1466 - Unit 3-Study Notes On Cancer

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Study Notes on Cancer

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Study Notes on Cancer:- 1. Subject-Matter of Cancer

2. Meaning of Cancer 3. Types 4. Development 5.
Characteristics of Cancer Cells 6. Causes 7.
Oncogenes 8. Proto-Oncogene 9. Tumour
Suppressor Genes 10. Prevention and Treatment.
Contents:
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Study Notes on Cancer http://www.biologydiscussion.com/cancer/study-notes-on-cancer/27314
1. Notes on the Subject-Matter of Cancer

2. Notes on the Meaning of Cancer
3. Notes on the Types of Cancer
4. Notes on the Development of Cancer
5. Notes on the Characteristics of Cancer Cells
6. Notes on the Causes of Cancer
7. Notes on Oncogenes
8. Notes on Proto-Oncogene
9. Notes on Tumour Suppressor Genes
10. Notes on Prevention and Treatment of Cancer
Notes # 1. Subject-Matter of Cancer:

In multicellular organisms, cell division is a normal process.
Cells divide for growth, for the development of organs, for
healing of wounds and also for the replacement of older and
damaged cells. Cell division is a very complex process which
is controlled by a regulatory mechanism at both molecular
and cellular level.
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Again, in higher multicellular organism, each and every cell

belongs to a particular type of tissue like epithelial tissue,
connective tissue muscular tissue etc.
Hence, when a cell of a specific tissue divides, it normally

produces its own kinds of cell of the tissue to which it
belongs. It never produces the cells of other tissues.
Therefore, the process by which cells achieve this
specification and specialisation is known as cellular
differentiation. Differentiation of cell begins during
embryonic gastrulation stage and continues through tissue
formation.
Actually differentiation has a genetic basis and the process
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results from the interaction of the nucleus and the

cytoplasm. After the cells become well- differentiated, they
cannot go back normally to the undifferentiated stage unless
disturbed internally or externally.
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Therefore, in multicellular organism, the cell division,

differentiation and survival of individual cells are carefully
regulated to meet the needs of the organism as a whole.
When this regulation is lost due to any reason, the cells
behave unusually and defy their control mechanism.
Then the cells grow and divide in an uncontrolled manner

ultimately spreading throughout the body and interfering
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with the functions of normal tissues and organs. As a whole,

this condition leads to cancer. Cancer develops from defects
in fundamental regulatory mechanisms of the cell.
Notes # 2. Meaning of Cancer:
Cancer is a non-infectious disease. It starts at the molecular

level of the cell and, ultimately affects the cellular behaviour.
Generally, it can be defined as uncontrolled proliferation of
cells without any differentiation.
Notes # 3. Types of Cancer:
Cancer is a large class of diverse disease. All types of cancer

can result from uncontrolled cell growth and division of any
of the different kinds of cells in the body. So there are more
than a hundred distinct types of cancer which vary in their
behaviour and response to treatment.
The uncontrolled cell growth produces a mass of cells which

are called tumours or neoplasm tumours may be benign or
malignant. A benign tumor remains confined to its original
location. They do not invade the surrounding normal
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tissues. They do not spread to distant body sites.
The most common example of tumour is the skin wart. A

benign tumour consists of closely resembles normal cells
and may function like normal cells. Generally benign
tumours are harmless and can usually be removed
surgically. However, these tumours may sometimes become
quite harmful if they are located in organs like brain and
liver.
A malignant tumour does not remain confined to its original

location. They are capable of both invading surrounding
normal tissue and spreading throughout the body via the
circulatory or lymphatic systems. Malignant tumours
become life-threatening if, they spread throughout the body.
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Only malignant tumours are properly designated as cancers.

The cells of malignant tumour are derived from single cell,
thus they are monoclonal in character. Malignant tumour is
composed of aberrant cells. They behave like embryonic
type, undifferentiated, having irregular, large nucleus, and
deficient of cytoplasm. Malignant tumours are generally
classified into four main types on the basis of cell type from
which they arise.
(i) Carcinomas:
It includes approximately 90% of human cancer. This type is

principally derived from epithelial cells of ectoderm and
endoderm. The solid tumours in nerve tissue and in tissues
of body surfaces or their attached glands are example of
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carcinomas. Cervical, breast, skin and brain carcinomas are

developed from malignant tumour.
(ii) Sarcomas:
Sarcomas are solid tumours of connective tissues such as
muscle, bone, cartilage and fibrous tissue. This type of
malignant tumours are rare in human (about 2% of human
cancer).
(iii) Lymphomas:
It is a type of malignancy in which there is excessive

production of lymphocytes by the lymph nodes and spleen.
It accounts for approximately 8% of human cancers.
Hodgkin’s disease is an example of human lymphoma.
(iv) Leukemia’s:
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This type of malignancy arises from the blood forming cell.

Leukemia’s are commonly known as blood cancer.
Leukemia’s are neoplastic growth (uncontrolled cell growth
at the cost of remaining cells) of leucocytes or WBC.
They are characterised by excessive production of WBC of

the blood. The name leukemia is derived from Greek leukos
(white) + haima (blood) the massive proliferation of
leukemia cells can cause a patient’s blood to appear milky.
In addition to the types of cancer mentioned above, cancers

are further classified according to tissue of origin, for
example lung cancer, breast cancer, and the type of cells
involved, for example fibro sarcoma arises from fibroblasts,
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erythromoid leukemia’s from precursor of erythrocytes.

Although there are many kinds of cancer, the four most
common cancers are those of prostrate, breast, lung and
colon/rectum.
Notes # 4. Development of Cancer:
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The development of cancer is a multistep process in which

cells gradually become malignant through a progressive
series of alternations. This process involves mutation and
selection for cells with progressively increasing capacity for
cell division, survival, invasion and metastasis (spread of
cancer cells through the blood or lymphatic system to other
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organ sites).
The first step in the process is when a single cell within a

tissue of the organ concerned is genetically modified. The
modified cell divides rapidly, although surrounding cells do
not— and a mass of tumour cells forms.
These cells constitute a clone where cells are identical in

terms of structure, characteristics and function. Rapid cell
proliferation leads to the tumorous outgrowth or adenoma
or polyp. This tumour is still benign.
Tumour progression continues as additional mutation occur

within cells of tumour population. Some of these mutations
give a selective advantage to the cell such as rapid growth
and the descendants of a cell bearing such a mutation will
consequently become dominant within the tumour
population.
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This process is known as clonal selection. Clonal selection

continues throughout tumour development and,
consequently, tumour become more and more rapid,
growing and increasingly malignant. The tumour cells, by
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their rapid proliferation, invades the basal lamina that

surrounds the tissue.
Then tumour cells spread into blood vessels that will

distribute them to other sites in the body. This is known as
metastasis. If the tumour cells can exit from the blood
vessels and grow at distant site, they are considered
malignant (Fig. 23.1).
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Notes # 5. Characteristics of Cancer Cells:
The uncontrolled growth of cancer cells results from

accumulated abnormalities affecting many of the cell
regulatory mechanisms. The process of cell change in which
a normal cell loses its ability to control its rate of division
and thus becomes a tumour cell is called cell transformation.
Cancer cells shows some typical characteristic properties

that are absent in normal cells. Sometimes cancer cell
properties are just opposite to the properties of normal cell.
Cancer cells in vivo differ from their normal counterparts in
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several respects. Some characteristic properties of cancer

cells can also be demonstrated by cell culture in vitro.
(i) Immortalization:
Normal cell culture do not survive indefinitely For example,
human cell culture die after about 50 generations. On the
other hand, transformed cell cultures can go on indefinitely
and remain immortal if the nutrition is provided and
overcrowding avoided.
(ii) Loss of Contact Inhibition:
Normal cells growing in tissue culture tend to make cell

contacts by adhesion to neighbouring cells. At the points of
adhesion some kind of electron-dense plaque is formed in
both contacting cells. At the same time there is a slowing
down of the amoeboid process which results in contact
inhibition of movement. In contrast, cancer cells are unable
to form adhesive junctions and do not show this type of
contact inhibition.
Experimentally, it has been observed that when normal cells

have become completely surrounded by other cells, their
mobility stops and they form a monolayer. At the same time
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there is inhibition of growth and the number of cells in the

petridish remains practically constant.
On the other hand, cancer cells continue to multiply and pile

up forming irregular masses several layers deep. Cancerous
cells undergo a change in property of their cell membranes
and cell coat such as disappearance of gap junction, loss of
coupling changes in glycolipid and glycoprotein and a
reduction in gangliosides.
In the cell coat fibronectin, a large glycoprotein found in

footprints of moving cultured cells is reduced in cancerous
cells. These changes enable the cells to dissociate from
neighbouring cells and show loss of contact inhibition.
(iii) Reduced Cellular Adhesion:

Most cancer cells are less adhesive than the normal cells due
to reduced expression of cell surface adhesive molecules.
When normal cells are transformed into cancer cells, then a
change of stickiness of their cell membrane results. Normal
cells show stickiness or adhesiveness.
If normal cells are grown in a liquid nutrient medium kept in

a glass vessel, the cells stick to glass wall rather than float in
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the medium. But when cancer cells are allowed to grow in

nutrient medium, they stick to each other less than do
normal cells.
Adhesiveness shows considerable specificity. For example, a

liver cell tends to stick with another liver cell and not to
other types of cell such as kidney cell. Cancerous cells do not
show this property. They are able to mix and stick to any
type of normal cell. For example, a malignant liver cell can
mix and stick to normal kidney cell. Hence this unusual
behaviour of cancer cell explains that cancer cells can invade
several normal organs.
(iv) Invasiveness:
One of the most important characteristics of cancer cells is

their invasiveness. It is the ability to invade other tissues.
Malignant cells generally secrete proteases that digest
extracellular matrix components, allowing the cancer cells to
invade adjacent normal tissues. For example, secretion of
collagenase by the cancer cells helps to digest and penetrate
through basal laminae to invade the underlying connective
tissue.
Cancer cells also secrete growth factors that promote the
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formation of new blood vessels. This is known as

angiogenesis. Angiogenesis is necessary to support the
growth of tumour beyond the size of about a million cells at
which point new blood vessels are needed to supply oxygen
and nutrients to the multiplying tumour cells.
Actually the growth factor secreted by the tumour cells

stimulates the endothelial cells present in the wall of
capillaries.
As a result, new outgrowth of the capillaries is formed into

the tumour. These outgrowths of capillaries are also helpful
for metastasis of malignant cells. Therefore, angiogenic
stimulation induces the growth of new blood capillaries
which penetrate easily in the tumour tissue and provide the
opportunity for the cancer cells to enter the circulatory
system. As a result, metastasis process begins.
(v) Failure to Differentiate:
Another general characteristic of most of the cancer cells is

that they fail to differentiate. This property is closely related
with the abnormal proliferation. Normal cells are fully
differentiated. In most fully differentiated cells, cell division
ceases. In case of cancer-cells, normal differentiation
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program is blocked at the early stages of differentiation. The

relationship between defective differentiation and rapid
proliferation is clearly noted in case of leukemia.
All of the different types of blood cells develop from a

common pluripotent stem cell in the bone marrow. Some of
the descended cells develop erythrocytes but others
differentiate to form lymphocytes, granulocytes and
macrophages. Cells of each of these types become round as
they differentiate but once they become fully differentiated
cell division ceases But leukemia cells fail to undergo
terminal differentiation. Instead, they become blocked at
early stage of maturation at which they retain their capacity
for proliferation and continue to divide.
(vi) Auto stimulation of Cell Division:
Cancer cells produce growth factor that stimulates their own

cell division. Such abnormal production of a growth factor
by the cancer cell leads to continuous auto stimulation of cell
division. This is known as autocrine growth stimulation.
Hence the cancer cells are less dependent on general growth
factor produced within the body physiologically from normal
source for inducing growth of all normal cells. It is also
noted that the reduced growth factor dependence of cancer
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cell results from abnormalities in intracellular signalling

system.
(vii) Apoptosis:
For every cell, there is a fixed span of life, i.e., time to live
and time to die. This cell death is a very orderly process and
so it is called Programmed Cell Death or PCD or Apoptosis.
Apoptosis is a mechanism of programmed cell death or cell
suicide which is essential for the survival of the organism,
for the normal development of the organism as the
programmed destruction of the organism as the
programmed destruction of cells is found during embryo-
genesis. It also protects the organism by removing damaged
cells which may be due to viral infection or due to exposure
to radiations. It also inhibits the tumour development and so
any defect in the control of apoptosis may lead to cancer.
There are two methods by which cells may die such

as:
1. Death by injury that is through mechanical damage or due

to toxic chemicals.
2. By Apoptosis, i.e., through programmed cell death.
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(a) Characteristic charges during apoptosis:
The following distinct morphological changes are

found during apoptosis:
1. Shrinkage of cells.
2. Cell forms tight sphere.
3. Cell membrane forms bubble-like blebs on the outer

surface.
4. Occurrence of nuclear membrane break.
5. Endonucleolytic clearance of DNA at inter-nucleosomal

sites occurs leading to the degradation of chromatin.
6. Breakdown of mitochondria is found with the release of

cytochrome C.
7. Breakage of cells into small fragments.
8. Engulfment of cells fragments by phagocytic cells:
(b) Genetic Control of Apoptosis:
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Some apoptosis genes have already been identified which

are responsible for switching on or off apoptosis. These
genes include ICE (Interleukin-lb-Converting Enzyme) and
P53. There are other factors that also regulate the process of
apoptosis.
One of them is the signal protein which is released either

due to some cell injury or through cytokine medicated
pathways. There are some critical proteins or modulating
factors which determine whether a cell will be repaired or
undergo death.
These genes or factors may initiate some stimuli for cell

death or induces cellular susceptibility to apoptosis or
initiates some effector mechanisms for apoptosis. Some of
the genes or factors responsible for apoptosis are listed in
the Table 23.1.
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(c) Mechanism of Apoptosis:
There are generally three different mechanisms for

apoptosis. These are:
1. Triggered by internal signals, i.e., signals arising within

the cell.
2. Triggered by external signals.
3. By Apoptosis-Inducing Factor (AIF).
1. By Internal Signals:
In a normal cell, the protein (BC1-2) produced from a gene

BC1-2 remains on the outer surface of the mitochondria. The
protein BC1-2 holds the apoptotic protease activating factor-
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1 (Apaf-1). But when the damage occurs in the cell internally

due to some reactive oxygen, the Apaf-1 factor is released
from BC1- 2-Apaf-l complex.
This allows the protein Bax to penetrate the mitochondrial

membrane causing a leakage of cytochrome C from the
mitochondria.
Then the released cytochrome C and Apaf-1 bind to

molecules of caspase 9. The complex containing cytochrome
C, Apaf- 1, caspase 9 and ATP is called Apoptosome. Caspase
9 is actually one form of protease which cleaves proteins at
Aspartic acid residues.
The caspase 9 activates other caspases creating a cascade of

proteolytic activity which leads to the lysis of cell through
digestion of structural proteins of the cytoplasm and
degradation of chromosomal DNA.
2. External Signals:
Some receptor proteins (FAS and TNF) and other molecules

residing on the surface of the cell are responsible for
apoptosis. when cyto- tosic T cells containing
complementary factor FASL bind to the target cell, FASL
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binds with the FAS of the target cell leading to the death of
the cell by apoptosis.
3. Apoptosis-Inducing Factor (AIF):
This AIF is a protein located in the inter-membrane space of

mitochondria. When the cell receives the signal for its death,
AIF is released from the mitochondria to the cytoplasm. AIF
then goes to the nucleus and binds to DNA causing
destruction of the DNA and finally the death of the cell.
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In case of cancer, there are some virsus like Human

Papilloma Virus (HPV), Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) produce a
special type of protein E6 or BC1-2 which inactivately
apoptosis promoter P 53, leading to the proliferation of
cancer.
Again those cancer cells without the intervention of viruses

also have some techniques to inactivate apoptosis. some
B-cell leukemia’s Melanoma (one type of skin cancer), lung
cancer cells, colon cancer cells, etc. produce some proteins
or factors like BC1-2 “decoy” molecule, Fas L can avoid
apoptosis by inhibiting Apaf-1, or binding to Fas leading to
proliferation of cancer.
(viii) Density-Dependent Inhibition:
One of the primary distinguishing characteristic features

between cancer cell and normal cell is that normal cells show
density-dependent inhibition of cell division in culture but
cancer cells continue to proliferate independent of cell
density.
Proliferation of normal cell continues until they reach a

finite cell density. Normal cells are very sensitive to cell
density. So when they reach a finite density they enter the G0
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state of the cell cycle. But cancer cells continue to divide to

high cell density.
(ix) Cellular Characteristics:

Cancer cells can be distinguished from normal cells by
microscopic examination. Cancer cells have a high nucleus
to cytoplasm ratio, prominent nucleoli, many mitosis, and
relatively little specialised structure. Normal cells have a
cytoskeleton which consists of microtubules and
microfilaments. But the cytoskeleton of cancer cells undergo
de-polymerisation and the microtubules disaggregate.
(x) Chromosomal Change:
Normal cell contains normal chromosome number, e.g.,

normal cells of human beings contain 46 or 23 pairs
chromosomes. But in cancer cell the chromosomes can
undergo both structural and numerical changes. In human
being the parent cell of any cancer has 46 chromosomes
Later, after a series of abnormal divisions the cancer cells
contain series of chromosome numbers and karyotype.
The chromosomes swell up and the number of chromosome

sets increase owing to the growth of cancer cells. This
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condition is known as aneuploidy. Earlier workers have

suggested that in different cancer cell populations there are
chromosomal stem lines involving a particular spectrum of
chromosome structure and number.
An established cancer cell population will have a modal

number in most of the cells over quite long periods and it is
relatively stable. Generally speaking, no two karyotypes are
identical in cancer cell and no typical chromosome group
has been found to be involved. Therefore, the occurrence of
any aneuploid cells in a particular tissue may have the possi-
bility to become cancerous cell.
(xi) Interaction With Immune System:
A few normal cells may be transformed in pre-cancer cells

every day in each of us in response to radiation, certain
viruses or chemical carcinogens in the environment. Because
they are abnormal cells, some of their surface proteins are
different from those of normal body cells. Such proteins act
as antigens and stimulate an immune response that
generally destroys these abnormal pre-cancer cells.
If the pre-cancer cells are destroyed by the immune system,

then how does cancer occur? Further investigation
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demonstrates that there are some transformed cancer cells

whose surface proteins are not so changed.
Hence such cancer cells may remain anti-genetically similar

to normal cells. As a result, the immune system cells may fail
to distinguish the cancer cell from normal cell. Some
workers suggest that sometimes cells of the immune system
do recognise cancer cells but are not able to destroy them.
In such case, cancer cells can stimulate B cells to produce

IgG antibodies that combine with antigens on the surface of
the cancer cells.
These blocking antibodies may block the T cells so that they

are unable to adhere to the surface of the cancer cells and
destroy them. For some unknown reason, the blocking
antibodies are not able to activate the complement system
that would destroy the cancer cells.
Notes # 6. of Cancer:
Many agents including radiation, chemicals and viruses have

been found to induce cancer in both experimental animals
and humans. Agents which cause cancers are called carcino-
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gens. Radiation (Solar ultraviolet ray, X-ray) and chemical

carcinogens act by damaging DNA and inducing somatic
mutations.
These carcinogens are generally called initiating agent

because the induction of mutations in key target genes is
supposed to be the initial event leading to cancer
development.
Some of the initiating agents that cause human cancers

include solar ultraviolet radiation—the major cause of skin
cancer. The exposure of the thyroid gland to X-rays greatly
increases the incidence of thyroid cancers.
Varieties of chemical carcinogen including tobacco smoke

(containing benzo(a)pyrene, dimethyl nitrosamine and
nickel compound) and aflatoxin produced by some molds
are the major identified cause of human cancer. Other
carcinogens induce the cancer development by stimulating
cell proliferation rather than inducing mutations. Such
compounds axe called tumour promoters.
The first suggestion that chemicals can cause cancer dates

back to 1761, when a doctor noted that people who use snuff
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suffer from nasal cancer. A few years later a British

physician observed a high incidence of cancer of the scrotum
among the chimney-sweepers iii their youth.
He explained the fact that the chimney soot became

dissolved in the natural oil of the scrotum, irritating the skin
and, consequently, initiates the development of cancer. On
the basis of two separate observations it became evident that
certain chemicals (Table 23.1) can cause cancer.
Later, as the industrial revolution moved into twentieth

century, more and more incidence of cancer were reported
among the workers who were continuously exposed to
industrial chemicals.
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In the early 1940s Peyton Rous observed that repeated

application of coal tar to rabbit skin causes tumour to
develop, but the tumour disappears when application of the
coal tar is stopped. It is also noted that when the skin is
treated with turpentine, tumour again reappears.
Normally turpentine does not cause cancer itself. Therefore

the coal tar and turpentine are playing two different roles.
Some carcinogens induce some normal cells to become
irreversibly altered to a pre-neoplastic state.
This is known as initiation and the carcinogens are known as

initiation agents. Here coal tar is an initiating agent. On the
other hand, some carcinogens stimulate the pre-neoplastic
cells to divide and form tumour. This is known as promotion
and the carcinogens are termed promoting agents. Here
turpentine behaves as promoting agents.
Berenblum observed that painting the skin of a mouse a

single time with methylcholanthrene rarely causes the
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development of tumours. But subsequently application of

castor oil (an oil derived from seeds of Croton tiglium)
triggers the formation of multiple tumours on the skin which
has been exposed previously to methylcholanthren is acting
as an initiator whereas castor oil acts as a promoter.
Initiation is a quick, irreversible process that causes a

permanent change in a cell’s DNA. The carcinogenic
chemicals that act as initiating agent are capable to bind
with DNA. Hence they interfere with the normal function of
DNA and induce somatic mutation and, consequently, bring
about stable, inheritable changes in the cell’s properties.
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On the basis of action of chemical carcinogens on DNA,

there are two broad categories of carcinogens—direct acting
and indirect acting (Fig. 23.2). Direct acting carcinogens are
highly electrophilic compounds that react with DNA.
Indirect acting carcinogens are converted to ultimate

carcinogens by introduction of electrophilic centres. In other
words, indirect acting carcinogens must be metabolised
before they can react with DNA.
The steps of metabolic activation of

benzo(a)pyrene—a polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbon—are shown in Fig. 23.3.:
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On the other hand, promotion is a gradual, partially

reversible process that needs prolonged exposure to
promoting agents. If a cell that has already undergone
initiation is exposed to a promoting agent, the cell starts to
divide and the number of genetically damaged cells goes up.
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As the damaged cells continue to divide, a gradual selection

for cells showing higher growth rate and invasive properties
occurs—leading to the formation of malignant tumour. The
promotion phase continues for longer period. That is why
cancer does not develop just after exposure to a carcinogenic
agent.
The mechanism of action of promoting agents have come

from the studies of phorbol esters which are present in
castor oil and act as tumour promoters. Phorbol esters bind
to the plasma membrane and activate protein kinase C.
Protein kinase C is a component of the phosphoinositide
signalling pathway whose activity is normally controlled by
the second messenger, diacylglycerol.
The activation of protein kinase C leads to phosphorylation

of many target proteins and, consequently, activates the
transcription factor API which switches on the transcription
of genes involved in stimulating cell proliferation. Therefore,
the mode of action of phorbol esters gives an insight into the
possible mechanism of action of a promoting agent.
Energy that travel through space is known as radiation.

Natural source of radiation to which humans are generally
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exposed are ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays and emission from

radioactive elements. We are also exposed to another high-
energy radiation like X-ray. Medical, industrial and military
activities generally create the high-energy radiation.
Sunlight has the ability to cause skin cancer in people who

spend long hours in the sunlight. Sunlight contains
ultraviolet rays which are also absorbed by normal skin
pigmentation. Hence, for this reason, dark-stained or black
people usually have lower rates of skin cancer than fair-
skinned individual.
Because ultraviolet radiation is very weak to pass through

the skin, it does not induce any other type of cancer except
skin cancer. It is more or less restricted superficially on skin
because skin cancer rarely metastasizes.
This type of cancer can be cured by easily removing the

affected site surgically. Xeroderma pigmentosum is a type of
inherited malignant disease. Individuals with this malignant
disease develop extensive skin tumours after exposure to
sunlight. Homozygotes for the autosomal recessive mutation
responsible for xeroderma pigmentosum are less efficient in
the repair of DNA damaged by exposure to ultraviolet light.
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X-rays are high energy radiation. They are strong enough to

penetrate the skin and reach internal organs. X-rays thus
make a serious cancer hazard because they are able to
induce gene mutation or DNA damage. Many radioactive
elements emit radiation. It also acts as carcinogen and
causes cancer.
Marie Curie, the co-discoverer of the radioactive elements

polonium and radium, died of a form of leukemia that
appeared to be caused by her extensive exposure to radioac-
tivity. Another example of radiation-induced cancer
occurred in New Jersey in 1920. A group of women was
employed by a factory that produced watch which glow in
the dark. The luminescent point used to point the watch dial
contained radium.
The paint was applied with a fine-tipped brush that the

employee frequently wetted with their tongue. During this
process, minute quantities of radium were ingested through
saliva in the digestive system from where they were readily
abs, -bed and distributed in the different cells ana tissues
thorough circulatory system.
Several years later these women suffered from bone cancer
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caused by radioactive radium that had gradually become

concentrated in their bone.
The most well-known horrifying examples of radiation-

induced cancer occurred in Japan and in Nevada of United
States. In 1945 atomic bombs were exploded over Hiroshima
and Nagasaki. The massive fallout of radioactive elements
increased the incidence of leukemia, lymphomas and
cancers of the thyroid, breast,’ uterus and gastrointestinal
tract.
Similarly, in Nevada, people suffered from cancer due to the

radioactive fallout during nuclear bomb testing. It is
suggested that radioactive carcinogen is thought to initiate
malignant transformation by causing DNA damage.
Alternatively, it is also explained that subsequent exposure
of radiation damaged cells to promoting agents stimulates
the cell to divide abnormally and form tumour.
There are many viruses which are capable of causing tumour

in animals, humatf as well as plants (Table 23.2). These
viruses are called tumour viruses or oncovirus. Some tumour
viruses have RNA genome and are known as DNA tumour
viruses.
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Some tumour viruses have DNA genome and are known as

retroviruses. Retrovirus replicates via synthesis of a DNA
provirus in the infected cells. In addition, HIV is indirectly
responsible for the cancer that develops in AIDS patient as a
result of immunodeficiency.
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The herpes viruses are the most complex animal viruses. The
genome length of these viruses is 100-200 Kb. Many herpes
viruses cause tumour in many animals such as frogs,
chickens, monkeys etc. Epstein-Barr virus, a member of
herpes virus, can trigger the development of some human
malignancies including Burkett’s lymphoma in some region
of Africa and nasopharyngeal carcinoma in China.
It also causes B-cell lymphomas in AIDS patient and other

immunosuppressed persons. Cell transformation by herpes
viruses is not fully understood because of the complexity of
their genome. But it is evident that some viral genes are
required to induce transformation of lymphocytes.
Of the DNA tumour viruses, the papoviruses are the best

studied DNA tumour viruses from the standpoint of
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molecular biology and have received particular attention

because they have been critically important as models for
understanding the molecular basis of cell transformation.
The genome size of papoviruses is small (approximately 5

Kb). Simian virus 40 (SV40) and polyomavirus are the
important and commonly known member of papoviruses.
Both these viruses are similar in size and general structure.
A virus usually multiplies in specific cells derived from

animals in which the virus normally grows. Such cells are
called permissive cells. Cells which do not allow the viruses
to grow are called non-permissive cells.
SV40 and polyoma viruses, on entering their respective host

cells, undergo one of the two types of behaviour—they enter
the permissive cell of the host, undergo the lytic phase, and
multiply within host cell, ultimately killing them.
Since a permissive cell is killed as a consequence of virus

replication, it cannot become transformed. Sometimes
viruses enter non-permissive cells and are not able to
multiply, i.e., virus replication is blocked. In this case, the
viral genome sometimes integrates into cellular DNA and
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expression of specific viral genes results in transformation of

the infected cells.
The SV40 and polyoma virus genes that trigger cell

transformation have been identified, isolated and sequenced
by molecular analysis. The genome of SV40 and
polyomavirus are divided into early and late regions. The
early region is expressed immediately after infection and is
needed for synthesis of viral DNA.
The late region is not expressed until after viral DNA

replication has begun. The early region of SV40 codes for two
proteins which are known as small (17 Kd) and large (94 Kd)
T-antigens. In addition to small and large regions, the
genome of polyomavirus contains a third early region which
is called as middle T region. It codes for a protein of about
55 Kd.
Experimentally, it has been shown that large T of SV40 is

sufficient to induce transformation and the middle T region
of polyoma virus is primarily responsible for transformation.
During lytic cycle, the early region proteins are needed to
initiate viral DNA replication as well as to stimulate host cell
gene expression and DNA synthesis.
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Since the replication viral DNA is dependent on host cell

enzymes, therefore stimulation of gene expression of the
host cell is a critical event in the viral life cycle. Most of the
cells of adult animal cells become non-dividing. So the
enzymes required for cell division are not available within
the cell.
Therefore they must be stimulated to divide in order to

induce the enzymes needed for viral DNA replication. This
stimulation of cell division by the early gene products of
virus can lead to transformation if the viral DNA becomes
stably integrated and expressed in a non permissive cells.
The early region proteins of SV40 and polyoma virus induce
transformation by interacting with host proteins that
regulate cell division.
The papilloma viruses are small DNA viruses. The genome

length of such viruses is approximately 8 Kd. Some of these
viruses induce only benign tumours such as warts. But some
others cause malignant carcinomas— particularly cervical
and anogenital cancers. Cell transformation by papilloma
viruses occurs from the expression of two early region genes
E6 and E7.
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The hepatitis B viruses are another group of DNA virus.

They have the smallest genomes which is approximately 3
Kb. These viruses mainly infect the liver cells and cause liver
damage. But how they induce cell-transformation is not
clearly known.
Possibly tumour results from expression of a viral gene.

Alternatively, the chronic cell damage of liver simply induce
the continuous cell division which, ultimately, causes the cell
transformation.
The retroviruses, one family of RNA viruses, also cause

human cancer. For example, human T-cell lymphotropic
virus type-I (HTLV- I), a RNA virus, is the causative agent of
T-cell leukemia. A related virus (HTLV-II) cause a rare form
of leukemia called hairy T- cell leukemia.
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) is the causative agent

of AIDS. These viruses, i.e., HTLV-I, HTLV-II, HIV, actually
does not cause cancer by directly converting a normal cell
into a tumour cell. The AIDS patients become susceptible to
high incidence of some malignancies like lymphomas and
Kaposi’s sarcoma due to immunosuppression of the patient.
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RNA viruses have an RNA genome which is extended at

either end by a long terminal repeat (LTR). The LTR
contains many of the signals that allow retrovirus to function
(Fig. 23.4). Retroviruses use their genomic RNA as a tem-
plate to make DNA with the help of reverse transcriptase.
This DNA is then integrated into host’s DNA as DNA the

provirus. The DNA provirus is transcribed to yield genome
length RNA provirus directed transcription involves a
promoter—a sequence that directs the RNA polymerase to a
specific initiation site and an enhancer—a sequence that
facilitates transcription.
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The promoter and enhancer are located in the LTR. The

primary transcript serves as the genomic RNA for progeny
virus particles and as mRNA for the gag and pol genes. In
addition the full length RNA is spliced to yield mRNA for
env.
The gag gene encodes the viral protease and structural

proteins of the virus particle, pol encodes reverse
transcriptase and integrase and env encodes envelope glyco-
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proteins. These three genes are only required for viral

replication but play no role in cell transformation.
This type of retrovirus causes tumour only when any

mutation results at the time of integration of pro-viral DNA
within or adjacent to host’s genome. But there are some
other retroviruses which contain specific genes which are
responsible for the induction of cell transformation and acts
as potent carcinogens.
The first cancer causing gene is f6und in the retrovirus

called Rous Sarcoma virus (Fig. 23.5) that produces
sarcomas in chicken. It was later named src gene. Genes like
src which are capable of inducing malignant transformation,
are referred to as oncogenes. The identification of the first
viral oncogene has provided a model for understanding
many aspects of cancer development at the molecular level.
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Notes # 7. Oncogenes:
Oncogene is a type of specific viral gene that is capable of

inducing cancer or cell transformation—either in the body of
host or in the tissue in culture. After the discovery of src
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oncogene in RSV, more than 40 different highly oncogenic

retroviruses have been isolated (Table 23.3) from a variety of
animals like mice, rat, cat, chickens, turkeys, monkeys etc.
All these viruses contain at least one (in some cases two)
oncogene like RSV. These oncogene are not needed for viral
replication but is responsible for cell transformation. In
some cases different viruses contain the same oncogenes.
Many of these genes encode protein which, in turn, acts as
the key components of signalling pathways that induces cell
transformation.
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Oncogene in Human Cancer:
Direct evidence for the involvement of cellular oncogenes

(the term cellular oncogene is generally used to distinguish
this group of cancer- causing genes from viral oncogenes) in
human tumour was first derived from gene transfer
experiment carried out in the laboratories of Robert
Weinberg and Geoffrey Cooper in the early 1980s.
In this process, a DNA segment isolated from tumour cells

are artificially introduced into normal cells to see its
subsequent changes. DNA isolated from a human bladder
carcinoma was found to efficiently induce malignant
transformation of recipient mouse cells in culture. This
experiment reveals that the human tumour contains a
cellular oncogene.
The first human oncogene identified in gene transfer
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experiment was the ras oncogene. The ras oncogenes are not
present in normal cells, but they are generated in tumour
cells as a consequence of point mutation of the ras proto-
oncogene. This results in the change of a single amino acid
at critical position of the ras protein molecule encoded by
ras gene.
The first such mutation was the substitution of valine for

glycine at position 12. A single nucleotide, change which
alters codon 12 from GGC (Gly) to GTC(Val) is responsible
for the transforming activity. This is detected in bladder
carcinoma DNA.
The ras gene encodes membrane-bound guanine-nucleotide

binding proteins (G- protein) that plays a central role in the
transmission of singles from receptor-bound external
growth factor to the cell interior.
During this process, GTP is hydrolysed into GDP. Therefore,

Ras protein alternates between active (GTP bound) and
inactive (GDP bound) states. But oncogenic ras proteins
remain in the active GTP bound state and drive unregulated
cell proliferation leading to the development of malignancy.
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In human tumour, point mutation is an important

mechanism by which proto-oncogenes are converted into
oncogenes. Besides this, the gene rearrangement—resulting
mainly from chromosome translocation—sometimes lead to
the conversion of proto-oncogene to oncogene.
The classical example regarding the conversion of proto-

oncogene to oncogene due to translocation of chromosome
is the Burkitt’s lymphoma. It produces the malignancy of the
antibody producing B-lymphocytes.
In this case a piece of chromosome(s) 8 carrying c-myc

proto-oncogene is trans-located to the immunoglobulin
heavy chain locus on chromosome 14 (Fig. 23.6). Since the
antibody genes are extremely active in lymphocytes, the
transcriptional regulation of the adjacent myc proto-
oncogene is disturbed, resulting in an abnormal pattern of
synthesis of the myc protein product.
Such abnormal pattern of expression of the c-myc gene—

which encodes transcription factor normally induced in
response to growth factor stimulation—is sufficient to drive
cell proliferation and contribute to tumour development.
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Translocation of some proto-oncogene often causes the

rearrangement of coding sequences which lead to the
formation of abnormal gene products. In chronic
myelegenous leukemia, the abl proto-oncogene is trans-
located from chromosome 9 to chromosome 22 forming
Philadelphia chromosome (Fig. 23.7).
The abl proto- oncogene which contains two alternative first

exon (1A and IB) is joined to the middle to the bcr gene on
chromosome 22. Exon IB is deleted as a result of the
translocation. Transcription of the fused gene initiates at the
bcr promotor and continues through abl. Splicing then
generates a fused bcr/abl mRNA, in which abl exon 1A
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sequences are also deleted and bcr sequences are joined to

abl Exon 2.
The bcr/abl mRNA is translated to yield a recombinant

bcr/abl fusion protein in which the normal amino terminus
of abl proto-oncogene has been replaced by bcr amino acid
sequences. The fusion of bcr sequences results in aberrant
activity and altered subcellular localisation of the abl protein
tyrosine kinase, leading to cell transformation.
Gene amplification occurring in the tumour cell is a common

process by which proto- oncogenes are converted to
oncogene. Gene amplification takes place due to an increase
of the number of copies of a gene resulting from the
repeated replication of a region of DNA.
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Therefore, gene amplification leads to the overproduction of

a particular protein or enzyme from the amplified gene. A
prominent example of oncogene amplification is the
involvement of the N-myc gene in neuroblastoma, a tumour
of embryonal neuronal cells.
Amplified copies of N-myc gene are frequently present in

rapidly growing tumour. Hence it indicates that N-myc
amplification is related with the development of
neuroblastomas. Amplification of erb B-2 which encodes a
receptor protein kinase is similarly associated to the
development of breast and ovarian carcinomas.
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Subsequent studies have discovered a number of oncogenes

(Table 23.4) which are associated with human tumour.
Among them chromosomal location of some oncogenes are
shown in Fig. 23.8.
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Functions of Oncogene Products:
We have understood that alternation in normal genes, proto-

oncogenes, can convert them into oncogenes that code for
proteins that are abnormal in structure or are produced in
inappropriate amounts. The proteins encoded by the normal
genes regulate normal cell proliferation. But the protein
encoded by the corresponding oncogene proteins drives the
uncontrolled proliferation of the cancer cells.
In addition, some oncogene products involved in other as-

pects of the behaviour of cancer cells such as defective
differentiation and failure to undergo programmed cell
death. Besides this, majority of oncogene proteins function
as elements of the signalling pathways that regulate cell
proliferation in response to growth factor stimulation.
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These oncogene proteins include polypeptide growth factors,

growth factor receptors, elements of intracellular signalling
pathway and transcriptional factors (Table 23.5).
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If the oncogenes induce uncontrolled cell growth that leads

to cancer then it is obvious that the products of these genes
would act by stimulating all division in some manner.
For example, the product of the v-sis oncogene (the v stands

for virus) of simian sarcoma virus is closely related to a
polypeptide growth hormone called platelet-derived growth
factor (PDGF). This factor produced by platelets promotes
wound healing by stimulating growth of cells at wound site.
Simian sarcoma virus with v-sis gene in their genome when

injected into the body of woolly monkey, induce sarcoma.
They are also able to transform fibroblasts growing in
culture to a tumorous state. This type of cellular
transformation occurs by a mechanism which is possibly
related to the effect of normal PDGF on cells at the wound
site.
Other oncogenes encode products that are identical to

growth hormone as well as hormone receptors. For example,
oncogene erb B and fms encode proteins that are closely
related to the receptors for epidermal growth factor (EGF)
and colony stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1).
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CSF-1 is a growth factor that stimulates growth and

differentiation of macrophages. The receptor of this growth
factor is a trans membrane-protein with growth factor
domains on the outside of the cell and protein kinase
domains on the inside of the cell (Fig. 23.9).
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These receptors are key components in trans-membrane

signalling pathways. The erb A gene product is an analog of
the nuclear receptor for the thyroid hormone T3. Therefore,
all of the gene products are undoubtedly involved in
intercellular communication circuit which control cell
division during the growth and development of highly
differentiated tissue.
Protein tyrosine kinase is a trans-membrane receptor that is

capable of transmitting a perfect signal instructing a cell to
divide. Alternation in the structure and function of this
enzyme will transmit a wrong signal instructing the cell to
divide when it normally should not divide—the result will be
tumour formation.
Following the discovery that the src oncogene codes for a

protein kinase, more than 20 other oncogenes have also
been found to code for protein tyrosine kinases. These
oncogene encoded tyrosine kinases can be subdivided into
two main classes such as receptor protein tyrosine kinases
and non-receptor protein tyrosine kinases.
Receptor protein tyrosine kinases are trans-membrane

proteins that contain a growth factor receptor domain which
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are exposed on the outer surface of the plasma membrane

and a tyrosine kinase catalytic domain at the inner surface of
the plasma membrane.
In a normal receptor of this type, first appropriate growth

such as PDGF, EGF, binds with receptors site and activates
protein tyrosine kinase domain. Activation of protein
tyrosine kinase stimulates cell proliferation through ac-
tivation of the membrane associated G protein Ras (Fig.
23.10).
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Activation of Ras triggers the phosphorylation of a series of

cytoplasmic protein-serin/theronine kinase, thereby leading
to phosphorylation of the nuclear API transcription factor
which, in turn, activates genes involved in stimulating cell
proliferation.
Oncogenes can code for abnormal receptor protein- tyrosine

kinases in which the growth factor binding site is disrupted
leading to unregulated activity of the protein tyrosine kinase
site.
Non-receptor protein tyrosine kinase are usually bound to

the membrane’s cytoplasm or free in the cytosol. The non-
receptor protein tyrosine kinase is encoded by the src gene.
Oncogene-encoded non-receptor kinases often show
excessive unregulated protein-tyrosine kinase activity.
Another group of oncogenes code for plasma membrane

associated G proteins. In human cancer, ras oncogene shows
almost resemblance with cellular ras gene of the host except
that ras oncogene is the mutant form in contrast to cellular
ras gene.
Hence mutant ras G proteins are produced. They retain
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bound GTP instead of hydrolyzing it to GDP. As a result

mutant ras protein in its active form mislead the
transmission of signal from external growth factors. Hence
the host cells undergo abnormal cell division.
Most of the protein kinase activity showed by mammalian

cells catalyses the phosphorylation of the amino acids serine
and theonin, not tyrosine. These protein-serine/threonine
kinase like protein-tyrosine kinase can be encoded by
oncogene.
The most important oncogene belonging to this group is the

raf oncogene. It codes for a protein serine/threonine kinase
that transmits signals from plasma membrane Ras protein
to the cell interior.
Some oncogenes code for proteins that function within the

nucleus, particularly in the regulation of gene transcription.
The examples of such oncogenes are the jun and fos
oncogene which code for proteins that make up the AP!
transcription factor.
The AP1 factor regulates the expression of a group of genes

that are involved in stimulating cell proliferation. The myc
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oncogene, associated with several kinds of human cancer,

also appears to code for a transcription factor.
Notes # 8. Proto-Oncogene:
It is well-established that oncogenic virus contains a

relatively small number of genes which has facilitated the
identification of the viral genes that cause cell to become
malignant. The first cancer-causing gene to be identified
occurs in Rous sarcoma virus, a small retrovirus that
produces sarcomas in chickens.
An unexpected feature of retroviral oncogene is their lack of

involvement in virus replication while other viral gene
involves efficiently in the same process.
Again, the existence of viral oncogene is not an integral part

of the virus life cycle. Therefore, the origin and existence of
viral oncogene leads to a new line of investigation. Such
investigations have led to the surprising discovery that the
src gene is not present only in cancer cells.
Using nucleic acid hybridisation techniques, it has been

shown that DNA sequence that Eire homologous to— but not
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identical with—the Rous src gene can be detected in the

genome of normal cells of a wide variety of organisms
including salmon, mice, cows, birds and humans.
The unexpected discovery that cells contain DNA sequences

that are closely related to viral oncogenes has been
substantiated by studies on a variety of other tumour viruses
and, in each case, they resemble genes present in the
genome of normal cell.
The term proto- oncogene has been introduced to refer to

these normal cellular genes that closely resemble oncogenes.
The resemblance of viral oncogenes to proto-oncogene
suggests that viral oncogenes may have originally been
derived from normal cellular genes.
According to this concept, the first step in the creation of

retro-viral oncogenes took place million years ago when the
ancient virus infected cells and became integrated in the
host chromosomal DNA adjacent to normal cellular proto-
oncogenes.
When the integrated pro-viral DNA was later transcribed to

regenerate new viral RNA molecules, the adjacent proto-
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oncogene sequences might have been transcribed as well. In

this way, a viral RNA molecule containing normal proto-
oncogene sequences could have been created.
Since a proto-oncogene would initially serve no useful

purpose for a virus, it would be free to mutate during
subsequent cycles of viral infection. Such mutation would
eventually convert proto-oncogene into an oncogene.
Therefore, the realisation that oncogenic viruses contain

genes that cause cell to become malignant raise the question
of whether genetic alteration are also involved in non-virus
induced cancers. The ability of many carcinogens to act as
mutagens provides the reason to believe that genetic
changes play a role in non-viral carcinogenesis.
Besides this, recent research suggests that cellular

oncogenes are derived from normal proto-oncogenes by at
least five mechanisms:
(i) Point Mutation:

The simplest mechanism for converting a proto- oncogene
into an oncogene, it involves a single base pair substitution
or point mutation.
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(ii) Local DNA Rearrangement:
The second mechanism for creating oncogenes is based on

DNA rearrangements that cause either deletions or base
sequence exchanges between proto-oncogene and
surrounding genes.
(iii) Insertional Mutagenesis:
The evidence of third mechanism comes from the findings

that some cancer-causing retrovirus lack oncogenes and
these particular viruses cause cancer by integrating a DNA
copy of their genetic information into a host chromosome in
a region where a proto-oncogene is located and thus disrupt
the structure of the host proto-oncogene and thereby
convert it into an oncogene.
(iv) Gene Amplification:
The fourth mechanism for creating oncogenes uses gene

amplification to increase the number of copies of a
particular protogene. This overproduction of copies of a
particular proto- oncogene leads to malignant
transformation.
(v) Chromosomal Translocation:
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The fifth mechanism for creating an oncogene involves

chromosomal translocation. It is a process where a portion
of one chromosome is physically broken and joined to
another chromosome. As a result, the broken segment
containing proto-oncogene is transferred from its normal
location to a new location where it is converted as oncogene.
Notes # 9. Tumour Suppressor Genes:
We have now seen how the presence of an oncogene can

stimulate uncontrolled cell growth and division, thereby
fostering the development of malignancy. Cancer can also be
induced by the loss of tumour suppressor genes that
normally inhibit cell proliferation.
The term tumour suppressor gene implies that the normal

function of gene of this type is to restrain cell growth and
division. In other words, tumour suppressor genes act as
brakes on the process of cell proliferation and inhibits
tumour development.
In many tumours these genes are lost or inactivated, thereby

removing negative regulators of cell proliferation and
contributing to the abnormal proliferation of tumour cells.
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Normally, the function of tumour suppressor gene is just

opposite to oncogene.
The first evidence of the activity of tumour suppressor gene

came from somatic cell function experiment done by Henry
Harris etal in 1969. The fusion of tumour cells with normal
cell yields hybrids that contain chromosomes from both
parents.
Such hybrids are usually non-tumeri-genic. Suppression of

tumourigenicity by cell fusion indicates that genes derived
from the normal cell definitely suppress the tumour
development.
The first suppressor gene to be identified is involvement in

hereditary retinoblastoma, a rare type of eye cancer that
develops in children who have a family history of the
disease. Such children inherit a chromosomal deletion in a
specific region of one copy of chromosome 13.
Although the deletion occurs in all cells, only a few in the

retina actually become malignant because the initial deletion
in chromosome 13 does not cause cancer by itself; for cancer
to develop, a subsequent mutation must also occur in the
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same region of the homologous chromosome 13.
It has, therefore, been concluded that chromosome 13

contains a gene on homologous chromosome of a normal
diploid cell where such gene normally functions to inhibit
retinoblastomas. In inherited retinoblastoma one defected
copy of gene is genetically transmitted.
The loss of this single copy of gene is compensated by the

identical second copy of the gene present on the same region
of the second copy of chromosome 13.
Therefore loss of a single copy of gene is not by itself

sufl5cient to trigger tumour development, but
retinoblastoma almost always develops in these individuals
as a result of a second somatic mutation leading to further
loss of the function of the remaining second copy of normal
gene.
The gene lost in hereditary retinoblastoma is called RBI. It is

a tumour suppressor gene that codes for the nuclear protein
pRB that inhibits expression of a group of genes whose
products are needed for uncontrolled cell proliferation. In
hereditary retinoblastoma a defective or copy of the RBI
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gene is inherited from the affected person.
Hence a lack of pRB resulting from loss of both copies of RBI

(one due to deletion and other due to a second somatic
mutation) can lead to uncontrolled proliferation which
ultimately causes the development of retinoblastoma. In
nonhereditary cases, two normal RBI genes are inherited
and retinoblastoma develops only if two somatic mutations
in adult inactivate both copies of RBI in the same cell.
Following the discovery of the RBI gene several other
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tumour suppressor genes have been identified (Table 23.6).

The second suppressor gene is p53 which is frequently
inactivated in a wide variety of human cancer including
leukemia’s, lymphomas, saircomas, bredn tumour and
carcinomas of many tissues including breast, colon and lung.
The p53 protein is a nuclear transcriptional factor that

switches on the activity of genes that arrest cells in the G1
phase of the cell cycle. Normally, the production of the p53
protein is stimulated when DNA is damaged due to exposure
to ultraviolet ray or DNA damaging agents.
Hence p53 appears to act like a molecular policeman that

checks the cell for DNA damage and prevents the cell from
proliferation if damage is detected. The loss of p53 function
allows the survival and reproduction of cells in which DNA
damage has led to the production of oncogenes and/or the
loss of other tumour suppressor genes.
In addition to mediating cell cycle arrest P53 is required to

apoptosis induced by DJNA damage. Unrepaired DNA
damage normally induces apoptosis that eliminates cells
which might develop into cancer. Cells lacking p fail to
undergo apoptosis.
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This failure contributes to the resistance of many tumours to

chemotherapy. The failure of function of p is thought to
account for the high frequency of p53 mutations that lead to
inactivation of p53.
Like p53, the INK4 is a tumour suppressor gene that

prevents lung cancer. Similarly, two other tumour
suppressor genes such as APC and DCC prevent colon
cancer. When these genes are deleted or mutated, such
cancers develop.
The product of RBI and INK4 tumour suppressor genes

regulate cell cycle progression at the same point. These
genes inhibit passage through the restriction point in G1 by
suppressing transcription of a number of genes involved in
cell cycle progression and DNA synthesis.
A rare hereditary form of colon cancer, familial

adenomatous polyposis, is produced due to inherited
mutation of the APC gene. In this type of cancer hundreds of
polyps or benign colon adenomas are produced within the
colon of an individual. Some of these polyps are transformed
into malignancy.
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Inactivated or mutated form of some additional tumour

suppressor genes is also associated with the development of
breast, ovarian and pancreatic carcinomas as well as in some
rare inherited cancer syndromes such as Wilm’s tumour (a
childhood kidney tumour).
The tumour suppressor gene of Wilm’s tumour is WT1 which

is frequently inactivated in Wilm s tumour. The product of
WT1 gene appears to suppress transcription of a number of
growth factor inducible genes.
Notes # 10. Prevention and Treatment of Cancer:
There is a general belief among the common people that

cancer cannot be cured. Although this is partially true, it
depends on several aspects of the patient and the time of
detection. In many cases, when it is clinically detected then
it is already late and it goes beyond the treatment.
Actually, cancer is a disease that ultimately has to be

understood at the molecular and cellular level. In fact many
cancers can be cured if they are detected at the early stage of
its development. In case of hereditary cancer, regular testing
may allow early detection.
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Therefore, whether cancer is curable or not is a debatable

question. With the help of modern and sophisticated
technology, cell biologists are always trying to improve the
methods for prevention and treatment of cancer.
The first step in preventing cancer is to identify the agents

that cause cancer. For example, it is already known that
tobacco smoke causes cancer. So just to prevent the
possibility of this type of lung cancer, it is advisable simply
to avoid tobacco smoke.
Similarly the discovery of carcinogenic properties of X-ray

and sunlight suggests that individuals should avoid
unnecessary medical X-ray and use protective lotions during
long time exposure to sunlight.
Epidemiological data also allow potential carcinogens to be

identified in exposed human population. The
epidemiological approach is based on comparison of cancer
rates among various groups of people exposed to different
environmental conditions.
For example, when Japanese individuals move to the United

States heir susceptibility to developing stomach and lung
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cancer changes to reflect the rates for such cancers in the

United States.
Therefore, the comparison of the frequency of stomach and

lung cancer in Japan, in the United States and in Japanese
immigrants to the United States suggests that environmental
factors play a prominent role in causing cancer. Epidemi-
ological data have played an important role in identifying
some of the environmental factors that may cause cancer.
The Ames test is a rapid screening method tor identifying

potential carcinogens This method is based on the rationale
that most carcinogens act as mutagens, it measures the
ability of potential carcinogens to induce mutations in a
strain of bacteria that lack the ability to synthesize the amino
acids histidine.
Each bacterial cell that has mutated to a form in which it no

longer needs histidine will grow into a colony that can be
counted. The number of colonies indicates the mutagenic
potency of the substance to be tested.
Chemicals to be tested m the Ames test are first incubated

with a liver homogenate because many of the chemicals to
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which humans are exposed only become carcinogenic after

they have undergone biochemical modification in the liver
(Fig. 23.11) Cancer can be prevented in several other ways A
person can modify his life style in order to reduce the risk of
developing cancer.
Change of life style sometimes requires minimizing the

exposure to carcinogens. Tobacco smoking and extensive
meat consumption are the probable causative factors of
cancer. If any person method of treatment is most effective
when the cancer is detected at the early stage of devel-
opment and when metastasis has not occurred.
This method is not effective when the cancer has already

been disseminated throughout the body by the process of
metastasis. Therefore, early detection of cancer is very
important for its treatment.
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Treatment of cancer-affected part of body with the help of

X-radiation is another alternative method of curing cancer.
X-ray is very effective for killing the cancer cells that are
actively proliferating. The cells that are engaged in DNA
synthesis prior to cell division, or are on the way of mitosis,
are very sensitive to X-ray.
But the main problem of using X- ray for the treatment of

cancer is that normal and healthy dividing cells of the body-
such as blood-forming cells in the bone marrow are also
79 of 97 5/12/2020, 4:55 PM
destroyed along with the cancer cells.
Moreover, X-radiation itself is carcinogenic. Hence there is

always a chance of developing cancer after X-ray treatment.
In spite of such risk posed by X-ray treatment, it is effective
for the treatment of certain types of cancers like skin cancer,
Hodgkin’s disease and specific forms of testicular and bone
cancer.
Chemotherapy is another approach for treating cancer. This

method is based on the use of certain drugs that are
designed to kill the proliferating cells as in radiation
treatment. This method is also effective when the cancerous
cells have already metastasized.
The drugs are generally injected in the body and the

circulatory system helps the drug to spread throughout the
body. Some drugs used m cancer chemotherapy are given in
the Table 23.7.
80 of 97 5/12/2020, 4:55 PM
Like radiation, chemotherapeutic drugs also kill the normal

and healthy cells along with cancer cells. This type of
treatment has also some toxic side-effect-like loss of hair
(caused by destruction of hair follicle cells), diarrhea (caused
by destruction of cells of the intestinal lining) and
susceptibility to infections (caused by destruction of blood
cells).
Sometimes two or more combination of drugs are also used

for the treatment of cancer.
Besides its side- effects and other disadvantages, it is true

that, for certain types of cancer, chemotherapy is very
successful for curing cancer like Burkitt s lymphoma, chorio
carcinoma, acute lymphocytic leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease,
81 of 97 5/12/2020, 4:55 PM
lymphomas, mycosis fungoides, Wilm tumour, Ewing s sar-

coma, thabdomyosarcoma, retinoblastoma, and embryonal
testicular tumours etc.
Although the use of surgery, radiation and chemotherapy

has led to increased survival rates for certain kinds of
cancer, many malignancies do not respond well to such
treatment. Recent experimentation is attempting to exploit
the ability of the immune system to recognize and kill
tumour cells. This type of treatment is known as
immunotherapy.
The basic principle of immunotherapy is to exploit the

ability of the immune system to recognise and kill tumour
82 of 97 5/12/2020, 4:55 PM
cells. Tumour cells tend to show cell surface antigens which

make them recognisable by the immune system. Initially,
some scientists attempted to utilise a person’s own
lymphocytes to kill cancer cells.
For this experiment, lymphocytes were isolated from the

blood of cancer patients and grown in culture in presence of
Interlaken 2 to stimulate the cancers destroying properties
of the cell. The result was the isolation of a population of
killer T-cells that were specifically targeted against the
patient’s tumour.
These cells, called tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs),

were injected back into the patients from whom the blood
was drawn. TILs axe more effective in inducing tumour
regression. Recently TILs are made even more effective by
using recombining DNA technique to insert some genes
whose product enhances the additional potency of the TILs.
A protein produced by march-panes called tumour necrosis

factor (TNF) is effective in promoting the destruction of
cancer cells if the TNF gene were inserted into the TILs.
Obviously, the genetically engineered TILs would be more
83 of 97 5/12/2020, 4:55 PM
effective than normal TILs and would be more powerful to

killing the tumour cells. Currently this technique is being
tested in the hope of finding ways to promote immune
destruction of cancer cells.
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Notes # 1. Subject-Matter of Cancer:

Notes # 2. Meaning of Cancer:
Notes # 3. Types of Cancer:
(i) Carcinomas:
(ii) Sarcomas:
(iii) Lymphomas:
(iv) Leukemia’s:
Notes # 4. Development of Cancer:
Notes # 5. Characteristics of Cancer Cells:
(i) Immortalization:
(ii) Loss of Contact Inhibition:
(iii) Reduced Cellular Adhesion:
(iv) Invasiveness:
(v) Failure to Differentiate:
(vi) Auto stimulation of Cell Division:
(vii) Apoptosis:
(viii) Density-Dependent Inhibition:
(ix) Cellular Characteristics:
(x) Chromosomal Change:
ABOUT
(xi) US
Interaction With Immune System:
Notes # 6. of Cancer:
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Notes # 7. Oncogenes:
Oncogene in Human Cancer:
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Notes # 8. Proto-Oncogene:
(i)Privacy Policy
Point Mutation:
(ii) Local DNA Rearrangement:
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(iii) Insertional Mutagenesis:
(iv) Gene Amplification:
(v) Chromosomal Translocation:
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Notes # 10. Prevention and Treatment of
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Study Notes on Cancer http://www.biologydiscussion.

Study Notes on Cancer

Study Notes on Cancer:- 1. Subject-Matter of Cancer

1. Notes on the Subject-Matter of Cancer

Notes # 1. Subject-Matter of Cancer:

Again, in higher multicellular organism, each and every cell

Hence, when a cell of a specific tissue divides, it normally

Actually differentiation has a genetic basis and the process

results from the interaction of the nucleus and the

Therefore, in multicellular organism, the cell division,

Then the cells grow and divide in an uncontrolled manner

with the functions of normal tissues and organs. As a whole,

Notes # 2. Meaning of Cancer:

Cancer is a non-infectious disease. It starts at the molecular

Notes # 3. Types of Cancer:

Cancer is a large class of diverse disease. All types of cancer

The uncontrolled cell growth produces a mass of cells which

tissues. They do not spread to distant body sites.

The most common example of tumour is the skin wart. A

A malignant tumour does not remain confined to its original

Only malignant tumours are properly designated as cancers.

It includes approximately 90% of human cancer. This type is

carcinomas. Cervical, breast, skin and brain carcinomas are

It is a type of malignancy in which there is excessive

This type of malignancy arises from the blood forming cell.

They are characterised by excessive production of WBC of

In addition to the types of cancer mentioned above, cancers

erythromoid leukemia’s from precursor of erythrocytes.

Notes # 4. Development of Cancer:

The development of cancer is a multistep process in which

The first step in the process is when a single cell within a

These cells constitute a clone where cells are identical in

Tumour progression continues as additional mutation occur

This process is known as clonal selection. Clonal selection

their rapid proliferation, invades the basal lamina that

Then tumour cells spread into blood vessels that will

Notes # 5. Characteristics of Cancer Cells:

The uncontrolled growth of cancer cells results from

Cancer cells shows some typical characteristic properties

several respects. Some characteristic properties of cancer

(ii) Loss of Contact Inhibition:

Normal cells growing in tissue culture tend to make cell

Experimentally, it has been observed that when normal cells

there is inhibition of growth and the number of cells in the

On the other hand, cancer cells continue to multiply and pile

In the cell coat fibronectin, a large glycoprotein found in

(iii) Reduced Cellular Adhesion:

If normal cells are grown in a liquid nutrient medium kept in

the medium. But when cancer cells are allowed to grow in

Adhesiveness shows considerable specificity. For example, a

One of the most important characteristics of cancer cells is

Cancer cells also secrete growth factors that promote the

formation of new blood vessels. This is known as

Actually the growth factor secreted by the tumour cells

As a result, new outgrowth of the capillaries is formed into

(v) Failure to Differentiate:

Another general characteristic of most of the cancer cells is

program is blocked at the early stages of differentiation. The

All of the different types of blood cells develop from a