4th, 5th and 6th PERIOD NOTE Prepare by: Gideon W.

Barwon
Medical Laboratory Technologist

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS CKA: Mr. Biologist

Animals need transport systems for the following reasons:

 To transport dissolved food substances from the intestines to the tissue cells.
 To transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissue cells.
 To transport hormones from endocrine (ductless) glands to target organs.
 To carry metabolic wastes from tissue cells to excretory organs.

THE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS OF MAMMALS ARE:

 The blood circulatory system (cardio-vascular system).

 The lymphatic system.
 The Blood Circulatory System
 This system is made of the heart, blood vessels and the blood.

THE HEART

This is a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body through blood vessels.
The type of muscle found in the wall of the heart is known as cardiac muscle.
The heart is divided into left and right side by a middle wall called the septum.
Each side has an upper chamber known as an atrium (plural: atria) and a lower chamber known as a ventricle.

The atria receive blood form the veins which they pump to the ventricles.
The ventricles receive blood from the atria and pump it out of the heart through the arteries.

The heart receives blood from blood vessels called veins.

These include the venacava (which carries blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium) and the pulmonary vein
(which carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium).

The heart pumps blood out through blood vessels called arteries. These include the aorta (which carries blood from the
left ventricle to the rest of the body) and the pulmonary artery (which carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs).

The wall of the heart receives from the coronary artery which branches from the aorta.
The heart also contains valves which are responsible for keeping blood flowing in one direction by preventing back flow.

The valves found between the atria and ventricles are called atrio-ventricular valves.
The one on the right side is called the tricuspid valve while the one on the left is called the bicuspid (mitral) valve.

Those found between the ventricles and arteries are called semi lunar valves.
The semi-lunar valve found at the beginning of the aorta is called the aortic semi lunar valve while the one found at the
beginning of the pulmonary artery is known as the pulmonary semi lunar valve.

Function of the heart

The wall of the heart is made of a type of muscle called cardiac muscle which has the following characteristics, among
others:
It is myogenic (it is self-stimulating, meaning that the stimulus for its contraction comes from the muscle itself).
The stimulus for contraction originates from a special patch of cardiac muscle called the pacemaker or
1 sinoatrial node (SAN) found in the right atrium. It does not develop fatigue .

Its cells are branched and have a single nucleus each.

Contraction of cardiac muscle is called systole while relaxation of cardiac muscle is called diastole.
The sequence of events that occur during a single heart beat are called the cardiac cycle.
The events of the cardiac cycle are summarised as follows:

 Atrial Systole (contraction of the walls of the atria)

 Pause
 Ventricular Systole (contraction of the walls of the ventricles)
 Diastole (relaxation of the walls of the entire heart)

Note that there is a pause between atrial systole and ventricular systole.

The following table gives the details of each event of the cardiac cycle:
Event Atria Ventricles Bicuspid and Tricuspid Valve ,Semi lunar Valves ,Blood flow Atrial Systole ,Contract Relax
Open Close From the atria to the ventricles ,Ventricular Systole Relax Contract Close Open From the ventricles to the
arteries ,Diastole Relax Open Close From veins into the atria
Double Circulation (Dual Circulation) This is a type of circulation where blood passes through the heart twice during
one circulation around the body.

It involves two types of circulation, namely the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
(I) PULMONARY CIRCULATION

This is the flow of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery and from the lungs to the left
atrium through the pulmonary vein. In this circulation, blood is pumped over a short distance and at a low pressure. As a
result, the walls of the right ventricle are relatively thin compared to those of the left ventricles. The purpose of this
circulation is to oxygenate the blood and to remove carbon dioxide from the blood in the lungs.

(II) SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

This is the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body through the aorta and from the rest of the body to
the right atrium through the venacava. In this circulation, blood is pumped over a long distance and at a high pressure. As
a result, the walls of the left ventricle are relatively thick compared to those of the right ventricles. The purpose of this
circulation is to distribute oxygen around the body and to collect carbon dioxide from the body tissues.

Heart Rate and Pulse Rate

The term heart rate refers to the number of heart beats per minute. It can be measured using an instrument called the
stethoscope. The heart rate of a normal adult human being at rest is about 72 beats /minute.

Factors that affect and modify the normal resting heart rate are sleeping, emotional excitement, illness (e.g. fever) and
physical exercise, as illustrated in the following table:

 Factor Heart Rate (beats per minute)

 Rest 72
 Sleeping
 Fever
 Emotional Excitement
 Physical Exercise
A pulse is a wave of pressure created in the arteries by a heart beat. The number of pulses per minute is called the pulse
rate. Measuring the pulse rate is an indirect way of measuring the heart rate.

A pulse can be located using the index and middle fingers on any part of the body where arteries are very close to the skin
surface such as:

 On The Wrist Just Near The Base Of The Thumb

2  On The Sides Of The Head Just Next To The Ears
 On The Neck Just Below The Jaws Coronary Heart Disease (Chd)
This is the occlusion (blockage) of coronary arteries with fatty material, mainly cholesterol. There are several conditions
associated with coronary heart disease. Some of them are:

 Atheroma This is an accumulation of fatty material in the walls of the coronary arteries.

 Sclerosis This is the hardening of the walls of coronary arteries due to the presence of fatty material .

 Thrombosis this is the blockage of the coronary arteries by a mixture of blood clots, fatty material and fibers.

 A blood clot within the blood vessels is called a thrombus.

 Angina This is a sharp pain experienced in the heart and left arm after exertion due to the presence of an
atheroma or thrombus in the coronary artery.

 Embolus This is a moving clot that results when a thrombus is pushed out of place by heart beat. If it reaches the
brain, it may cause bursting of blood vessels, resulting in stroke. An embolus in the lungs leads to pulmonary
embolism which is characterized by sharp pains in the lungs.

 Heart Failure (myocardial infection), this is a condition where the heart fails to pump blood due to a limited
supply of blood caused by blockage of the coronary arteries. The patient may black-out, collapse and die, Causes
of Coronary Heart Disease.

Factors that increase the risk of coronary heart disease include the following:

 Excessive intake of fatty foods. Fatty foods are easily converted to cholesterol which in turn blocks the coronary
arteries.
 Smoking. Cigarette smoke contains a stimulant called nicotine which tends to promote the accumulation of
cholesterol in the blood.
 Emotional stress. The body secretes high levels of adrenaline during emotional stress. This also tends to promote
accumulation of cholesterol in the blood stream.
 Lack of exercise

PREVENTION OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE

 Avoid excessive intake of fatty foods

 Avoid smoking
 Avoid emotional stress
 Exercise regularly

BLOOD VESSELS

These are tubes through which blood moves around the body. There are three types of blood vessels. These are Arteries,
veins and capillaries.

ARTERIES

These are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to other parts of the body. They have the following
characteristics:

 They carry blood away from the heart

3  They carry blood at high pressure
 They have thick walls and narrow lumens. The thick walls help them withstand the
pressure from the heart.
 They have no valves since the pressure from the heart is enough to keep blood moving
in one direction.
 They all carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery.
 They appear round in cross-section .
 They are located deeper under the skin than the veins.
VEINS

These are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart from other parts of the body. The have the following
characteristics:

 They carry blood towards the heart.

 They carry blood at low pressure
 They have thin walls and wide lumens.
 They have valves to keep blood moving in one direction by preventing back flow.
 They all carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein.
 They appear irregular in cross-section
 They are located nearer to the skin surface than the arteries.

The following diagram illustrates the structure of an artery and a vein.

CAPILLARIES

These are the smallest blood vessels. They form a link between arteries and veins. As arteries approach the organs of the
body, they branch into smaller arteries called arterioles.
The arterioles keep on subdividing until they form the capillaries. The capillaries have direct contact with the tissue cells.
This makes it possible for substances to be exchanged between the blood and tissue cells. In addition, the walls of the
capillaries are very thin (just one cell thick) for easy diffusion of materials between the blood and the tissue cells. The
network of capillaries in the tissue cells is called the capillary bed.

When blood from the arterioles reaches the capillary bed, the plasma is filtered out of the capillaries into the spaces
around the tissue cells. The fluid around the tissue cells is called tissue fluid.

Tissue fluid has the following functions:

 Bathing the tissue cells

 Thermoregulation of the tissue cells
 Facilitating exchange of materials between the blood and tissue cells. Dissolved food and oxygen diffuse from the
tissue fluid into the tissue cells while carbon dioxide and urea diffuse from the tissue cells into the tissue fluid.

 The formation of tissue fluid from blood is caused by the following factors:
 The pressure of blood coming from the arterioles is higher than the pressure in the venule.
 The walls of the capillaries are very thin (one cell thick) Red blood cells are not filtered out of the capillaries
because they are large and rigid. However, phagocytes are able to change shape and squeeze out of the capillaries.

 Names of Selected Blood Vessels

 Name of Organ Names of Blood Vessels
 Heart Coronary artery
 Lungs Pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein
 Liver Hepatic artery, hepatic vein and hepatic portal vein
 Kidneys Renal artery and renal vein

BLOOD

This is a tissue made of red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma and platelets.
4
Red blood cell (Erythrocytes)
These are biconcave discs responsible for transportation of oxygen and small amounts of carbon dioxide. They
are made in the bone marrow in adults but can also be made by the liver in babies.

One milliliter of blood contains 5 to 6 million red blood cells. They have a lifespan of about 120 days and are
destroyed by the liver.
They are adapted for transportation of oxygen in the following ways:

 Biconcave disc shape to increase the surface area for diffusion of oxygen.
 Presence of a red pigment called haemoglobin which has a high affinity (attraction) for oxygen.

 Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin when oxygen concentrations are high (e.g. in the
lungs). When oxygen concentrations are low e.g. in the muscles, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates forming
haemoglobin and oxygen.

Absence of nucleus makes more room for haemoglobin

WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUCOCYTES)

These are cells that defend the body against infection (diseases) and are made in the bone marrow, lymphoid tissue, lymph
nodes, tonsils, thymus and spleen. Two examples of white blood cells are phagocytes and lymphocytes.

Phagocytes

Functions

 These defend the body against infection by engulfing and digesting germs (foreign bodies). Adaptations
 Lobed nucleus which makes engulfing of germs easy.
 Amoeboid movement which makes it possible for them to move towards germs.
 They have no fixed shape but can change their shapes, making engulfing of foreign bodies possible.

Cell Membrane
The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a semipermeable barrier that surrounds the cell,
separating its internal environment from the external surroundings. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins. The cell membrane regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell and plays a
crucial role in maintaining cell homeostasis.
Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that fills the cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane. It consists of water,
salts, and various organic molecules, including proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Within the cytoplasm, cellular
organelles are suspended, and many essential cellular activities, such as metabolic pathways and cellular
transport, take place.
Lobed Nucleus
The term "lobed nucleus" suggests a nucleus with lobes or distinct parts. In biology, nuclei are typically found in
eukaryotic cells and serve as the control center of the cell. The nucleus contains genetic material (DNA) that
carries instructions for cellular functions. The description of a lobed nucleus might be associated with certain
types of cells, such as certain white blood cells, which can have lobed or irregularly shaped nuclei.

Lymphocytes Functions

 To defend the body against infection by producing antibodies and antitoxins. Antibodies are proteins that destroy
germs/foreign bodies while antitoxins are proteins that neutralize poisons from germs. Adaptations
 Presence of a large nucleus and thin cytoplasm.
 Cell membrane
 Thin Cytoplasm

5  Nucleus
PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)

 These are fragments formed during the manufacture of red blood cells. They are important for blood clotting. The
steps involved in blood clotting are described below:
 When platelets are exposed to damaged/injured body tissues, they release an enzyme called
thromboplastin/(thrombokinase).
 Thromboplastin acts on a plasma protein called prothrombin changing it to an active form called thrombin.
 Thrombin acts on another plasma protein called fibrinogen changing it into an insoluble form called fibrin.
 This reaction occurs in the presence of calcium ions.
 The fibrin forms a mesh (net) over the wound.
 This mesh traps red and white blood cells, leading to the formation of a clot over the wound.

The following diagram summarizes the mechanism of blood clotting.

Blood clotting is important in the following ways:

 It prevents excessive loss of blood

 It prevents entry of germs into the body
 It is the first step in the healing of wounds. The clot eventually hardens, forming a scab.
 The scab eventually falls off, leaving behind a scar.

BLOOD PLASMA

 This is the liquid part of blood. It is made of water and dissolved substances.
 The dissolved substances include the following:
 dissolved food (monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and mineral salts)
 dissolved metabolic wastes (urea and carbon dioxide in form of hydrogen carbonate ions)
 dissolved chemical substances such as hormones, antibodies, antitoxins and plasma proteins)
 Plasma proteins include prothrombin, fibrinogen and albumin. The roles of plasma proteins include maintaining
blood viscosity, causing blood clotting, maintaining a constant blood PH, maintaining osmotic balance e.t.c.

The functions of blood plasma are:

 Transportation of dissolved food

 Transportation of metabolic wastes
 Transportation of hormones, antibodies and antitoxins
 Distribution of heat around the body. Most of the body heat is generated by the liver and muscles.

Note: The functions of blood may be summarised as transport and defence.

BLOOD GROUPS

The type of blood group in a human being is determined by the type of antigen present in the cell membrane of the red
blood cell. There are two antigens, namely IA and IB, while the absence of either antigen is represented as IO. This is
called the ABO blood group system. There are four possible blood groups, namely group A, group B, group AB and
group O. The lymphocytes in each type of blood produce antibodies against non-self antigens (antigens that are not
present in the cell membranes of their red blood cells). These antibodies are released into the blood plasma.
6
The following table shows the antigens and antibodies present in each of the four blood groups:

Blood Groups Type of antigen(s) present in the cell membranes of red blood cells
Type of antibody present in the blood plasma
Group A antigen A (IA) Anti B
Group B Antigen B (IB) Anti A Group O None Anti A and anti B
Group AB Both antigens A and B (IA and IB)
None
BLOOD TRANSFUSION

This refers to the transfer of blood from one individual called the donor to another one called the recipient. For a blood
transfusion to be successful the blood of the donor has to be compatible with the blood of the recipient. Blood
compatibility refers to the capacity of a blood recipient to receive the donor‟s blood without leading to agglutination or
clumping of the blood received.

Agglutination occurs when antibodies in the recipient‟s blood attack non- self antigens present in the donor‟s blood
causing the red blood cells from the donor to stick together. This may cause blockage of blood vessels, kidney failure and
stroke. Therefore, any blood groups that have different antigens are incompatible.

The following points must be noted when carrying out a blood transfusion:

 Blood group O can be given to any blood group because it has no antigens that can be attacked by antibodies in
the recipient‟s blood. For this reason, blood group O is called the universal donor. However, blood group O can
not receive blood from any other blood group.
 Blood group AB can receive blood from all other blood groups because it has no antibodies to attack the antigens
in the donor‟s blood. For this reason, it is called the universal recipient. However, blood group AB can not give
blood to any other blood group.
 A person can receive blood from another person of the same blood group without complications arising. Before a
donor‟s blood is given to a recipient, it has to be screened. Blood screening is the testing of blood in order to
determine the following: the blood group, the rhesus status and to check for infections such as hepatitis and HIV.

RHESUS FACTOR

This is a blood antigen first discovered in monkeys of the genus called Rhesus. A person whose blood has this antigen is
said to be rhesus positive (Rh+ or Rh positive), while a person whose blood does not have this antigen is said to be rhesus
negative (Rh- or Rh negative). The rhesus status of a child depends on the status of its two parents as described below:

If both parents are Rh+, all their children will be Rh+.

If one parent is Rh+ and the other is Rh- all children will be Rh+.

If both parents are Rh-, all their children will be Rh-. Having a rhesus negative mother and a rhesus positive father can
cause serious complications in a fetus or baby. If some of the blood of the foetus enters the mother‟s blood stream during
pregnancy or birth, the mother‟s blood begins making the anti-rhesus antigens. If the woman conceives another rhesus
positive fetus, these antibodies will cross the placenta and attack the blood of the fetus. At the time of birth, the baby will
suffer from haemolytic disease

(erythroblastosis fetalis), which leads to death if the baby does not receive a comprehensive blood transfusion soon after
birth. Any subsequent pregnancies are miscarried and fail to thrive up to the time of birth.

There are four main blood types, each categorized by the presence or absence of certain antigens on the surface of red
blood cells. These blood types are further classified as positive or negative based on the presence or absence of the Rh
7
factor. The eight blood types are determined by the ABO system and the Rh factor, resulting in the following
combinations:

A positive (A+): Contains A antigens on the surface of red blood cells and the Rh factor.
A negative (A-): Contains A antigens on the surface of red blood cells but lacks the Rh factor.
B positive (B+): Contains B antigens on the surface of red blood cells and the Rh factor.
B negative (B-): Contains B antigens on the surface of red blood cells but lacks the Rh factor.
AB positive (AB+): Contains both A and B antigens on the surface of red blood cells and the Rh factor.
AB negative (AB-): Contains both A and B antigens on the surface of red blood cells but lacks the Rh factor.
O positive (O+): Lacks A and B antigens on the surface of red blood cells but has the Rh factor.
O negative (O-): Lacks A and B antigens on the surface of red blood cells and lacks the Rh factor.

Transfusion Process:

Blood transfusion is a medical procedure that involves transferring blood from a donor to a recipient. The compatibility of
blood types is crucial to prevent adverse reactions. The ABO and Rh systems must be considered to ensure a successful
transfusion. Here's how the process generally works:

Blood Typing:

 Both the donor's and recipient's blood types are determined using blood typing tests. The ABO and Rh factors are
identified to match the compatibility.
Crossmatching:

 Before a transfusion, a crossmatching test is performed. This involves mixing a small sample of the donor's blood
with a sample of the recipient's blood to check for potential reactions. This step further ensures compatibility.
Transfusion:

 If the blood types are compatible, the transfusion proceeds. The blood is typically administered intravenously into
the recipient's bloodstream.
Monitoring:

 Throughout the transfusion, medical professionals monitor the recipient for any signs of adverse reactions, such as
fever, chills, or shortness of breath.

Ensuring compatibility is critical to avoid transfusion reactions, which can range from mild to severe. Incompatible
transfusions can lead to immune reactions that may cause serious complications, including hemolysis (destruction of red
blood cells) and organ damage.

Blood banks play a crucial role in testing, typing, and storing blood to ensure a safe and efficient supply for medical
treatments, surgeries, and emergencies.

BLOOD DISORDERS

Examples of blood disorders in humans include sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia and leukemia.

 Sickle Cell Anaemia: This is an inherited disease where a person has abnormal haemoglobin. As a result, the red
blood cells become sickle-shaped, especially when oxygen levels are low in the body. The disease reduces the
capacity of the body to transport oxygen.
8
 Haemophilia: This is an inherited disease where a person bleeds for longer periods than normal due to
poor clotting of blood. It is caused by absence of blood clotting proteins known as factor 6 and factor
9.

Leukemia: This is defined as cancer of the white blood cells. The patient makes an abnormally high number
of immature white blood cells.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

This is a transport and defence system made of the following components:

Lymphatic vessels (a network of vessels that have blind ends in the tissue cells)

 A fluid called lymph (derived from tissue fluid but having more glycerol, fatty acids, white blood cells, antibodies
and antitoxins than tissue fluid)
 Glands and organs such as the spleen, adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph nodes and appendix. The largest organ of
the lymphatic organ is the spleen. The thymus is a gland located on top of the heart and is large in infants but
keeps getting smaller and eventually degenerates during early childhood. The smallest vessels of the lymphatic
system are called lymphatic capillaries and lacteals (in the villi of the small intestines).
 These small vessels join up to form bigger vessels called the lymphatics or lymphatic vessels.
 The lymphatics join up repeatedly to make bigger lymphatic vessels. The biggest lymphatic vessels are called
thoracic ducts. Each thoracic duct drains lymph into a subclavian vein near the junction of the neck and the arm.

Two prominent features found along lymph vessels are valves and lymph nodes.

 Valves keep the lymph flowing in one direction by preventing backflow.

 The flow of lymph is assisted by contraction of muscles and breathing movements of the thorax and abdomen.

Lymph nodes are important in the following ways:

 They produce and store lymphocytes which are added to the lymph as it passes through on its way to the
subclavian vein.
 They filter foreign bodies, bacteria and dead tissue from the lymph before it joins the blood.
 They become very active when the body is invaded by foreign bodies, becoming swollen and tender in the
process.
The functions of the lymphatic system may be summarised as follows:
 It drains excess tissue fluid and takes it back to the blood
 It adds lymphocytes to the blood
 It absorbs and transports cholesterol, fatty acids and glycerol to the blood.

RESPIRATION

Respiration is defined as the release of energy from food substances in living cells. This definition strictly applies to tissue
respiration which is also called cellular respiration or internal respiration. However the term respiration is sometimes
loosely applied to other processes that help make oxygen available to living cells. These are breathing (ventilation) and
gaseous exchange. In this case, the term external respiration is used.

Internal Respiration

Internal respiration occurs inside living cells in organelles called mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion). The main
substrate for internal respiration in most organisms is glucose.

There are two types of internal respiration, namely aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration
9
This is the release of energy from food in living cells in the presence of oxygen. This process releases a relatively
high amount of energy (about 2880 KJ from one mole of glucose) and the by products produced are carbon dioxide
and water. This type of respiration occurs in tissue cells of animals and plants when there is a sufficient supply of
oxygen. The word and chemical equations for aerobic respiration are given below:
 Word Equation

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide +Water +Energy

Chemical Equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (2880KJ)

Anaerobic Respiration

This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen. Types of anaerobic respiration
include alcoholic fermentation and lactic fermentation.

Aerobic respiration is the process by which cells produce energy in the presence of oxygen. It involves the breakdown of
glucose molecules to generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the primary energy currency of cells. The chemical
formula for aerobic respiration can be represented as follows:

C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen) → 6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (water) + energy (ATP)

In words:

Glucose (a six-carbon sugar) reacts with oxygen, and through a series of biochemical reactions, it is oxidized to produce
carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP.

The process of aerobic respiration typically consists of three main stages:

1. Glycolysis: Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a
small amount of ATP.
2. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): Takes place in the mitochondria and further breaks down the pyruvate molecules,
releasing carbon dioxide and transferring high-energy electrons to carrier molecules.
3. Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation: Also occurs in the mitochondria, where the high-energy
electrons from the previous stages are used to generate a large amount of ATP through a series of electron transport
reactions.

Aerobic respiration is highly efficient in terms of ATP production compared to anaerobic processes. It is the predominant
method of energy production in eukaryotic cells, including those of plants and animals.
Alcoholic Fermentation

This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen, producing alcohol (ethanol)
and carbon dioxide as by products. This process releases a relatively low amount of energy (about 210 KJ from one mole
of glucose). The reaction is catalysed by an enzyme called zymase which is naturally found in yeast.

The word and chemical equations for alcoholic fermentation are given below:

Word Equation:

Zymase Chemical Equation:

Glucose Carbon dioxide + Alcohol + Energy Zymase

10 C6H12O6 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + Energy (210 KJ)

Alcoholic fermentation takes place in yeast.

Alcoholic fermentation is important in brewing and baking. In both cases yeast is the organism that is
used to carry out the alcoholic fermentation.
When brewing, germinating seeds are used because they contain the sugar maltose. The seeds are dried and ground to
form a powder. This powder is then boiled in water to form a paste. The paste is cooled and yeast is added. Yeast
contains an enzyme called zymase which converts glucose to carbon dioxide and alcohol, releasing energy in the process.
The glucose is formed from the action of maltase on maltose. The alcohol is removed from the mixture by simple
distillation.

When baking, flour is mixed with water, salt, sugar and yeast to form a paste called dough. When there is insufficient
oxygen, zymase from yeasts acts on sugars to form carbon dioxide and alcohol. But if oxygen is sufficient, yeast carries
out aerobic respiration. The carbon dioxide begins to form bubbles in the dough causing it to rise. The dough is often
placed in a warm place to provide an optimum temperature for enzyme activity. After this the dough can be baked.

LACTIC FERMENTATION

This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen, producing lactic acid as the
only by product. The amount of energy released is very little (about 150 KJ from one mole of glucose). Lactic
fermentation is an anaerobic metabolic process that occurs in certain microorganisms and some cells of higher organisms,
including muscle cells, when oxygen is limited. The process involves the conversion of pyruvate, produced during
glycolysis, into lactic acid. The chemical formula for lactic fermentation is as follows:

C6H12O6 (glucose) → 2 C3H6O3 (lactic acid) + energy (ATP)

In words:

Glucose is broken down through glycolysis to produce two molecules of lactic acid and a small amount of energy in the
form of ATP. This process helps cells generate energy in the absence of oxygen or under conditions where oxygen is
limited.

Lactic fermentation is often observed in muscle cells during intense physical activity when oxygen demand exceeds
supply. It's a temporary solution to generate energy until oxygen becomes available again. In addition to muscle cells,
some bacteria and yeast also undergo lactic fermentation to produce lactic acid.

Word Equation:

Glucose lactic acid + energy

Chemical Equation:

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + Energy (150 KJ)

This process takes place in the muscles of animals during exercise. This is because the extra energy required by the animal
during exercise cannot all be generated by aerobic respiration since there is a limited supply of oxygen. This energy is
therefore generated by lactic fermentation. However the lactic acid formed has harmful effects on the body such as
causing fatigue, muscle cramp and fainting. Blood flowing through the muscles carries some lactic acid with it to the brain
and the brain detects its presence. It then sends impulses to the ribcage (to increase the breathing rate and depth) and to the
heart (to increase the heart rate). This increases oxygen supply to the muscles. This oxygen is needed to break d own lactic
acid to water and carbon dioxide. The total amount of oxygen needed to break down the lactic acid produced during
exercise is called the oxygen debt.
11 ATP AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

Energy from respiration is not used directly by organisms but is used to produce ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) by combining adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). Energy from ATP
is then used by living organisms. When the energy is needed, ATP breaks down to ADP and inorganic
phosphate, releasing energy in the process.
The formation and breakdown of ATP can be illustrated as follows:

 ATP is important in the following ways:

 It makes it possible for energy to be stored and transported
 It makes energy available when and where it is needed.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RESPIRATION

The energy released during respiration is used in the following processes: maintenance of a constant body temperature,
reproduction, cell division, active transport and growth /synthesis of macromolecules (memory aid: MR. CAG).

Breathing and gaseous Exchange

Breathing in terrestrial animals (such as human beings) is defined as the movement of air into and out of the lungs. In
aquatic animals such as fish, breathing is the movement of water into and out of the gill chamber. Another term used to
refer to breathing is ventilation. Breathing involves two stages known as inspiration (inhalation) and expiration
(exhalation).

Gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out the blood across a gaseous exchange
surface. In humans the gaseous exchange surfaces are the alveoli found in the lungs while the gaseous exchange surfaces
in fish are the gills.

Gaseous exchange surfaces have the following characteristics:

 Large surface area to maximise the exchange of gases

 Moist surface because gases need to dissolve before they can diffuse across a surface.
 Thin surface to minimise the distance of diffusion so that there is faster diffusion
 Close association with a transport system to transport the gases to and from the gaseous exchange surface, thereby
maintaining a constant diffusion gradient for the gases
 Well-ventilated to maintain a constant diffusion gradient.

Breathing in Humans

The following diagram illustrates the breathing system (respiratory system) of a human being.

Inspiration

Expiration Diaphragm Contracts and moves downwards (flattens) Relaxes and moves upwards (becomes dome-shaped)
External intercostal muscles Contract Relax Internal intercostals muscles Relax Contract Ribcage Moves upwards and
outwards Moves downwards and inwards Volume of lungs Increases Decreases Pressure in lungs Decreases lower than
atmospheric pressure Increases higher than atmospheric pressure Air flow Into the lungs Out of the lungs

Terms Associated with Breathing in Humans

Breathing Rate This refers to the number of breaths taken by an individual per minute. The normal breathing rate of an
adult human being at rest is about 18. However, this can be altered by factors such as

sleeping, illness (e.g. fever), emotional excitement and physical exercise. Sleeping lowers the breathing rate,
while the other factors mentioned increase it.
12
Tidal Volume/Tidal Air This is the volume of air breathed in or out in one breath when resting. The tidal
volume in humans is about 0.5 dm3 (500 cm3).
Vital Capacity This is the maximum volume of air breathed out after forced inspiration. The vital capacity in humans is
about 3.5 dm3 (3500 cm3). The vital capacity can be measured using an instrument called the spirometer. When using a
spirometer, a person must first completely fill the lungs with air and then breathe out through a tube connected to a
spirometer as shown in the following diagram until no more air can be exhaled.

The vital capacity is equal to the volume of water displaced

Residual Volume This is the volume of air that never comes out of the lungs after forced expiration. It keeps the lungs
from collapsing. It has a value of about 1.5 dm3.

Gaseous Exchange in Humans

In humans, gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen from the lungs into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood
into the lungs across the walls of the alveoli.

EFFECTS OF SMOKING ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Cigarette smoke contains three major toxic substances, namely nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide. Tar is responsible for
causing respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer.

Bronchitis: This is the inflammation of the air passages. Tar immobilizes (stops movement of) the cilia, causing mucus to
accumulate in the air passages. This gives chance to the germs in the mucus to infect the lining of the air passages,
causing coughing. The overall effect of bronchitis is that it reduces the amount of oxygen reaching the lungs.

Emphysema: This is the weakening and bursting of the alveoli. When tar reaches the alveoli it weakens them and irritates
them. The irritation causes coughing which makes the alveoli burst. Emphysema reduces the surface area available for
gaseous exchange.

Lung Cancer: This is the uncontrolled or abnormal division of cells in the lungs. Smoking increases the risk of lung
cancer because tar which is present in cigarette smoke is a carcinogen (a cancer-causing agent)

Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in Insects Insects breathe in using the tracheal system. The tracheal begins with
spiracles which are located in the thorax and abdomen. The spiracles are joined to tubes known as tracheae (singular=
trachea). The tracheae are divided into smaller tubes called tracheoles. Gaseous exchange occurs across the walls of the
tracheoles. Small insects normally do not make any breathing movements. However, large and active insects such as
grasshoppers and bees make breathing movements by pushing their abdomens in and out. Note that insects do not use
blood to transport gases since gases diffuse from the atmosphere to the tissue cells and vice versa through the tracheal
system.

Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in Fish Gaseous exchange in bony fish occurs across the surfaces of the gills. The
gills of bony fish are attached to structures known as gill bars (gill arches). There are four gill bars on each side of the gill
chamber of a bony fish. There is a series of gill filaments attached to each gill bar. Each gill filament has structures known
as gill lamellae (singular=gill lamella) where gaseous exchange takes place. The other side of the gill bars has structures
known as gill rakers whose function is to remove solid particles from the water before it passes across the gills. Water
enters the gill chamber of a fish through the mouth (buccal cavity) and comes out through the operculum when it opens
(note that there is an operculum on each side of the head).

The following table summarises the events associated with inspiration and expiration in fish.
13 Gaseous exchange in plants

Gaseous exchange in plants occurs in the spongy layer of the leaf. When photosynthesis is actively taking
place e.g. during day time), a plant leaf takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen. Note that during
such periods, respiration also takes place. When respiration is the only process taking place (e.g. at night),
the plant leaf takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
EXCRETION

This is the removal of toxic metabolic waste products from the bodies of living organisms. The products of excretion are
called excretory products while the organs used to remove them are called excretory organs.

Excretion in Mammals (e.g. Humans) The main excretory organs and products of a mammal are summarised in the
following table: Excretory Organs Excretory Products Kidney Urea, excess salts and excess water Skin Urea, salts and
water Lungs Carbon dioxide Liver Bile pigments

Urea:
Excretory Organ: Kidneys and skin
Source of Excretory Product: Deamination in the liver
Explanation: Urea is a nitrogenous waste product resulting from the breakdown of proteins in the liver through a process
called deamination. It is excreted primarily by the kidneys, but a small amount may be excreted through the skin in sweat.
Carbon Dioxide:
Excretory Organ: Lungs
Source of Excretory Product: Cellular respiration
Explanation: Carbon dioxide is produced as a byproduct of cellular respiration, which occurs in cells throughout the
body. It is transported in the blood to the lungs, where it is released during the process of breathing.
Bile Pigments:
Excretory Organ: Liver
Source of Excretory Product: Destruction of old red blood cells
Explanation: Bile pigments are produced in the liver as a result of the breakdown of hemoglobin from old red blood
cells. They are then excreted into the bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid in
digestion.

These excretory products and their associated processes play essential roles in maintaining the balance and proper
functioning of the body. The excretory organs (kidneys, skin, lungs, and liver) help eliminate waste products to prevent
their accumulation, contributing to the overall homeostasis of the organism.

THE KIDNEYS

The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs found in the lower abdomen. They are part of a system called the excretory
system or urinary system or renal system.

Structure of the Urinary System

Functions of parts of Renal System Aorta: Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to other parts of the body. Venacava:
Carries deoxygenated blood from different body organs towards the heart. Renal Vein: Carries deoxygenated blood away
from the kidneys towards the venacava. Renal Artery: Carries oxygenated blood from the aorta to the kidneys. Ureter:
This transports urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Urinary Bladder: Temporal storage of urine. Urethral
Sphincter: This is a ring of muscle found at the exit of the urinary bladder. It controls the flow of urine out of the urinary
bladder. When closed, it prevents urine from coming out; when open, it allows urine to flow out of the bladder. Urethra: It
is a passage through which urine leaves the body. In males, it is also the outlet for semen.

Kidney: Removes urea, excess salts and excess water from the blood and forms urine.

The basic functional unit of the kidney is the nephron.

14 How the Kidney Functions

Excretion in the kidney nephron occurs in four stages, namely, ultrafiltration (pressure filtration)
selective reabsorption, osmoregulation and secretion. Ultrafiltration This is the filtration of small
molecules such as water, mineral salts, glucose and urea from the glomerulus into the Bowman‟s
capsule of a nephron. It is caused by a build up of pressure in the glomerulus.
 The pressure builds up due to the following reasons:

 The afferent end of the glomerulus is wider than the efferent end.
 Blood from arteries is under high pressure.

During ultrafiltration, the red blood cells and large molecules such as plasma proteins remain inside the glomerulus.
The liquid that collects in the Bowman‟s capsule is called the glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate is drained from
the Bowman‟s capsule by the renal tubule. Selective Reabsorption This is the reabsorption of useful substances from the
glomerular filtrate in the renal tubule into the blood stream. It occurs mainly in the folded regions (convolutions) of the
tubule where the tubule is entangled with blood vessels to facilitate reabsorption. The first (proximal) convolution
reabsorbs all glucose, some water and some salts.

The second convolution reabsorbs salts and water. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis; glucose by diffusion and mineral salts
by active transport. Osmoregulation This is the regulation of water levels in body fluids. Osmoregulation takes place in
the loop of Henle. If the body has little water in it, a hormone called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) also called vasopressin
is secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain. It causes water to be absorbed from the glomerular filtrate into the
surrounding cells. This results in the production of small volumes of concentrated urine. But if the body has enough
water, ADH is not secreted and huge volumes of dilute urine are produced.

SECRETION

The removal of urine from the kidney through the collecting duct and ureter. Urine is a mixture of urea, excess salts and
excess water. The urine is passed on to the urinary bladder where it is temporarily stored before being passed out. Kidney
Failure and Treatment Kidney failure may be caused by poisoning, accidents (injuries to the kidneys), infection and drug
abuse.

Kidney failure may be treated in two ways:

 Kidney transplant: This is a surgical operation during which a normal kidney from another person called a donor
is added to an individual experiencing kidney failure. The transplanted kidney must be compatible with the
recipient; otherwise there will be tissue rejection.
 Using the dialysis machine (kidney machine).

EXCRETION IN PLANTS

Plants excrete a wide range of metabolic waste products. These are removed from plants through different parts of the
plant such as leaves, flowers, the barks of stems and roots. The method of excretion varies according to the nature of the
metabolic waste products.

Examples plant excretory products are discussed below:

 Alkaloids such as morphine (in opium plants), quinine (in cinchona plants) and cocaine (in coca plants). Alkaloids
are nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes in plants.
 Tannins which are reddish and are usually deposited in the barks of trees e.g. Acacia and red mangrove.
 Anthocyanins. These wastes are red and blue in colour and are deposited in the petals and are responsible for the
red, blue and purple colours of the petals. They are removed from the plant when petals are shed off.
 Oils are deposited in fruits and seeds and are got rid of when the fruit or seed is dispersed from the plant.
15 Sugar compounds in fruits also are removed when the fruits fall off from the plants.
 Latex is a milk-like whitish liquid which is excreted by plants such as Euphorbia and Ficus elastica.
 Resins, gums and mucilages.
 Carbon dioxide produced during respiration and released from the plant through the stomata in the leaves.
 Oxygen produced during photosynthesis and released from the plant through the stomata in the leaves.
 Water may be released from pores on the margins or tips of leaves in liquid form by a process called
guttation.
HOMEOSTASIS

This is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment. It involves the regulation of body temperature
(thermoregulation), regulation of the amount of water in body fluids (osmoregulation), regulation of blood sugar and
removal of toxic metabolic wastes (excretion).

Thermoregulation This is the maintenance of a constant body temperature. The temperature of the human body must be
kept around 37oC because that is the optimum temperature for its enzymes. If the temperature goes lower than 37oC, the
enzymes become less active and if the temperature is too high, the enzymes become denatured. Body heat is normally
generated by metabolic reactions in the liver and through shivering in the muscles. Body heat may be lost through the
following processes: expiration (heat is lost from the surfaces of the lungs), sweating, conduction, radiation, excretion and
egestion. The regulation of body temperature is mainly carried out by the skin under the control of the hypothalamus,
which is found in the fore brain.

Structure of the Skin

Mechanism of Thermoregulation by the Skin In Cold Temperatures .

The skin reduces loss of heat in the following ways:

 Erector muscles contract, pulling the hairs upright. The erect hair traps a layer of air which insulates the skin
against heat loss. The contraction of hair erector muscles leads to development of goose bumps on the skin in cold
weather.
 Vasoconstriction (narrowing of skin arterioles) occurs to reduce the amount of blood passing through the skin.
This reduces heat lost.
 Shunt vessels open, reducing the amount of blood passing through superficial vessels near the skin surface. This
reduces heat loss.
 Sweat glands become less active or inactive to minimise loss of heat which might occur through sweating. In Hot
Temperatures The skin promotes loss of heat in the following ways:
 Erector muscles relax, causing the hair to lie on the skin. This increases heat loss from the body by conduction
since no layer of still air forms
 Vasodilation (widening of skin arterioles) occurs, increasing the amount of blood passing through the skin. This
allows more heat to be lost from the blood by conduction.
 Shunt vessels close, allowing more blood to pass through superficial vessels near the skin surface. This increases
heat loss from the body.
 Sweat glands become more active and produce more sweat. The water in sweat absorbs heat from the body in
order to evaporate, thereby cooling the body.

Blood Sugar Regulation The term „blood sugar‟ refers to glucose. The maintenance of constant glucose levels in blood is
carried out by the pancreas. It has cells known as the Islets of Langerhans which produce hormones involved in blood
sugar regulation. These cells are of two types, namely alpha cells (α-cells) and beta cells (β-cells). Alpha cells secrete a
hormone called glucagon. Beta cells secrete a hormone called insulin.

When glucose levels are too high in blood, the pancreas secretes insulin which lowers the levels of glucose in the
following ways.  It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen
which is stored in the liver and muscles. The body can only store about 400g of
16 glycogen (about100g in the liver and 300g in the muscles).
 It causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats. The fats
are stored under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the heart, liver,
kidneys, intestines and brain.
 It enables body cells to absorb and use glucose from the blood. Lack or insufficient
production of insulin leads to the disease called diabetes mellitus whose signs and
symptoms include the following:
  Persistent thirst leading to excessive intake of water
 Drastic loss of weight
 Loss of sensation in some body parts. When glucose levels are too low in blood, the pancreas secretes glucagon
which increases glucose levels in blood in the following ways:
 It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose.
 It causes fat to be changed into glucose and may cause proteins to be modified so that they are utilised for energy
production. (For more details, refer to notes on the pancreas under the endocrine system)

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth is defined as a permanent increase in size, mass, number of cells and complexity of a living organism. Growth of
multicellular organisms involves life cycles. A life cycle is a sequence of stages that an organism passes through during its
development from the embryonic stages to maturity.

Growth in Plants

Plants undergo two types of growth, namely, primary growth and secondary growth. Primary growth is the increase in
the length of the shoots and roots while secondary growth is the increase in the width or girth of shoots and roots. Primary
growth enables the roots to penetrate the ground and the shoots to grow towards sunlight.

Plant growth involves three stages. These are cell division, cell vacuolation (cell elongation) and cell specialisation (cell
differentiation) which may be described as follows: Cell division: The process by which new cells (daughter cells) are
formed from cells that are already existing (parent cells). The type of cell division involved in growth is called mitosis.

This is a type of cell division where one parent cell produces two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent
cell. Immediately after cell division, all cells look alike. Regions of active cell division are known as meristems, or
meristematic tissues.

There are two types of meristematic tissues in plants, namely apical meristems and cambial meristems (or simply
cambium). Apical meristems occur at the tips of shoots and roots and are responsible for primary growth. There are two
types of cambium, namely, vascular cambium and cork cambium; both are responsible for secondary growth.

Cell Elongation: This is a process by which cells grow bigger and develop their vacuoles by absorbing a lot of water.
The greatest increase in length occurs in the region of cell elongation during growth. After being vacuolated all cells still
look identical.

Cell Differentiation: This is a process by which cells become suited for specific functions by developing specific shapes
and undergoing specific chemical changes in their cytoplasms. After specialisation, plant cells may develop into any of
the following cell types: collenchyma, parenchyma, sclerenchyma, cambium, phloem or xylem.

Growth at the Apices (Tips) of Roots and Shoots There are three regions of growth at the apices of shoots and roots in
plants. These are

 Region cell division

 Region of cell elongation or vacuolation
 Region of cell differentiation or specialisation.
Germination This is the process by which seedlings develop from seed embryos. To fully understand
17 germination, it is important to first understand the structure of seeds in monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous plants

Functions of Seed Parts Testa (seed coat): This is the outer-most layer of seed and is responsible for
protecting the seed against physical damage and infection. It is also responsible for dormancy in certain
seeds where it prevents imbibition (entry of water into the seeds)
Plumule: This is the embryonic shoot. It develops into a shoot after germination Radicle: This is the embryonic root. It
develops into roots after germination The plumule and radicle together make up the embryo of the seed. The region of the
embryo next to the plumule is called the epicotyl while the region next to the radicle is called the hypocotyl.

Cotyledons: These store food and enzymes in non-endospermic seeds, mainly dicot seeds. In most monocot seeds, food
is stored in another tissue known as the endosperm. Seeds, which have the endosperm, are called endospermic seeds
while those without the endosperm are called non-endospermic seeds. The main forms of foods stored in seeds include
starch, oils and proteins.

TYPES OF GERMINATION

There are two types of germination, namely epigeal and hypogeal germination.

Epigeal Germination This is a type of germination where the cotyledons are pushed above the ground by elongation of
the hypocotyl. The plumule is covered by cotyledons and comes out of the ground with a hooked shape in order to protect
the delicate shoot. The cotyledons also carry out photosynthesis during the first few days before the leaves develop fully.
Examples of seeds that carry out this type of germination are beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), sunflower, castor oil and
groundnut seeds.

This type of germination is commonly associated with dicotyledonous seeds but there are exceptions such as the broad
bean.

Hypogeal Germination

This is a type of germination where the cotyledons remain underground, due to elongation of the epicotyl. The plumule is
covered with a sheath called the coleoptile to protect it from abrasion as it pushes out of the soil. Examples of seeds which
undergo this type of germination are monocotyledonous seeds such as maize, sorghum and millet seeds.

In non-endospermic seeds the cotyledons are the food store. However, the function of the cotyledon/scutellum in
endospermic seeds is to a) synthesise GA and b) absorb the digested products of the endosperm and pass them on (via
vascular tissue) to the embryo.

Seed Dormancy Seed dormancy is the state/condition during which a seed carries out minimum metabolism and does not
germinate. Seed dormancy is important in the following
prevents the seed from germinating when conditions are harsh. Hence it is a survival mechanism

Causes of Seed Dormancy

 Hard Testas: In some seeds, the testas are hard and impermeable to water and oxygen, thereby preventing
germination of the seeds.
 Chemical Substances: Some seed embryos have hormones, such as abscicic acid (ABA) which keep them from
germinating
 Physiological Conditions: Some plant seeds can only germinate if first exposed to certain conditions of the
environment such as cold temperatures, light or darkness. Dormancy may be broken in the following ways:
 Scarification: This is the physical destruction of hard testa so that a seed becomes permeable to water and oxygen.
It can be done manually or by the action of digestive juices or gizzards of some animals.
 Soaking Seeds in Water: This softens hard testas in some seeds
 Fire: The resistant testas of some seeds are only made permeable to water and oxygen through burning them.
18
 Exposure to appropriate environmental conditions such as light, darkness and cold temperatures.
 Exposure to appropriate chemical substances which reverse the effects of chemical inhibitors of germination
e.g. gibberellic acid is thought to reverse the effects of ABA in some cereals.
 Seed Viability Seed viability is the ability of a seed to germinate into a seedling. It may be reduced by
prolonged periods of storage, high temperatures, physical damage, parasites and pests.
GROWTH IN ANIMALS

1. Life cycle of a Mosquito The mosquito undergoes complete metamorphosis. This is a type of life cycle where the
different stages of the cycle have different body forms (morphologies) from each other and different behaviors and
nutritional requirements. The stages of a mosquito life cycle are egg, larva, pupa and adult.

Eggs are laid in water by female mosquitoes after mating and they hatch into larvae (singular: larva). Larvae can swim
and they feed on phytoplankton and zooplankton. They eventually develop into pupae (singular: pupa) which are a less
active stage that continually undergoing internal changes. After some time, the adult insect emerges out of the pupa case
(puparium). The adult flies and feeds mainly on plant juices. However, when female mosquitoes are carrying fertilized
eggs, they develop a desire for animal blood which they need for egg development. Because of blood sucking, the female
Anopheles mosquito is a vector for malaria in humans.

A vector is any organism that transmits parasites from one host to another. Mosquitoes are said to be biological vectors.

A biological vector is one that carries parasites inside its body systems and the parasite undergoes part of its life cycle
inside the vector. Control of mosquitoes (in order to control malaria) can be targeted against the different stages of the life
cycle in the following ways:

 Draining all stagnant pools of water to eliminate eggs, larvae and pupae
 Spraying stagnant water with insecticides and/or oil. Insecticides such as DDT kill the eggs, larvae and pupae
directly. Oil blocks the oxygen supply from the eggs, larvae and pupae, thereby killing them.
 Biological control (the use of one type of organism called the control agent to get rid of another – called the
target organism – which is a nuisance).
 Use of insecticide – treated mosquito nets to trap and kill adult mosquitoes
 Clearance of bushes and tall grass where adults normally live before entering houses

The control agent must be a natural enemy (predator or parasite) of the target organism. Biological control may also
involve interfering with reproduction by use of radiation or chemicals and the artificial synthesis of chemical substances
normally produced by the target organism to be used in traps.

Physical killing of adult mosquitoes

2. Life Cycle of a House Fly Like the mosquito, the housefly also undergoes complete metamorphosis during its life
cycle.

Its life cycle is summarised in the following diagram:

The female housefly lays eggs in rotting material after mating. The eggs normally hatch into larvae (commonly called
maggots) 8-24 hours after being laid. The larvae feed on rotting material by sucking the nutrients and move using pads on
the lower side of their bodies.

After 4-5 days, the larvae develop into pupae which are immobile and do not feed. Although the pupae are immobile, a
lot of metabolism occurs inside of them and the imago takes shape within the pupa case known as the puparium. 3 to 4
days later, the imago breaks out of the puparium. It takes an imago 14 days to reach sexual maturity and the cycle starts all
over again.

Importance of Houseflies
19 Houseflies are vectors for pathogens that cause cholera, dysentery and typhoid among others. The adult stage
is able to fly. This makes it a very efficient vector. A housefly is a mechanical vector.

A mechanical vector is a vector that carries pathogens on the external surface of its body. Control of
Houseflies Houseflies may be controlled using the following methods;
  Sanitary disposal of refuse and faeces (this reduces the breeding sites for houseflies)
 Spraying with insecticide (to kill adult flies)
 Use of fly traps e.t.c.
 Covering the „mouths‟ of pit latrines.

RESPONSES

A response is an action or process that occurs in an organism due to the presence of a stimulus (plural – stimuli). A
stimulus is any substance or factor that causes a response from an organism. Examples of responses in living organisms
are tropic responses (tropisms) and taxic responses (taxism).

The following table compares tropic and taxic responses: Tropic response Taxic response

 Occurs in plants Occurs in invertebrates

 Involves growing either towards or away from the stimulus
 Involves moving either towards or away from the stimulus
 Only part of the plant responds The entire organism responds

Slower Faster

1. Tropic Responses A tropic response or tropism is the response of a plant part to a stimulus by either growing towards
or away from the stimulus.

Geotropism This is the response of a plant part to gravity by growing either towards or away from the gravity. Growth
towards gravity is called positive geotropism while growth away from gravity is called

Hydrotropism This is the response of a plant part to water by growing either towards or away from the water. Growth
towards water is called positive hydrotropism while growth away from water is called negative hydrotropism. Plant roots
are generally positively hydrotropic. This ensures that the roots absorb the water the plant needs.

COORDINATION AND RESPONSE IN ANIMALS

Coordination is the process by which different organs and systems of the body work together efficiently. There are two
main systems of coordination in animals. These are the endocrine system and the nervous system.

The Endocrine System

This is a system of coordination that is made of ductless glands that produce hormones. A hormone is a chemical secreted
by a ductless gland, transported by blood and has effects on one or more target organs before being destroyed by the liver.
A target organ is any organ that carries out an appropriate response to a stimulus under the influence of hormones. Any
hormone can only have effects on an organ that has receptor sites for it.

Human Endocrine System

Pituitary Gland The pituitary gland is also called the master gland of the endocrine system. This is because it secretes
hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to function.

These hormones include the following:

 Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): This stimulates the thyroid gland to function
20
 Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH): This stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete hormones
 Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) : This stimulates the tests to function
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): This stimulates formation of follicles in the ovaries.
 Luteinising Hormone (LH): This causes ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum. There are other
hormones produced by the pituitary gland which are not involved in stimulating other endocrine glands.
These include:
  diabetes insipidus (a condition where an individual passes out large volumes of dilute urine)
 Growth Hormone: This stimulates growth by stimulating synthesis of macromolecules such as proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids. Too much secretion of growth hormone leads to giantism/gigantism and acromegaly.
 Gigantism or giantism is a condition where an individual is abnormally tall and huge. Acromegaly is
enlargement of bones often accompanied by protrusion of the lower jaw. Little secretion of growth hormone
leads to dwarfism, a condition where an individual has physically stunted growth and appears too small for their
age.
 Oxytocin: This causes rhythmic contractions of the uterus wall during child birth and also stimulates release of
milk from mammary glands in the breasts.
 Prolactin:
This stimulates milk production by the mammary glands in the breasts. The Thyroid Gland This is an H-shaped
gland located in the neck near the larynx. It produces a hormone called thyroxine. Thyroxine controls the basal
metabolic rate (BMR) of the body, stimulates respiration of glucose and fats as well as cotrolling the growth and
differentiation of cells. The formation of thyroxine by the thyroid gland requires iodine.

Over production of thyroxine causes hyperactivity which is characterised by an increased metabolic and heart
rate, loss of body mass and extreme irritability. Under production of thyroxine causes myxoedema and cretinism.
Myxoedema is a condition where the basal metabolic rate and mental development are slow. Cretinism is a
condition where the physical, mental and sexual developments of a child are retarded. A person who suffers from
cretinism is called a cretin. Iodine deficiency causes swelling of the thyroid gland, a condition known as goitre.
The Adrenal Gland This is a pair of glands, each located just above each kidney.
The medulla of the adrenal glands produces a hormone called adrenaline. This hormone is called the “fight or
flight hormone” and is produced when an individual is angry, scared, emotionally excited or under stress.
It prepares he body for action in the following ways:
 It boosts the changing of glycogen to glucose, thereby increasing glucose levels in the blood to be used for
respiration

heart rate so that more blood containing glucose and oxygen can be carried to the muscles
 It diverts blood from the gut to the muscles by constricting the blood vessels of the gut and dilating the blood
vessels of the muscles.
 It dilates the pupils in the eyes for increased alertness
 It dilates the bronchi and increases the volume of the thorax so that more air containing oxygen may be taken in.
 It increases the sensitivity of the nervous system for faster response to stimul.
 It raises hair in furry animals and causes the appearance of „goose bumps‟.
 It causes shivering.

PANCREAS The pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine gland. It is considered as an exocrine gland in the
digestive system where it secretes pancreatic juice through a duct called the pancreatic duct. In the endocrine
system it plays a major role in maintaining normal glucose levels in blood. It has cells known as the Islets of
Langerhans which produce hormones involved in blood sugar regulation.
These cells are of two types, namely alpha cells (α-cells) and beta cells (β-cells). Alpha cells
secrete a hormone called glucagon. Beta cells secrete a hormone called insulin. When glucose
levels are too high in blood, the pancreas detects the change and secretes insulin which lowers
the levels of glucose in the following ways.
21 It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen which is
stored in the liver and muscles. The body can only store about 400g of glycogen (about100g in
the liver and 300g in the muscles).
It causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats. The fats are stored
under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the heart, liver, kidneys, intestines and
brain.
  It enables body cells to absorb glucose from the blood and use it. Lack or insufficient production of insulin leads
to the disease called diabetes mellitus whose signs and symptoms are:
 Abnormally high levels of glucose in blood
 Presence of glucose in urine
 Persistent thirst leading to excessive intake of water
 Drastic loss of weight
 Loss of sensation in some body parts.

When glucose levels are too low in blood, the pancreas detects secretes glucagon which increases glucose levels in blood
in the following ways:

 It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose.
 It causes fat to be changed into glucose and may cause proteins to be modified so that they are utilised for energy
production.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

A negative feedback mechanism is a mechanism whereby levels of substances in the body are brought back to normal.
When there are changes in the internal environment, they are detected by a monitor (detector) which produces a hormone
to return the condition to normal.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

This is a system of coordination in animals made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The brain and the spinal cord
together make up the central nervous system (CNS) while the nerves make up the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Nerves that are joined to the brain are called cranial nerves while those that are joined to the spinal cord are called spinal
nerves. In the nervous system messages are transmitted in the form of electric impulses also called nerve impulses.

NEURONS

The basic functional units of the nervous system are neurons or nerve cells.

Types of neurones include sensory, relay (connector, intermediate, multipolar, pyramidal) and motor neurones

SENSORY NEURONES

These are neurones that carry impulses from sense organs (receptors) to the central nervous system. A receptor is any
organ that detects a stimulus and converts information about it to electrical impulses. Characteristics of sensory neurons
include the following:

 They carry impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system.
 They have long dendrons and short axons.
 Their cell bodies are not terminally located but are axillary.

MOTOR NEURONES

These are neurones that carry impulses from the central nervous system to effectors. An effector is any
part of the body that carries out a response to a nervous impulse. Most effectors are glands or body organs
22 such as muscles. Motor neurones have the following characteristics:

 They carry impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.
 They have long axons and short dendrites.
 Their cell bodies are terminally located (located at the end).
RELAY NEURONE

These are neurones that form a link between sensory neurones and motor neurones. They are located in the central
nervous system and are multipolar so as to provide many alternative paths for impulses.

SYNAPSES

A synapse is a junction between two neurones. The neurones at the synapse are not joined to each other but have gaps
between them called synaptic gaps (synaptic clefts).

The following passage describes how a nerve impulse moves across a synaptic gap:

 1 An impulse arrives at the synapse

 2 At the end plates, there are vesicles (tiny sacs) containing a chemical (neurotransmitter).
 3 The vesicles fuse with the cell membrane (presynaptic membrane) and the chemical is released into the synaptic
gap.
 4 The chemical diffuses across the gap and the impulse restarts at the other side.

REFLEX ACTIONS

A reflex action is an automatic and stereotyped response to a stimulus.

Reflex actions are often quick, but some of them are slow. Examples of quick reflex actions include:

 Withdrawing of a hand from a hot object

 Jumping up after sitting on a pin
 Blinking when an object approaches the eye
 Knee-jerk reflex
 Shedding of tears when an object enters the eye.

An example of a slow reflex action is the pupil reflex (iris reflex). Each reflex action has a survival value which protects
an animal from dangerous factors. What is the survival value of each of the reflex actions stated above? Other examples of
reflex actions are sneezing, salivating, peristalsis, vasoconstriction and vasodilation There are two types of reflex actions,
namely spinal and cranial reflexes.

During a spinal reflex impulses pass through the spinal cord, whereas during a cranial reflex impulses pass through the
brain. Reflex Arc The path travelled by a nerve impulse during a reflex action is called a reflex arc.

CONDITIONED REFLEX

A conditioned reflex is a response that results from learning or training. The response given during a conditioned reflex is
not related to the stimulus but the animal associates it with a related stimulus after being trained to do so. This may be
illustrated by Pavlov‟s experiment. Pavlov’s Experiment Pavlov observed that dogs always salivated when they saw,
smelled or tasted food. For some days, Pavlov would ring a bell each time before giving the dogs food. Eventually, the
dogs started salivating at the sound of the bell alone. In this case, the salivation of the dogs is an example of a conditioned
reflex and the sound of the bell may be referred to as a conditioned stimulus.
Conditioning is used in training of animals for different tasks. In humans, activities such as walking, responding to a
name, cycling and driving are examples of conditioned reflexes.
23
THE BRAIN

The brain is the enlarged anterior end of the spinal cord. It is made of three regions which are:

 Fore brain (cerebrum, hypothalamus, pituitary gland and olfactory lobe)

 Mid brain (optic lobe)
 Hind brain (medulla oblongata and cerebellum)
FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN

Parts Medulla Oblongata: This links the spinal cord and the brain and conducts nerve impulses between these two parts. It
controls automatic processes such as heart rate, breathing rate, swallowing, salivating, sneezing .

CEREBELLUM:

This controls co-ordinated movement, helps maintain posture and also controls the sequence of activities involved in
dancing, acrobatics and playing of musical instruments.

Hypothalamus: Sometimes regarded as the centre of homeostasis, this contains centres which control thirst, hunger and
thermoregulation.

Pituitary Gland: This links the central nervous system and the endocrine system. (Refer to notes on the endocrine
system for the hormones it secretes and their functions)

Cerebrum: This is the largest part of the brain and is the centre of intelligence, memory, language and consciousness. It
has both motor and sensory areas. The motor areas control voluntary movement. The sensory areas interpret sensations
and are linked by association areas. Injury to the cerebrum lowers intelligence. It occupies three quarters of the brain.

Human beings have got the largest cerebrum of all animals. It is divided into two halves which are known as cerebral
hemispheres. The outer part (cortex) is folded and wrinkled to give a very large surface area. The cortex is grey in colour
because it contains cell bodies of neurones. The inner part is white in colour as it is made up of axons of neurons.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENDOCRINE AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous System Messages are electrical (nerve impulse) Responses are widespread and affect more than one target organ
Responses are either temporary or permanent. Responses are either quick (e.g. for adrenaline or slow

Endocrine System Messages are chemical (hormones) Responses are localised Responses are short-lived (temporary)
Responses are often quick (e.g. for sex hormones)

DRUGS AND DRUG ABUSE

A drug is any externally administered substance which modifies/alters the rate of metabolic reactions in the body. Drugs
may be administered in several ways including

 Ingestion (taking through the mouth).


through the nostrils) e.g. snuff
 Inhalation (taking a vaporised drug in through the respiratory) The term drug refers to useful substances such as
medicine as well as harmful substances. Harmful drugs are also called drugs of abuse and are classified into the
following groups, among others: stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, narcotics and inhalants/solvents.

Some terms associated with drug abuse include:

 Dependency (addiction): A condition where an individual‟s body fails to function normally in the absence of a
particular drug. A person who dependent on a drug is also said to be addicted. Dependency can be psychological
or physiological.
24  Psychological dependency is where a person believes that they need a particular drug to function
normally.
 Tolerance: This is a condition where an individual needs a higher dosage of a drug to produce an
effect that was initially being produced by a smaller dosage of the drug.
 Withdrawal symptoms: These are the symptoms or signs an individual experiences when they
discontinue using a drug which they are addicted to.
  Classes of Abused Drugs
 Stimulants: These are drugs that accelerate/increase the rate of impulse transmission in the nervous system.
Examples of stimulants are cocaine, caffeine, nicotine and amphetamines. Their effects include:
 Increasing alertness

 Increasing heart rate and breathing rate
 Reducing the desire to sleep
 Reducing the desire for food (lack of appetite)
 Making someone feel energetic
 Euphoria (feeling of well being) However, stimulants increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as
hypertension and coronary heart disease. Prolonged use can lead to dependency and liver damage. Overdoses can
cause death.

Depressants: These are drugs that slow down the rate of impulse transmission in the nervous system. Examples of
depressants are alcohol and heroin. Their effects include:

 Reduced anxiety and tension

 Increased desire for sleep and drowsiness
 In small amounts, some cause an increased desire for food
 Euphoria
 Numbing of pain by inhibiting pain and emotion centres.
 The dangers associated with abuse of depressants include the following:
 Overdoses can lead to instant death
 Injectable drugs such as heroin increase the risk of HIV infection resulting from sharing of needles.
 Addiction/dependency is quickly established
 They have severe withdrawal symptoms e.g. vomiting, diarrhoea and dizziness
 They slow down the time taken to respond to stimuli, leading to accidents
 Damage to vital body organs such as the liver, kidneys and brain
 Social problems such as crime and prostitution committed by addicts who need money for the drugs.

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL

The harmful effects of alcohol can be classified as either short term or long term. Short term effects are those that are
experienced immediately after taking the drug and do not last for a long time.

These include: Staggering (loss of coordination)

 Slurred speech
 Anti-social behaviour e.g. shouting
 Slowing down the transmission of nerve impulses, thereby slowing down reactions to stimuli
 Poor judgment
 Hangover Long term effects are the effects someone experiences after using a drug for a long time. For alcohol,
the long term effects are:
 Permanent damage to internal organs such as the liver, brain and kidneys. The hardening of liver
.
tissue resulting from alcohol abuse is called liver cirrhosis.
25  Social problems such as poverty, lack of food in homes, failure to sponsor children to school e.t.c.
 Stomach ulcers
 Uncontrolled shaking (delirium tremens) and hallucinations in some cases.
 Expectant mothers who take alcohol have a risk of giving birth to underweight babies having
foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS). This is a condition where a child is deformed and mentally
retarded
Note: Some effects of depressants are closely associated with those of sedatives and tranquillisers.

( Hallucinogens: These are drugs that distort the perception of an individual e.g. marijuana and LSD (lysergic acid
diethylamide).

THE EFFECTS OF TETANUS INFECTION This is an infection caused by a bacterium called Clostridium tetanus. It
is characterised by sustained contractions of muscles which leads to stiffening of the body and death. Individuals who
have deep cuts with dirty objects on their bodies (e.g. accident victims) are at high risk of tetanus infection. As a result
they are given anti-tetanus injections which contain antibodies that counter the effects of tetanus toxins. Sense Organs A
sense organ is any body organ responsible for detecting one or more stimuli. Examples of human sense organs and the
stimuli they detect are summarised in the following table:

Sense Organ Stimulus/stimuli detected The eye Light/light energy The skin Touch, temperature, pressure and pain The
nose chemoreceptors Chemicals in air The tongue chemoreceptors Chemicals in food The ear Sound energy,
balance/posture and pressure

1. The Eye This is a sense organ responsible for detecting light energy

Functions of Eye Parts Sclera:

This is the tough fibrous outer coat which maintains the spherical shape of the eyeball protects the eye against damage and
provides attachment for external eye muscles (rectus and oblique muscles) which move the eye in its sockets. This layer
is white and opaque Cornea: This is the transparent section of the sclera found in front of the eye. It does most of the
refraction of light rays from an object. This leads to the formation of an inverted and diminished image on the retina.
Choroid: This is a dark layer that also contains blood vessels.

The dark colour limits internal reflections so that clear images are formed. The blood vessels provide food and oxygen to
the cells of the retina. Retina: This is a layer containing light-sensitive cells where images form and light energy is
converted to nerve impulses.

There are two types of light sensitive cells found on the retina, namely cones and rods. The cones form clear (detailed)
colour images when there is high light intensity (bright light). The portion of the retina having the higher concentration of
cones is called fovea (yellow spot) and forms the most detailed colour images. The rods form blurred, black and white
images at low light intensity (dim light). Blind spot:

OPTIC NERVE:

A nerve having sensory neurones that transmit nerve impulses from the retina to the visual centre of the brain.

Vitreous humour: It s a jelly-like fluid which keeps the eyeball in shape, refracts light rays, supports the lens and keeps
the retina in place at the rear of the eye.

Aqueous humour: It is a watery fluid which supports the cornea and keeps it in shape.

Some Functions of the Eye Image formation

 Focusing and accommodation
 Pupil/iris reflex Formation of Images The part of the eye where images form is the retina.

The images formed have the following characteristics:

26
 They are inverted (upside down)
 They are diminished (smaller than the object)
 They are real (can be produced on screens) Though the images on the retina are inverted, they are seen the
right way up because the brain gives the correct interpretation of the images. Information about the image is
carried from the retina to the brain by the optic nerve.
FOCUSING AND ACCOMMODATION

Focusing is the formation of a clear image on the retina. Accommodation is the process by which the eye forms a
focused image on the retina by adjusting the thickness and length of the lens using suspensory ligaments and ciliary
muscles in response to the distance of the object away from the eye. Accommodation of a Close (Nearby) Object Rays
from close objects are divergent.

To focus the images on the retina the following events take place:

 Ciliary muscles contract

 Suspensory ligaments become slacken
 The lens becomes short and thick
 The light rays are more refracted, thereby focusing the image on the retina Accommodation of a Distant (Far)
Object Rays from distant objects are more or less parallel to each other and do not require much refraction to be
focused on the retina.

The following events occur to focus the image on the retina:

 Ciliary muscles relax

 Suspensory ligaments become taut, making the lens long and thin
 Light rays are less refracted, thereby focusing the image on the retina Pupil/Iris Reflex This is the adjustment of
the diameter of the pupil by circular and radial muscles of the iris in response to changes in light intensity. In
Bright Light (High Light Intensity) Excess light may damage the retina by bleaching it. To prevent this, the
following events take place:
 Circular muscles contract
 Radial relax
 Pupil constricts (becomes smaller) to prevent bleaching of the retina by excess light.

In Dim Light (Low Light Intensity)

The light reaching the retina is not enough for image formation.

To correct this situation, the following events take place:

 Radial muscles contract

 Circular muscles relax
 Pupil dilates (becomes wider) to allow as much light as possible to enter the eye for image formation
 Defects of the eye a) Short sight (Myopia) b) Long sight (Hypermetropia) c) Blindness

(i) Night blindness (ii) River blindness (iii) Blindness due to injury (iv) Colour blindness

Short Sight (Myopia) This is an eye defect where an individual can clearly see close objects but distant objects appear
blurred. This is because rays from distant objects are brought into focus before (in front of) the retina. It is caused by an
abnormally long eyeball or a permanently thick lens. It can be corrected by using concave lenses.

Long Sight (Hypermetropia) This is an eye defect where an individual can clearly see distant objects but close
objects appear blurred. It is caused by an abnormally short eyeball or a permanently thin lens. In this case, rays
from close objects are focused beyond the retina. Stiffening of the lens in its thin
27
position can be caused by old age. Long sight is corrected by using convex lenses.

Blindness This is defined as lack or loss of visual perception. There are different forms of blindness, some of
which are discussed below.
Blindness due to Injury

Night Blindness This is a condition where vision becomes diminished in dim light. It is caused by deficiency of vitamin
A. Vitamin A is required by the eye to form a visual pigment called rhodopsin that is required for vision at low light
intensities. Hence vitamin A deficiency initially leads to night blindness which may later develop xerophthalmia (a
condition where there is abnormal dryness of the conjunctiva, leading to blindness).

THE EAR

This is a sense organ that is responsible for detection of sound. The ear is divided into the following regions:

 Outer Ear or External Ear (an air-

Ear (an air-filled cavity made of the tympanum/ear drum, ossicles and eustachian tube)
 Inner Ear or Internal Ear (a fluid-filled cavity made of the cochlea, semicircular canals and vestibules

Functions of Ear Parts

 Pinna This collects sound waves and passes them on to the external auditory canal. External Auditory Canal (Ear
Canal)
 Carries sound waves from the pinna to the tympanum.
 Produces wax to keep the ear drum supple and trap particles that enter the ear .
 Contains hair to trap particles entering the ear Ear Drum (Tympanum) This is a membrane that vibrates when hit
by sound waves in order to transmit sounds to the ossicles that are found in the middle ear. Ossicles This are a set
of three small bones found in the middle ear and are responsible for:
 Transmitting sounds from the ear drum to the oval window.
 Amplifying sounds by about 20 times. The names of the three bones are related to their shapes. The first one after
the ear drum is the malleus (hammer); the next one is the incus (anvil) and the last one is stapes (stirrup).

Eustachian Tube This is a tube that connects the middle ear to the back of the pharynx. It opens during swallowing and
yawning in order to equalize pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere. This prevents the ear drum from
bursting when atmospheric pressure changes drastically e.g. during an aeroplane flight or deep-sea diving.

Oval Window (Fenestra ovalis) This picks up vibrations from the stapes and transmits them to the perilymph in the inner
ear. Round Window This relieves the pressure that builds up in the perilymph during vibrations of the oval window. It
moves outwards as the oval window moves inwards and moves inwards when the round window moves outwards.
Vestibules (Vestibular Apparatus).

This is made of the sacculus (saccule), utriculus (utricle), ampullae (singular=ampulla) and three semi-circular canals. The
sacculus links the rest of the vestibules to the cochlea. The utriculus contains receptors that are sensitive to gravity and
body posture.

The semicircular canals are responsible for balancing the body during rotational movements of the head. Each
semicircular canal is at right angles to the other two. The ampullae are the swollen ends of the semicircular canals.

They contain hair cells that are connected to nerves. When the head twists, the fluid inside the semicircular canal moves
and causes movement of the cupula and bending of the hair cells. This makes the hair cells generate impulses that are
transmitted to the brain to control balance.
28 Cochlea This is a coiled structure that detects sound intensity and frequency and transduces sounds to
generate nerve impulses. Nerve impulses from the ear are carried to the brain by the auditory nerve.
Deafness This is an ear disorder where hearing is impaired or diminished. Causes of deafness include the following:

 Over-production of wax which leads to blockage of the external auditory canal.

 Exposure to loud sounds which might damage the ear ossicles.
 Inserting hard and sharp objects into the ears, causing damage to the ear drum.
 Infections of the inner ear or the throat. Some throat infections are able to affect the middle ear by getting
transmitted through the eustachian tube.

Proper Care for Ears

 Clean the ears regularly with soft materials to remove excess wax
 Avoid exposure to loud sounds. This can be done by covering the ears when exposed to loud sounds. Soldiers are
advised to keep their mouths open when firing guns; suggest a reason for this.
 Treat all infections of the inner ear and throat.
Digestion of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
Digestion of food substances occurs in the mouth, stomach,
The Human Alimentary Canal duodenum and jejunum.

Digestion in the Mouth

The following events occur after food has been ingested into
the mouth:

Chewing: Also called mastication, this is the break down of

large pieces of food into smaller ones by teeth. It increases the
surface area of the food for more efficient enzyme activity and
makes food easy to swallow.

Secretion of Saliva: This is carried out by salivary glands.

Saliva is a mixture of water, mucus, the enzymes salivary
amylase and lysozyme in a slightly alkaline medium. The
water helps in cooling food that is too hot and warming up
food that is too cold so that its temperature is favourable for
enzyme action. It also softens food for easy chewing e.g. it is
easier to chew biscuits after they have been moistened by
saliva.

The mucus lubricates food foreasier swallowing.

The slightly alkaline pH is favourable or optimum for the
activity ofsalivary amylase. Salivary amylase starts the
digestion of cooked starch to produce maltose. However, only
small amounts of starch are converted to maltose in the mouth
because food stays for a short time in the mouth.
Amylase does not work in the stomach because the PH thereis
acidic.

Mixing Food with Saliva and formation of Bolus

While food is being chewed, the tongue mixes it with saliva.
Later, the tongue works with the palate (top of the mouth) to
roll the chewed food up into a round semi solid mass called a
29
Swallowing and Peristalsis
Swallowing is the passage of food or liquids from the mouth to the stomach through the oesophagus.
During swallowing, the food bolus moves by a process known as peristalsis.
Peristalsis is the alternate contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles in a wave-like manner in order
to move food along the alimentary canal. Peristalsis is illustrated in the following

Behind the bolus, circular muscles contract while longitudinal muscles relax. Ahead of the bolus, circular muscles relax
while longitudinal muscles contract.
Digestion in the Stomach

The stomach is an elastic bag with a muscular wall and a glandular lining. The entrance of the stomach is guarded by the
cardiac sphincter. The exit is guarded by the pyloric sphincter.

The following events take place in the stomach;

Secretion of gastric juice: Gastric juice is a mixture of pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric acid and mucus. Pepsin breaks down
proteins to form peptides. Rennin coagulates milk by converting the soluble protein caesinogen into an insoluble form
called casein.

This delays the passage of milk to the duodenum giving chance for pepsin to digestmilk protein. Both pepsin and
rennin are secreted in inactive forms called pepsinogen and prorennin, respectively.

Hydrochloric acid activates them into active enzymes and sets an acidic pH which is optimum. It also kills some bacteria
and hydrolyses sucrose to glucose and fructose. Mucus protects the lining of the stomach against the acid and pepsin.
Churning: This is the mixing of food by rhythmic contraction of the muscles in the wall of the stomach to form a paste
called chyme.

Temporal Storage of Food: Liquids can stay in the stomach for up to 30 minutes; carbohydrates are kept for about one
hour; proteins and lipids stay up to 2 hours.

Digestion in the Duodenum

The duodenum receives digestive juices from the liver and the pancreas. The liver secretes bile which is temporarily
stored in the gall bladder and carried to the duodenum by the bile duct. Bile contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, bile
salts and bile pigments. Sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and then sets an optimum alkaline pH
for the enzymes of the duodenum. The bile salts emulsify fats thereby increasing the surface area for the action of lipase.
Emulsification is the break down of large drops of fats into small droplets.
Bile pigments have no digestive function but add colour to the faeces.
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, trypsin, lipase and pancreatic
amylase. Sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and then sets an optimum alkaline pH for the
30 enzymes of the duodenum. Trypsin breaks down proteins to form peptides. Lipase breaks down fat molecules to
fatty acid and glycerol. Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch to form maltose.

Digestion in the Jejunum

This secretes Intestinal Juice (succus entericus) which contains Lactase, maltase, sucrase and peptidase. Lactase
breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose. Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. Sucrase breaks down
sucrose to glucose and fructose. Peptidase breaks down peptides to amino acids.
Digestion is completed in the jejunum.
The ileum and Absorption
The ileum carries out absorption of digestive end products and is adapted for this function in the
following ways:
The ileum is very long thereby providing a large surface area for absorption.

It has a thin epithelium for more efficient diffusion of food.

It has finger like projections called villi (singular: villus) and microvilli whichfurther increase the
surface area for absorption.
Each villus has a network of capillaries for absorption and transportation ofmonosaccharides and amino
acids
Each villus has a lacteal which absorbs and transports fatty acids and glycerol.

Diagram of a Villus

Assimilation of Digestive end Products

After absorption, the digestive end products are transported in the blood to the liver by the
hepatic portal vein.

The food is then assimilated as follows

Assimilation of Monosaccharides

(Glucose, Fructose and Galactose)

Glucose is mainly used as a substrate for tissue (cellular) respiration. If it is in excess, the excess is
converted to glycogen which is stored in the muscles and the liver. However the human body stores
limited amounts of glycogen i.e. about 400g (300g in the muscles and 100g in the liver). If there is still
some excess glucose, it is converted to fat and stored in the adiposetissue under the skin and around
delicate body organs such as the brain, heart, liver, kidneys and intestine. These processes are influenced
by a hormone called insulin which is secreted by the pancreas. Fructose and galactose are assimilated in
the same way as glucose.

Assimilation of Amino Acids

Amino acids are assembled to make the proteins required by the body. Excess amino acids are
deaminated by the liver. Deamination is the process by which the amino group of an amino acid is
removed and eventually converted to urea by the liver. Ammonia is an intermediate during deamination
and is highly toxic. It is quickly converted to urea which less toxic.

The remaining part of the amino acid known as the carbon skeleton may be converted to glucose by a
31 process called gluconeogenesis. Urea is toxic if allowed to accumulate in the body. It is carried from the
liver by blood and is removed from the body by the kidneys by the process of excretion.
Assimilation of Glycerol and Fatty Acids

Glycerol and fatty acids are chemically combined to make fats which have the following usesin the
body:
Insulation- animals have a layer of fat under their skins which prevents heat loss from the body
Formation of cell membrane- the cell membrane is made of lipids called phospholipids which can be
synthesized from fats and oils Energy source-lipids store a lot of energy which is made available when the
supply of carbohydrates in the body is low. In fact lipids store twice as much energy as an equal amount
of carbohydrates. Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and around delicate body
organs such as the brain, heart, liver, kidneys and intestine. The fat under the skin is responsible for
insulation while the fat around delicate organs cushions the organs against shocks.

Large Intestines

These are made of the caecum, the colon and the rectum. The caecum is the point where the ileum is
linked to the large intestines. It has a projection at the base known as the appendix, which has no known
use in the human body and is considered a vestigial organ. The colon carries out absorption of water from
the faeces while the rectum stores faeces temporarily before they are egested and continues the absorption
of water.

Functions of the Liver

The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body and performs a wide range of functions
including the following:
Destruction of old red blood cells resulting in formation of bile which is important in
emulsification of fats.

Deamination of excess amino acids resulting in formation of urea.

Detoxification of poisons and alcohol by converting them to less toxic substances e.g. hydrogen peroxide
is broken down to water and oxygen by the enzyme catalase in the liver. Excess intake of alcohol
frequently can lead to a condition called cirrhosis (hardening liver tissue, leading to loss of function)
Conversion of excess glucose to glycogen and storage of glycogen, thereby regulating the levels of blood
sugar.
Manufacture of red blood cells in babies.

Transamination (the conversion some amino acids to others)

Synthesis of plasma proteins such as prothrombin, fibrinogen, globulins and albumin.
Storage of some vitamins (e.g. vitamin A) and some mineral ions (e.g. iron)
Production of heat through a wide range of exothermic/exergonic reactions.
Common Ailments of the Liver

Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver which may result from infection hepatitis viruses.

Hepatomegaly: Enlargement of the liver.

Cirrhosis: Hardening of liver tissue resulting from poisoning or excessive intake of alcohol.
Common Ailments of the Alimentary Canal

Diarrhoea: The passage of watery stool, resulting in dehydration and loss of mineral ions fromthe
body. It is caused by intake of food or drinks that are contaminated with pathogens. The pathogens
32 cause inflammation of the intestinal lining leading to diarrhoea.

Constipation: Difficult defaecation due to hardness and dryness of faeces, resulting from insufficient
roughage and water in diet. It may also result from keeping the faeces in the rectum for too long which
causes the rectum to absorb too much water, making the faeces hard anddry.
Stomach Ulcers: An ulcer is defined as an open sore that produces toxic matter. Stomach ulcers may
result from over-production of pepsin and hydrochloric acid or when the mucus layer in the stomach is
not sufficiently thin. This causes the lining of the stomach to be destroyed by the action of pepsin or
hydrochloric acid.

Piles (haemorrhoids): This is a condition where the veins in the rectum become swollen and eventually
burst causing pain and blood-stained stool. It may be caused by frequent constipation.

Coenzymes and Respiration:

Coenzymes like NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide) play
crucial roles in cellular respiration. They act as electron carriers, accepting electrons during glycolysis,
the link reaction, and the Krebs cycle. These coenzymes transfer the electrons to the electron transport
chain, where the energy is harnessed to generate ATP.

10. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and dehydrogenase enzymes:

NAD is a coenzyme that functions as an electron carrier. Dehydrogenase enzymes participate in the
removal of hydrogen atoms from substrates. During cellular respiration, dehydrogenases play a key role
in oxidizing substrates and transferring electrons to NAD, forming NADH.

11. Pyruvate and its fate:

Pyruvate, produced in glycolysis, undergoes the link reaction to form Acetyl CoA, which then enters the
Krebs cycle in the mitochondria. The fate of pyruvate depends on the presence of oxygen. In aerobic
conditions, it enters the mitochondria for further oxidation. In anaerobic conditions, pyruvate may
undergo fermentation.
12. Alcoholic Fermentation (yeast and fruits):
In alcoholic fermentation, yeast and some microorganisms convert pyruvate into ethanol and carbon
dioxide in the absence of oxygen. This process is utilized in the production of alcoholic beverages and
contributes to the leavening of bread. Fruits can also undergo alcoholic fermentation under certain
conditions.

13. Anaerobic respiration in muscles and Oxygen debt:

During intense physical activity, muscles may undergo anaerobic respiration when oxygen demand
exceeds supply. This leads to the production of lactic acid. The oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen
needed to convert accumulated lactic acid back to pyruvate and replenish depleted energy stores after
anaerobic respiration.

14. Reactions of the Krebs cycle:

a) Decarboxylation: The Krebs cycle involves the decarboxylation (removal of carbon dioxide) of
compounds, releasing CO2 as a byproduct.

b) Dehydrogenation: Dehydrogenase enzymes catalyze reactions that involve the removal of hydrogen
atoms from substrates, producing reduced coenzymes (NADH and FADH2).

c) Oxidative Phosphorylation:
This process involves the generation of ATP through the transfer of electrons in the electron transport
chain.
16. Electron transport chain and ATP synthesis:
a) Flavoproteins, b) Quinones, b) Cytochromes: These are components of the electron transport chain.
Flavoproteins, quinones, and cytochromes facilitate the transfer of electrons, leading to the pumping of
protons across the mitochondrial membrane. The flow of protons back into the mitochondrial matrix
drives ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation.
33
These topics collectively illustrate the intricate processes involved in cellular
respiration, highlighting the importance of coenzymes, specific enzymes, and the
sequential stages leading to ATP production.
CELL GROWTH & DIVISION:
a) Cell Cycle: The cell cycle is a series of events that occur in a cell leading to its division and the
production of two daughter cells.

It consists of two main phases: interphase and mitotic phase. Interphase is further divided into three
stages:

G1 phase (Gap 1):

The cell grows and carries out normal cellular functions.
S phase (Synthesis): DNA is replicated, ensuring that each daughter cell receives a complete set of
genetic material.

G2 phase (Gap 2): The cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis.
The mitotic phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis:

Mitosis: The nucleus divides, ensuring that each daughter cell receives a copy of the genetic material. It
involves prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Cytokinesis: The cytoplasm divides, and the cell physically splits into two.

b) Phases of Mitosis:
Mitosis is a process of cell division that occurs in somatic cells (non-reproductive cells) and results in
two genetically identical daughter cells.

The phases of mitosis are as follows:

Prophase: Chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers form.
Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator.
Anaphase: Chromatids of each chromosome separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase: Chromatids reach the poles, the nuclear envelope reforms, and the chromosomes decondense.

c) Phases of Meiosis: Meiosis is a type of cell division that occurs in reproductive cells, producing
gametes (sperm and egg cells). It involves two sequential divisions, resulting in four non-identical
daughter cells.

The phases are:

Meiosis I (Reductional division): Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I.
Meiosis II (Equational division): Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II.

2. Reproduction:
Types of Reproduction:

i) Asexual Reproduction:
Fission: The parent organism divides into two or more individuals of equal size.
Budding: A new individual grows out of the parent organism, forming a bud.
Vegetative Propagation: New plants grow from existing plant parts (e.g., roots, stems, or leaves).
Cloning: Genetically identical copies of an organism are produced.

ii) Sexual Reproduction:

Conjugation: Exchange of genetic material between two organisms.

34
Formation of Male and Female Gametes (Meiosis): Specialized cells (gametes) are produced through
meiosis, containing half the genetic material of somatic cells.

Fusion of Gametes (Fertilization): The fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote with a
complete set of chromosomes.

Responsibilities of Parenting:
Roles of Each Parent in Child Rearing:
Emotional Support: Both parents play a crucial role in providing emotional support to the child.

Basic Needs:
Parents are responsible for meeting the child's basic needs, including food, shelter, and healthcare.

Moral and Ethical Development:

Parents contribute to the moral and ethical development of their children by teaching values and setting
examples.

Risk of Teenage Parenting

Educational and Career Challenges:

Teenage parents may face difficulties in completing their education and pursuing career goals.

Financial Strain:
Limited resources and financial stability can be a challenge for young parents.
Stress and Social Stigma: Teen parents may experience higher stress levels and face societal judgment or
stigma.
Impact on Well-being: Teenage parenting can affect the emotional and physical well-being of both the
parent and the child.

STAGES OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS:

Mitosis:
 Prophase:
Chromosomes condense.
Nuclear envelope breaks down.
Spindle fibers form.

Metaphase:
Chromosomes align at the cell's equator.
Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres.

Anaphase:
Chromatids of each chromosome separate and move to opposite poles.

Telophase:
Chromatids reach the poles.
Nuclear envelope reforms.
Chromosomes decondense.

Cytokinesis:
The cell physically divides into two.

35
Meiosis I:
 Prophase I:
Chromosomes condense.
Homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis).
Crossing over occurs.

Metaphase I:
Homologous chromosomes align at the cell's equator.

Anaphase I:
Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles.

Telophase I:
Chromosomes reach the poles.
Nuclear envelope reforms briefly.

Meiosis II:
 Prophase II:
Chromosomes condense again.

Metaphase II:
Chromosomes align at the cell's equator.

Anaphase II:
Chromatids of each chromosome separate and move to opposite poles.

Telophase II:
Chromatids reach the poles.
Nuclear envelope reforms.
Chromosomes decondense.

Cytokinesis (Meiosis II):

The cells divide again, resulting in four non-identical daughter cells.

2. DISTINGUISHING MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS:

Mitosis:
Results in two identical daughter cells.
Occurs in somatic (non-reproductive) cells.
Chromosome number in daughter cells is the same as in the parent cell.

Meiosis:
Results in four non-identical daughter cells.
Occurs in reproductive cells (sperm and egg cells).
Chromosome number in daughter cells is half that of the parent cell.

3. Explaining Gametes Formation:

Gametes are sex cells (sperm and egg) produced through a specialized form of cell division called
meiosis.
During meiosis, diploid germ cells undergo two divisions, resulting in four haploid daughter cells
(gametes). Crossing over and random assortment during meiosis contribute to genetic diversity among gametes.
36
4. Explaining Terms such as Gametes, Diploid, Haploid:
Gametes: Sex cells (sperm and egg) involved in sexual reproduction, carrying half the genetic material of
somatic cells.
Diploid (2n): Cells containing two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent). In humans, diploid cells
have 46 chromosomes.
Haploid (n): Cells containing one set of chromosomes. Gametes are haploid, with 23 chromosomes in
humans.