established, you then need
to outline the main points that you will be covering during your presentation. If you
can say something that catches your audience’s attention at the beginning
and makes them want to hear what follows, then the presentation is likely to go well.

2. Main Presentation

This will be influenced by the general context and aim of your presentation and the
expected audience. You may need to decide between a big picture approach and
one that selects a smaller area with more detail. Three or four main points are
normally sufficient for a presentation of up to a half-hour. For a longer presentation,
do not exceed seven main points to avoid overloading your audience.
Remember, less is almost always more. You should also decide what is best covered
through speech, text, images and what could be given in a handout rather than used
as presentation content.
Support your key ideas by choosing clarifying examples. You should choose carefully
examples to provide interest and improve understanding and think where to place
them in the structure of the content. Use such things as examples, stories, statistics,
quotes from expert sources, or research findings.

3. Conclusion

You need to summarise your points, again using visual aids to reinforce them if
possible. Always leave your audience with something memorable, say a powerful
visual or a convincing conclusion, with a key idea, a central theme to take away and
want to reflect on later. It is also good practice to thank the audience for their
patience and to invite questions or discussion.

Timing

In most presentations, it is usually better to deliver less content at a reasonable pace,

than too much content at a faster pace that may leave the audience feeling
overwhelmed and confused. You should fit the topic into the allotted time and plan
time for breaks, asides, questions. This means you should think clearly about what
to include and exclude from the final version of your presentation.

Delivery

When it comes to the actual presentation you need to decide whether you will read
from what amounts to a script, or whether, based on your notes, you will
speak without reading directly. Certainly, when a presentation is delivered in one of
these two ways there is a noticeable difference, and in most cases the reading of a
script comes across less well. It depends to a certain extent on the way that you have
written the script. If it is written in a formal academic tone, then
it will sound overformal. If you are able to write it in a more conversational style, then
you will have a better chance of making it sound natural. Delivering your
presentation using a natural conversational style is the best way to make the most of
face-to-face presentations, and is much more likely to result in a performance that
everyone will evaluate positively. Try do not pack too much into your notes – they
are, and must always be, a distillation of your preparation, not a script of all that
you have prepared. Your notes must support, not distract you.

Form of Language

When giving a presentation it is not obligatory to use complicated language

constructions, to use long words, or to speak in nested and convoluted sentences.
This does not mean that you should not use correct vocabulary, especially when
dealing with technical terms, which clearly form an important element of the content.
There is a case for giving an explanation, or simple definition, of technical terms as
they arise for the first time, particularly if you are dealing with an area of your subject
which is new to the audience. Use correct language and proofread
(words used appropriately; correct spelling and punctuation).

Visual Aids

If you use more pictures and diagrams than text, you will possibly help the audience
to understand better what you are saying. This is because after three days an
audience will have retained 7% of what they read (bullet points, or other notes on the
screen), but 55% of what they saw pictorially (charts, pictures, diagrams).
You should be aware that visual aids are complementary to the presentation and you
should not focus too narrowly on visual aids because you will lose the key point of
presentation.

Verbal (Voice, Intonation, Appropriate language)

You should remember that your voice is an incredible tool. On average 7% of what
the audience understand comes from the words that are used within the verbal
interactions, compared with 38% of information resulting in tone of voice and 55%
being dependent on non-verbal cues. Use this to your advantage. Presentations are
greatly enhanced by varying the tone of voice to emphasize aspects of the content.

Another concern for those giving presentations is that of speaking too quickly. When
speaking to an audience of any size it is advisable to speak more slowly than your
normal speed, and to leave pauses occasionally.
Speaking more slowly and pausing is even more important if you want the audience
to pay attention to words, diagrams, or pictures on a screen at the same time.

Non-Verbal (Eye-contact, Body language, Hand gestures)

It is advisable to maintain eye contact with your audience at least 90% of the time. It
is appropriate to glance at your notes or slides from time to time, but only as a
reminder of where to go next. You are speaking for the benefit of your audience.
Speak to them, not the slides.

Hand gestures and facial expressions can be used to your advantage to emphasise
points. However, treat these with caution because inappropriate gestures can also
interfere with your presentation and detract
from what you say.

Body language is vital to keep the audience engaged and less distracted. The things
like standing , leaning towards them , smiling are positive aspects of the body
language.

Interacting with audience and managing questions

The presentation is engaging only when there is interaction with the audience
through questioning. This makes the audience to be alert and attentive.
 The questions in between like “Was the point clear”, “ Am I going too fast”, are the
attention grabbing things to make the presentation lively And engaging.

4.2.2 Public Speaking

Public speaking is an important skill in both education and business. Basically,

public speaking refers to the process of delivering a speech in front of an audience. It
has a long history and was traditionally viewed as part of the art of persuasion. It
probably started in ancient Egypt, but the first written documents about public
speaking go back to the Greeks and Romans. Today, public speaking has evolved
considerably thanks to the introduction of technologies such as videoconferencing,
multimedia presentations, and other non-traditional forms.

Why you need public speaking skills?

You will probably need public speaking skills in different aspects of your life:

 In job interviews to persuade employers to hire you.

 In a political speech if you want to become a politician.
 In project reports at a meeting.
 In a graduation ceremony speech.
 In a wedding toast.

Public speaking purposes

Public speaking aims at informing, persuading, or entertaining. Here are examples:

Describing a product, an invention, a place, people

 Telling a story, talking about notable events (e.g., historical events, natural
disasters, and their causes/effects, etc.)
 Communicating information, such as research findings, survey results, new
products.
 Persuading the audience; having a say in a debate, political campaigns,
conferences, by providing to the point arguments; motivating people to act.

Types of presentations

There are three types of public speaking presentations: informative, persuasive, and
entertaining.

Informative

Informative public speaking attempts to convey information or clarify an idea. e.g.,

school presentations, science and technology presentations, business seminars.
 Persuasive

Persuasive public speaking aims at causing a change in the belief, attitude, or

behaviour of the audience. e.g., in sales, debates, to a group of peers, political
speeches.

Entertaining

Entertaining public speaking includes storytelling or ceremonial speeches like those

occurring during religious and wedding occasions.

4.2.3 Group Discussion

A group discussion is a discussion between a group of participants on a given

subject. A group discussion typically forms a part of the selection process used by
organisations and educational institutions. The candidates talk about the given topic
to present facts, opinions, and conclusions. Employers use this technique to screen
candidates and assess their soft skills.

Types Of Group Discussions

 Factual Group Discussions

 Opinion-Based Group Discussion
 Group conversations based on case studies.
 Abstract Group Discussion
Factual group discussions: These discussions focus on the real world and test a
candidate’s ability to digest information and analyse socioeconomic or everyday concerns.

Opinion-Based Group Discussion: Test how well candidates can articulate their beliefs
and viewpoints. These group talks tend to focus more on views than facts.

Group conversations based on case studies: These discussions mimic real-world

circumstances. The group is given the specifics of a fictitious scenario by the panellists, and
then the group must work together to address it.

Abstract Group Discussion: These are abstract group discussions. In these, the
interviewers check to see if a candidate can approach the subject at hand with originality and
lateral thinking.

Evaluation of Skills in the Group Discussion

In a group discussion, the panellists evaluate the following skills to check the performance of
a candidate:

1. Subject Knowledge
It is very important that one must have enough knowledge on the topic to begin
with.If there is no appropriate knowledge, any discussion looks like beating around
the bush , thereby creating an impression of poor knowledge.

2. Creativity/Originality
Out of the box solutions, innovative ideas gives an impression of being more creative
and this also enhances the productivity of the team discussion.

3. Voice
Communication skills include tone, volume and pitch control and your style of
delivery. Employers check for an assertive approach, authoritative voice, clarity in
speech and audible tone in a typical group discussion.

4. Body Language
In a workplace, your body language speaks volumes about your actions and
temperament. So, during a group discussion, panellists judge your hand gestures
and head movements along with the expressions on your face. They also give high
ratings for a professional outlook and a confident, straight posture.

5. Fluency
Speaking with effective pauses without stuttering or stammering can captivate an
audience and make them listen carefully.

6. Active Listening
Active listening is an important skill for managerial positions or customer service
roles. In a typical group, all members try to stress their points to get some limelight.
So, employers usually observe those who listen to their peers without interruption.
Letting them speak by giving a response and mentioning their views when you
conclude the discussion shows them that you are an active listener.
 7. Initiative
Taking initiative is a mark of excellent leadership skills. In the beginning, panel
members see if you try to start the conversation and establish its flow. If you are
unable to do that, they also check if you wait for the right moment and take that
chance to introduce your idea in a better way.

Unit 4.3 Leadership, Problem Solving, Decision Making

Aim
Instructional Objectives
Learning Outcomes

4.3.1 Leadership
Self-Assessment Questions
4.3.2 Problem Solving
Self-Assessment Questions
4.3.3 Decision Making
Self-Assessment Questions

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answer Keys
Activities
Glossary
Bibliography
e-References
Video links
Image credits
4.3.1 Leadership
In its simplest form, leadership is influencing other people to follow. Therefore,
anyone who can influence people to follow them has leadership qualities.
Leadership happens at all levels within organizations and society, not just among
those who work in defined "leadership positions."
Effective leadership enables followers to succeed. It sets direction, builds a vision,
and adapts as circumstances require. Leadership is about mapping out where you
need to go to "win" as a team or an organization. It is dynamic, exciting, and
inspiring.
What is a Leader?
A leader is someone who can see how things can be improved and who rallies
people to move toward that better vision. Leaders can work toward making their
vision a reality while putting people first. Just being able to motivate people is not
enough — leaders need to be empathetic and connect with people to be successful.
Leaders don’t have to come from the same background or follow the same path.
Future leaders will actually be more diverse, which brings a variety of perspectives.
Of course, other people could disagree with my definition. The most important thing
is that organizations are united internally with their definition of leadership.
Importance of Leadership
All organizations need good leadership. Well-led organizations tend to be more
productive, competitive, and responsive to change. Their employees have a clearer
vision of where they are headed and why, and are therefore more engaged and
motivated. Organizations that excel at developing leaders tend to achieve higher
long-term profitability.
What Makes a Good Leader?
An effective leader is a person who does the following:
1. Creates a vision of the future.
2. Works well with a team.
3. Enables their team's success.
4. Demonstrates flexibility.
Leadership brings together the skills needed to do these things. We will look at each
element in more detail.
1. Leaders Create a Vision
 Leaders hold in mind their vision while understanding the reality of the present.
They then embody that vision in everything they do and find ways of connecting it
to employee performance to make it a reality.
Leaders consider how their industry is likely to evolve, and how their competitors
are likely to behave. They look at how they can innovate successfully and shape
their businesses and their strategies to succeed in future marketplaces.

Therefore, leaders are proactive – solving problems, looking ahead, and not being
satisfied with things as they are.
2. Leaders work well with a team.
Leaders cannot achieve their vision without other people's contributions. It's a
leader's ability to motivate and collaborate with people that helps them to deliver
that vision. As such, much of effective leadership relies on people skills.
Effective leaders recognize and consider the needs and views of their followers at
all levels. Those leaders who pay close attention to how people feel about their
work, and what motivates them personally, can take proactive, appropriate steps
to aid engagement and retention.
Effective leaders recognize their team members' achievements and find ways of
expressing their appreciation. The ability to delegate to others and to empower
them is another essential leadership quality. Effective leaders also look for
leadership potential in others. By developing leadership skills within your team,
you create an environment where you can ensure long-term success.
3. Leaders Enable Success.
Restating the vision in terms of its impact and taking frequent opportunities to
communicate this and its relevant objectives in an attractive and engaging way,
can embed things further.
Leaders need to ensure that the work required to deliver results is properly
managed – either by themselves, or by delegating to a dedicated manager or
team of managers.
They'll also equip team members with the necessary skills and abilities to do their
jobs and achieve the vision. They do this by giving and receiving feedback
regularly, by training and coaching people, and by encouraging collaboration and
skill sharing across the organization.
4. Leaders Are Flexible
Leaders need to be adaptable – learning how and when to adjust focus and
embracing change themselves.
They are the ability to:
1. Think globally.
2. Appreciate cultural diversity.
3. Develop technological know-how.
4. Forge partnerships and alliances.
5. Share leadership.
Employees increasingly prefer to work for leaders who offer the best
developmental challenges and opportunities and a culture that makes staying
worthwhile beyond the basic security of a pay check. A less authoritarian and
more consultative approach to leadership is likely to be more effective in this
scenario.

4.3.2 Problem Solving

Problem solving skills are the ability to identify problems, brainstorm and analyse
answers, and implement the best solutions. An employee with good problem-
solving skills is both a self-starter and a collaborative teammate; they are
proactive in understanding the root of a problem and work with others to consider
a wide range of solutions before deciding how to move forward.
 Why Are Problem Solving Skills Important?
Problem-solving skills are the most sought-after soft skill of 2022. In fact, 86%
of employers look for problem-solving skills on student resumes, according to
the National Association of Colleges and Employers Job Outlook 2022 survey.
Employers are looking for employees who can make decisions independently,
especially with the prevalence of remote/hybrid work and the need to
communicate asynchronously.
Problem-solving includes three main parts: identifying the problem, analysing
viable solutions, and deciding on the best course of action.
Research
Research is the first step of problem-solving because it helps you understand the
context of a problem. Researching a problem enables you to learn why the
problem is happening.
Research broadens your scope to all possible reasons why the problem could be
happening. Then once you figure it out, it helps you narrow your scope to start
solving it.
Analysis
Analysis is the next step of problem-solving. Now that you’ve identified the
problem, analytical skills help you look at what potential solutions there might be.
The goal of analysis isn’t to solve a problem, actually — it’s to better understand it
because that’s where the real solution will be found.
Decision-Making

Once you’ve figured out where the problem is coming from and what solutions
are, it’s time to decide on the best way to go forth. Decision-making skills help you
determine what resources are available, what a feasible action plan entails, and
what solution is likely to lead to success.

How to Improve Problem-Solving Skills

1. Learn How to Identify Problems

Problem-solving does not just require finding solutions to problems that are
already there. It’s also about being proactive when something isn’t working
as you hoped it would. Practice questioning and getting curious about
processes and activities in your everyday life. What could you improve?
What would you do if you had more resources for this process? If you had
fewer? Challenge yourself to challenge the world around you.
2. Think Digitally
Employers in the modern workplace value digital problem-solving skills, like
being able to find a technology solution to a traditional issue
3. Collaborate
Problem-solving is not done in a silo, and it should not be. Use your
collaboration skills to gather multiple perspectives, help eliminate bias, and
listen to alternative solutions. Ask others where they think the problem is
coming from and what solutions would help them with your workflow. From
there, try to compromise on a solution that can benefit everyone.
4. Adapt
If we’ve learned anything from the past few years, it’s that the world of work
is constantly changing — which means it’s crucial to know how to adapt. Be
comfortable narrowing down a solution, then changing your direction when a
colleague provides a new piece of information. Challenge yourself to get out
of your comfort zone, whether with your personal routine or trying a new
system at work.
 5. Put Yourself in the Middle of Tough Moments
Just like adapting requires you to challenge your routine and tradition, good
problem-solving requires you to put yourself in challenging situations —
especially ones where you do not have relevant experience or expertise to
find a solution. Because you won’t know how to tackle the problem, you will
learn new problem-solving skills and how to navigate new challenges. Ask
your manager or a peer if you can help them work on a complicated problem
and be proactive about asking them questions along the way.

4.3.3 Decision Making

Decision is a course of action taken by an individual or organisation to meet

an objective. The decision taken is the result of a process where the process
differs from an individual to an organisation. In any case, the decision taken
must always contribute to their overall growth and lead them to excel in
several areas.

Therefore, decision making is defined as the act of choosing between

two or more course of actions.

The decision-making skills is vital to prosper and be productive in the

workplace. Like any other skill, decision-making can be learned and perfected
with practice. The decisions can be made through either an intuitive or
reasoned process, or a combination of the two.

Decision Making skills

The decision-making skills are set of skills that one must acquire for a
productive and efficient output. These skills include analysing information,
choosing the right information, and making the right decision.

The factors that affect the ability of the decision making includes
 Gathering and analysing information
 Recognizing and defining the problem
 Developing alternative solutions
 Evaluating alternatives
  Selecting the best solution
 Implementing the solution
 Monitoring and modifying the solution

Importance of Decision-Making skills

1. Critical thinking: It improves the critical thinking of the person. This helps to
differentiate the right and wrong thinking that acts as a precursor to the decision
making.

2. Problem solving: It enhances the problem-solving ability of the person.The

solution to the problem takes a birth from the right decision making.

3. Confidence: It boosts the confidence level of the person as it helps the person to
get through the problem effortlessly by imbibing the right decision-making skills.

4.Time management: The poor decision-making skills is directly proportional to

ineffective time management. Any decision taken reflects on the other activities as
improper decision affects the whole chain of activities leading to poor time
management.

5.Communication: The decision making enhances the communication skills as

communication is an important parameter to acquire the right information that acts as
a base to take a right decision.

Ways to master the decision-making skills

Mastering the decision-making skills is a continuous process that requires constant
practice and implementation to achieve the desired objective. The best approach lies
in following few ideas that make the decision-making skills more toned and refined at
every step of the implementation.

1. Define goals: It is imperative to have a clarity on the goal setting and prioritise
them as it makes simple the decision-making process.

2. Conclusion drawing: Every decision taken has some positive or negative

effect on the complete process. It is important that the decision taken has no dire
consequences and this is possible with the rationale and effective decision making in
each step of the information gathering.

3. Weigh the pros and cons: Every option chosen must be weighed the pros
and cons to choose the best option that is more productive and effective.
4. Self-esteem: The decision making is dependent on the self-esteem that one
carries as this helps the person in their every step of making informed decisions.

5. Vigorous Practice: Finally, the decision-making skill can be acquired by

constant practising. The more experiences enhance the ability to resolve the problem
by improving the skills that suits to different situations.

6. Good judgement: The good judgement involves the best course of action that
weighs all the pros and cons, emotional intelligence, objectivity, good attitude etc.

7. Resourceful: The sound judgement relies on the resources like right

information, people, money that acts as a source to take the right decision.

8. Planning and Organising: Anything that lacks planning and organising acts as
an impediment to the decision making. The proper planning and organising gives a
constructive way of solving the problem that includes the effective time management.

Decision Making skills at the Workplace

The decision-making skill at the workplace plays a vital role in deciding the success
and failure of the organisation. The effective decision-making in the workplace is
possible only when the following is met without fail.

1. Information: In an organisation, the managerial decision is the product of

the information gathered from several other departments. So, the gathered
information must be scrutinised rationally and reasonably for the proper
decision making. Sometimes too much information also acts as a blockade in
taking the decision. Hence, the decision on basis of right, limited and useful
information must be considered.

2. Emotional Intelligence: The decision attached with good emotional

quotient must rely on the objectivity for a good decision.

3. Hierarchy: In practice, many organizations ensure that certain autonomy is

given to the employees in the middle layers as well as those slightly senior so that
decision making need not be centralized

The important Decision-making skills

 Problem solving
 Leadership
 Reasoning
 Intuition
 Teamwork
 Emotional Intelligence
 Creativity
 Time management
 Organisation
 Cognitive bias
 Collaboration
 Logical reasoning