Python

About the Tutorial

Python is a general-purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented, and high-level
programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum during 1985 – 1990. Like Perl,
Python source code is also available under the GNU General Public License (GPL). Python is
named after a TV Show called ‘Monty Python’s Flying Circus’ and not after Python-the
snake.

Python 3.0 was released in 2008. Although this version is supposed to be backward
incompatibles, later on many of its important features have been backported to be
compatible with the version 2.7. This tutorial gives enough understanding on Python 3
version programming language. Please refer to this link for our Python 2 tutorial.

Audience
This tutorial is designed for software programmers who want to upgrade their Python skills
to Python 3. This tutorial can also be used to learn Python programming language from
scratch.

Prerequisites
You should have a basic understanding of Computer Programming terminologies. A basic
understanding of any of the programming languages is a plus.

Execute Python Programs

#!/usr/bin/python3
print ("Hello, Python!")
Contents
About the Tutorial ......................................................................................................................................... 2
Audience ....................................................................................................................................................... 2
Prerequisites ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Execute Python Programs ............................................................................................................................. 2
Python 3 – Basic Tutorial ............................................................................................................................ 18
1. Python Overview ................................................................................................................................. 19
History of Python .................................................................................................................................... 19
Python Features ...................................................................................................................................... 20
2. Local Environment Setup .................................................................................................................... 21
Getting Python ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Setting up PATH ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Setting Path at Windows......................................................................................................................... 21
3. Python 3 – Basic Syntax ...................................................................................................................... 22
First Python Program .............................................................................................................................. 22
Python Identifiers.................................................................................................................................... 23
Reserved Words ...................................................................................................................................... 23
Lines and Indentation ............................................................................................................................. 24
Multi-Line Statements ............................................................................................................................ 24
Quotation in Python................................................................................................................................ 24
Comments in Python............................................................................................................................... 24
Using Blank Lines..................................................................................................................................... 25
Waiting for the User................................................................................................................................ 25
Multiple Statements on a Single Line ..................................................................................................... 25
Multiple Statement Groups as Suites ..................................................................................................... 25
Command Line Arguments ..................................................................................................................... 25
Command Line Arguments ..................................................................................................................... 26
4. Python 3 – Variable Types................................................................................................................... 27
Assigning Values to Variables ................................................................................................................. 27
Multiple Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 27
Standard Data Types ............................................................................................................................... 27
Python Numbers ..................................................................................................................................... 28
Python Strings ......................................................................................................................................... 28
 Python Lists ............................................................................................................................................. 29
Python Tuples ......................................................................................................................................... 29
Python Dictionary ................................................................................................................................... 30
Data Type Conversion ............................................................................................................................. 31
5. Python 3 – Basic Operators ................................................................................................................. 32
Types of Operators.................................................................................................................................. 32
Python Arithmetic Operators.................................................................................................................. 32
Python Comparison Operators ............................................................................................................... 34
Python Assignment Operators ................................................................................................................ 35
Python Bitwise Operators ....................................................................................................................... 36
Python Logical Operators........................................................................................................................ 37
Python Membership Operators .............................................................................................................. 38
Python Identity Operators ...................................................................................................................... 39
Python Operators Precedence ................................................................................................................ 39
6. Python 3 – Decision Making ................................................................................................................ 42
IF Statement ............................................................................................................................................ 43
IF...ELIF...ELSE Statements ...................................................................................................................... 44
The elif Statement................................................................................................................................... 45
Nested IF Statements .............................................................................................................................. 46
Single Statement Suites .......................................................................................................................... 47
7. Python 3 – Loops ................................................................................................................................. 48
While Loop Statements........................................................................................................................... 49
The Infinite Loop ..................................................................................................................................... 50
Using else Statement with Loops ............................................................................................................ 51
Single Statement Suites .......................................................................................................................... 51
For Loop Statements ............................................................................................................................... 52
The range() function ............................................................................................................................... 52
Iterating by Sequence Index ................................................................................................................... 53
Using else Statement with Loops ............................................................................................................ 54
Nested loops ........................................................................................................................................... 54
Loop Control Statements ........................................................................................................................ 55
Break statement...................................................................................................................................... 55
Continue Statement ................................................................................................................................ 57
 Pass Statement ....................................................................................................................................... 58
Iterator and Generator ........................................................................................................................... 59
8. Python 3 – Numbers ........................................................................................................................... 61
Number Type Conversion ....................................................................................................................... 62
Mathematical Functions ......................................................................................................................... 62
Number abs() Method ............................................................................................................................ 63
Number ceil() Method ............................................................................................................................ 63
Number exp() Method ............................................................................................................................ 64
Number fabs() Method ........................................................................................................................... 65
Number floor() Method .......................................................................................................................... 65
Number log() Method ............................................................................................................................. 66
Number log10() Method ......................................................................................................................... 67
Number max() Method ........................................................................................................................... 68
Number min() Method ............................................................................................................................ 68
Number modf() Method ......................................................................................................................... 69
Number pow() Method ........................................................................................................................... 70
Number round() Method ........................................................................................................................ 70
Number sqrt() Method............................................................................................................................ 71
Random Number Functions .................................................................................................................... 72
Number choice() Method ....................................................................................................................... 72
Number randrange() Method ................................................................................................................. 73
Number random() Method ..................................................................................................................... 73
Number seed() Method .......................................................................................................................... 74
Number shuffle() Method ....................................................................................................................... 75
Number uniform() Method ..................................................................................................................... 75
Trigonometric Functions ......................................................................................................................... 76
Number acos() Method........................................................................................................................... 76
Number asin() Method ........................................................................................................................... 77
Number atan2() Method......................................................................................................................... 79
Number cos() Method............................................................................................................................. 79
Number hypot() Method ........................................................................................................................ 80
Number sin() Method ............................................................................................................................. 81
Number tan() Method............................................................................................................................. 81
 Number degrees() Method ..................................................................................................................... 82
Number radians() Method ...................................................................................................................... 83
9. Python 3 – Strings ............................................................................................................................... 85
Accessing Values in Strings ..................................................................................................................... 85
Updating Strings ...................................................................................................................................... 85
Escape Characters ................................................................................................................................... 86
String Special Operators ......................................................................................................................... 87
String Formatting Operator .................................................................................................................... 87
Triple Quotes........................................................................................................................................... 89
Unicode String......................................................................................................................................... 89
Built-in String Methods ........................................................................................................................... 90
String capitalize() Method....................................................................................................................... 92
String center() Method ........................................................................................................................... 93
String count() Method ............................................................................................................................ 93
String decode() Method .......................................................................................................................... 94
String encode() Method .......................................................................................................................... 95
String endswith() Method ....................................................................................................................... 95
String expandtabs() Method ................................................................................................................... 96
String find() Method ............................................................................................................................... 96
String index() Method ............................................................................................................................. 97
String isalnum() Method ......................................................................................................................... 98
String isalpha() Method .......................................................................................................................... 98
String isdigit() Method ............................................................................................................................ 99
String islower() Method .......................................................................................................................... 99
String isnumeric() Method .................................................................................................................... 100
String isspace() Method ........................................................................................................................ 101
String istitle() Method ........................................................................................................................... 101
String isupper() Method........................................................................................................................ 102
String join() Method .............................................................................................................................. 102
String len() Method ............................................................................................................................... 103
String ljust() Method ............................................................................................................................. 103
String lower() Method........................................................................................................................... 104
String lstrip() Method............................................................................................................................ 105
 String maketrans() Method................................................................................................................... 105
String max() Method ............................................................................................................................. 106
String min() Method.............................................................................................................................. 106
String replace() Method ........................................................................................................................ 107
String rfind() Method ............................................................................................................................ 108
String rindex() Method.......................................................................................................................... 108
String rjust() Method ............................................................................................................................ 109
String rstrip() Method ........................................................................................................................... 110
String split() Method ............................................................................................................................. 110
String splitlines() Method ..................................................................................................................... 111
String startswith() Method ................................................................................................................... 111
String strip() Method ............................................................................................................................ 112
String swapcase() Method .................................................................................................................... 113
String title() Method ............................................................................................................................. 113
String translate() Method ..................................................................................................................... 114
String upper() Method .......................................................................................................................... 115
String zfill() Method .............................................................................................................................. 115
String isdecimal() Method..................................................................................................................... 116
10. Python 3 – Lists ............................................................................................................................. 117
Python Lists ........................................................................................................................................... 117
Accessing Values in Lists ....................................................................................................................... 117
Updating Lists........................................................................................................................................ 117
Delete List Elements ............................................................................................................................. 118
Basic List Operations ............................................................................................................................. 118
Indexing, Slicing and Matrixes .............................................................................................................. 118
Built-in List Functions & Methods ......................................................................................................... 119
List len() Method ................................................................................................................................... 119
List max() Method ................................................................................................................................. 120
List min() Method.................................................................................................................................. 120
List list() Method ................................................................................................................................... 121
List append() Method ........................................................................................................................... 122
List count() Method .............................................................................................................................. 123
List extend() Method ............................................................................................................................ 123
 List index() Method ............................................................................................................................... 124
List insert() Method .............................................................................................................................. 125
List pop() Method ................................................................................................................................. 125
List remove() Method ........................................................................................................................... 126
List reverse() Method............................................................................................................................ 126
List sort() Method ................................................................................................................................. 127
11. Python 3 – Tuples .......................................................................................................................... 128
Accessing Values in Tuples .................................................................................................................... 128
Updating Tuples .................................................................................................................................... 128
Delete Tuple Elements .......................................................................................................................... 128
Basic Tuples Operations ........................................................................................................................ 129
Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes ............................................................................................................. 129
No Enclosing Delimiters ........................................................................................................................ 129
Built-in Tuple Functions ........................................................................................................................ 130
Tuple len() Method ............................................................................................................................... 130
Tuple max() Method ............................................................................................................................. 131
Tuple min() Method .............................................................................................................................. 131
Tuple tuple() Method ............................................................................................................................ 132
12. Python 3 – Dictionary .................................................................................................................... 133
Accessing Values in Dictionary .............................................................................................................. 133
Updating Dictionary .............................................................................................................................. 133
Delete Dictionary Elements .................................................................................................................. 134
Properties of Dictionary Keys................................................................................................................ 134
Built-in Dictionary Functions & Methods.............................................................................................. 135
Dictionary len() Method........................................................................................................................ 135
Dictionary str() Method ........................................................................................................................ 135
Dictionary type() Method ..................................................................................................................... 136
Dictionary clear() Method ..................................................................................................................... 137
Dictionary copy() Method ..................................................................................................................... 138
Dictionary fromkeys() Method.............................................................................................................. 138
Dictionary get() Method ....................................................................................................................... 139
Dictionary items() Method.................................................................................................................... 140
Dictionary keys() Method ..................................................................................................................... 140
 Dictionary setdefault() Method ............................................................................................................ 141
Dictionary update() Method ................................................................................................................. 141
Dictionary values() Method .................................................................................................................. 142
13. Python 3 – Sets.................................................................................................................................... 143
Creating a set ........................................................................................................................................ 143
Adding items to the set ......................................................................................................................... 144
Difference between discard() and remove()......................................................................................... 147
Python Set Operations .......................................................................................................................... 148
Union of two Sets .............................................................................................................................. 148
Intersection of two sets .................................................................................................................... 149
The intersection_update() method................................................................................................... 149
Difference between the two sets...................................................................................................... 150
Symmetric Difference of two sets..................................................................................................... 150
Set comparisons ................................................................................................................................ 150
FrozenSets ............................................................................................................................................. 151
Frozenset for the dictionary.............................................................................................................. 151
Set Programming Example ................................................................................................................ 152
14. Python 3 – Date & Time ................................................................................................................ 154
What is Tick? ......................................................................................................................................... 154
What is TimeTuple? .............................................................................................................................. 154
Getting current time ............................................................................................................................. 155
Getting formatted time......................................................................................................................... 155
Getting calendar for a month ............................................................................................................... 156
The Time Module .................................................................................................................................. 157
Time altzone() Method ......................................................................................................................... 158
Time asctime() Method......................................................................................................................... 158
Time clock() Method ............................................................................................................................. 159
Time ctime() Method ............................................................................................................................ 160
Time gmtime() Method ......................................................................................................................... 160
Time localtime() Method ...................................................................................................................... 161
Time mktime() Method ......................................................................................................................... 161
Time sleep() Method............................................................................................................................. 162
Time strftime() Method ........................................................................................................................ 163
 Time strptime() Method ....................................................................................................................... 164
Time time() Method .............................................................................................................................. 166
Time tzset() Method ............................................................................................................................. 166
The calendar Module ............................................................................................................................ 168
15. Python 3 – Functions..................................................................................................................... 170
Defining a Function ............................................................................................................................... 170
Pass by Reference vs Value ................................................................................................................... 171
Function Arguments.............................................................................................................................. 172
Required Arguments ......................................................................................................................... 172
Keyword Arguments ......................................................................................................................... 172
Default Arguments ............................................................................................................................ 173
Variable-length Arguments ............................................................................................................... 173
The Anonymous Functions................................................................................................................ 174
The return Statement ........................................................................................................................... 174
Scope of Variables ................................................................................................................................. 175
Global vs. Local variables ...................................................................................................................... 175
Python Built-in Functions ...................................................................................................................... 175
Python abs() Function ....................................................................................................................... 175
Python all() Function ......................................................................................................................... 176
Python bin() Function........................................................................................................................ 176
Python bool() .................................................................................................................................... 177
Python bytes() ................................................................................................................................... 177
Python callable() Function ................................................................................................................ 177
Python compile() Function ................................................................................................................ 178
Python exec() Function ..................................................................................................................... 178
Python sum() Function ...................................................................................................................... 178
Python any() Function ....................................................................................................................... 178
Python ascii() Function...................................................................................................................... 179
Python bytearray() ............................................................................................................................ 179
Python eval() Function ...................................................................................................................... 179
Python float() .................................................................................................................................... 180
Python format() Function ................................................................................................................. 180
Python frozenset() ............................................................................................................................ 180
Python getattr() Function ................................................................................................................. 181
Python globals() Function ................................................................................................................. 181
Python hasattr() Function ................................................................................................................. 181
Python iter() Function ....................................................................................................................... 181
Python len() Function........................................................................................................................ 182
Python list() ....................................................................................................................................... 182
Python locals() Function.................................................................................................................... 183
Python map() Function ..................................................................................................................... 183
Python memoryview() Function ....................................................................................................... 183
Python object().................................................................................................................................. 184
Python open() Function .................................................................................................................... 184
Python chr() Function ....................................................................................................................... 184
Python complex() .............................................................................................................................. 185
Python delattr() Function.................................................................................................................. 185
Python dir() Function ........................................................................................................................ 185
Python divmod() Function ................................................................................................................ 186
Python enumerate() Function ........................................................................................................... 186
Python dict()...................................................................................................................................... 186
Python filter() Function ..................................................................................................................... 187
Python hash() Function ..................................................................................................................... 187
Python help() Function...................................................................................................................... 187
Python min() Function ...................................................................................................................... 188
Python set() Function ........................................................................................................................ 188
Python hex() Function ....................................................................................................................... 188
Python id() Function.......................................................................................................................... 189
Python setattr() Function .................................................................................................................. 189
Python slice() Function...................................................................................................................... 190
Python sorted() Function .................................................................................................................. 190
Python next() Function ..................................................................................................................... 190
Python input() Function .................................................................................................................... 191
Python int() Function ........................................................................................................................ 191
Python isinstance() Function............................................................................................................. 191
Python oct() Function ....................................................................................................................... 192
 Python ord() Function ....................................................................................................................... 192
Python pow() Function...................................................................................................................... 192
Python print() Function ..................................................................................................................... 193
Python range() Function ................................................................................................................... 193
Python reversed() Function .............................................................................................................. 194
Python round() Function ................................................................................................................... 194
Python issubclass() Function ............................................................................................................. 194
Python str .......................................................................................................................................... 195
Python tuple() Function .................................................................................................................... 195
Python type() .................................................................................................................................... 195
Python vars() function....................................................................................................................... 196
Python zip() Function ........................................................................................................................ 196
16. Python 3 – Modules ...................................................................................................................... 197
The import Statement........................................................................................................................... 197
The from...import Statement ................................................................................................................ 197
The from...import * Statement: ............................................................................................................ 198
Executing Modules as Scripts................................................................................................................ 198
Locating Modules .................................................................................................................................. 198
Namespaces and Scoping ..................................................................................................................... 199
The dir( ) Function ................................................................................................................................. 199
The globals() and locals() Functions ...................................................................................................... 200
The reload() Function............................................................................................................................ 200
Packages in Python ............................................................................................................................... 200
17. Python 3 – Files I/O ....................................................................................................................... 202
Printing to the Screen ........................................................................................................................... 202
Reading Keyboard Input........................................................................................................................ 202
The input Function ................................................................................................................................ 202
Opening and Closing Files ..................................................................................................................... 202
The open Function ................................................................................................................................ 202
The file Object Attributes...................................................................................................................... 204
The close() Method ............................................................................................................................... 204
Reading and Writing Files ..................................................................................................................... 204
The write() Method ............................................................................................................................... 205
 The read() Method ................................................................................................................................ 205
File Positions ......................................................................................................................................... 205
Renaming and Deleting Files ................................................................................................................. 206
The rename() Method........................................................................................................................... 206
The remove() Method ........................................................................................................................... 206
Directories in Python ............................................................................................................................ 207
The mkdir() Method .............................................................................................................................. 207
The chdir() Method ............................................................................................................................... 207
The getcwd() Method ........................................................................................................................... 207
The rmdir() Method .............................................................................................................................. 208
File & Directory Related Methods ........................................................................................................ 208
File Methods ......................................................................................................................................... 208
File close() Method ............................................................................................................................... 209
File fileno() Method .............................................................................................................................. 210
File isatty() Method ............................................................................................................................... 211
File next() Method ................................................................................................................................ 211
File read() Method ................................................................................................................................ 212
File readline() Method .......................................................................................................................... 213
File readlines() Method ......................................................................................................................... 214
File seek() Method ................................................................................................................................ 215
File tell() Method .................................................................................................................................. 216
File truncate() Method .......................................................................................................................... 217
File write() Method ............................................................................................................................... 218
File writelines() Method........................................................................................................................ 219
OS File/Directory Methods ................................................................................................................... 220
os.chdir() Method ................................................................................................................................. 220
os.getcwd() Method.............................................................................................................................. 220
os.mkdir() Method ................................................................................................................................ 221
os.remove() Method ............................................................................................................................. 222
os.rename() Method ............................................................................................................................. 222
os.rmdir() Method ................................................................................................................................ 223
18. Python 3 – Exceptions Handling.................................................................................................... 225
Standard Exceptions ............................................................................................................................. 225
 Assertions in Python ............................................................................................................................. 226
The assert Statement ............................................................................................................................ 226
What is Exception?................................................................................................................................ 227
Handling an Exception .......................................................................................................................... 227
The except Clause with No Exceptions ................................................................................................. 228
The except Clause with Multiple Exceptions ........................................................................................ 229
The try-finally Clause............................................................................................................................. 229
Raising an Exception ............................................................................................................................. 230
User-Defined Exceptions....................................................................................................................... 231
Python 3 – Advanced Tutorial ................................................................................................................... 232
19. Python 3 – Object Oriented .......................................................................................................... 233
Overview of OOP Terminology ............................................................................................................. 233
Creating Classes .................................................................................................................................... 233
Creating Instance Objects ..................................................................................................................... 234
Accessing Attributes.............................................................................................................................. 234
Built-In Class Attributes ........................................................................................................................ 235
Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection) .............................................................................................. 236
Class Inheritance ................................................................................................................................... 237
Overriding Methods .............................................................................................................................. 238
Base Overloading Methods ................................................................................................................... 239
Overloading Operators ......................................................................................................................... 239
Data Hiding............................................................................................................................................ 240
20. Python 3 – Regular Expressions .................................................................................................... 241
Basic patterns that match single chars ................................................................................................. 241
Compilation flags .................................................................................................................................. 241
The match Function .............................................................................................................................. 242
The search Function .............................................................................................................................. 242
Matching Versus Searching ................................................................................................................... 243
Search and Replace ............................................................................................................................... 244
Regular Expression Modifiers: Option Flags ......................................................................................... 244
Regular Expression Patterns ................................................................................................................. 245
Regular Expression Examples ................................................................................................................ 246
Literal characters............................................................................................................................... 246
 Character classes............................................................................................................................... 246
Special Character Classes .................................................................................................................. 247
Repetition Cases................................................................................................................................ 247
Nongreedy Repetition ....................................................................................................................... 247
Grouping with Parentheses .............................................................................................................. 247
Backreferences.................................................................................................................................. 248
Alternatives ....................................................................................................................................... 248
Anchors ............................................................................................................................................. 248
Special Syntax with Parentheses....................................................................................................... 248
21. Python 3 – MySQL Database ......................................................................................................... 249
What is PyMySQL ? ............................................................................................................................... 249
How do I Install PyMySQL? ................................................................................................................... 249
Database Connection ............................................................................................................................ 250
Creating Database Table ....................................................................................................................... 250
INSERT Operation.................................................................................................................................. 251
READ Operation .................................................................................................................................... 252
Update Operation ................................................................................................................................. 253
DELETE Operation ................................................................................................................................. 254
Performing Transactions ....................................................................................................................... 254
COMMIT Operation............................................................................................................................... 255
ROLLBACK Operation ............................................................................................................................ 255
Disconnecting Database........................................................................................................................ 255
Handling Errors ..................................................................................................................................... 255
22. Python 3 – MySQL Database (II).................................................................................................... 257
Environment Setup ............................................................................................................................... 257
Install mysql.connector ......................................................................................................................... 257
Database Connection ............................................................................................................................ 257
Creating the connection........................................................................................................................ 257
Creating a cursor object ........................................................................................................................ 258
Creating new databases ........................................................................................................................ 258
Getting the list of existing databases.................................................................................................... 258
Creating the new database ................................................................................................................... 259
Creating the table ................................................................................................................................. 260
 Alter Table ............................................................................................................................................. 260
Insert Operation .................................................................................................................................... 261
Adding a record to the table ............................................................................................................. 261
Insert multiple rows .......................................................................................................................... 261
Row ID ............................................................................................................................................... 262
Read Operation ..................................................................................................................................... 262
Reading specific columns .................................................................................................................. 263
The fetchone() method ..................................................................................................................... 264
Formatting the result ........................................................................................................................ 264
Using where clause ........................................................................................................................... 265
Ordering the result............................................................................................................................ 266
Order by DESC ................................................................................................................................... 267
Update Operation ................................................................................................................................. 267
Delete Operation .................................................................................................................................. 268
Join Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 268
23. Python 3 – Sending Mail (SMTP) ................................................................................................... 270
Sending an HTML e-mail using Python ................................................................................................. 271
24. Python 3 – Multithreaded Programming ...................................................................................... 272
Starting a New Thread .......................................................................................................................... 272
The Threading Module .......................................................................................................................... 273
Creating Thread Using Threading Module ............................................................................................ 274
Synchronizing Threads .......................................................................................................................... 275
Multithreaded Priority Queue .............................................................................................................. 276
25. Python 3 – GUI Programming (Tkinter)......................................................................................... 278
Tkinter Programming ............................................................................................................................ 278
Geometry Management ....................................................................................................................... 279
Tkinter pack() Method ...................................................................................................................... 279
Tkinter grid() Method ....................................................................................................................... 280
Tkinter place() Method ..................................................................................................................... 281
Tkinter Widgets ..................................................................................................................................... 282
Tkinter Button ................................................................................................................................... 283
Tkinter Canvas ................................................................................................................................... 285
Tkinter Checkbutton ......................................................................................................................... 287
 Tkinter Entry...................................................................................................................................... 289
Tkinter Frame .................................................................................................................................... 292
Tkinter Label...................................................................................................................................... 293
Tkinter Listbox ................................................................................................................................... 296
Tkinter Menubutton ......................................................................................................................... 299
Tkinter Menu..................................................................................................................................... 301
Tkinter Message ................................................................................................................................ 303
Tkinter Radiobutton .......................................................................................................................... 305
Tkinter Scale ...................................................................................................................................... 307
Tkinter Scrollbar ................................................................................................................................ 310
Tkinter Text ....................................................................................................................................... 312
Tkinter Toplevel ................................................................................................................................ 316
Tkinter Spinbox ................................................................................................................................. 318
Tkinter PanedWindow ...................................................................................................................... 320
Tkinter LabelFrame ........................................................................................................................... 321
Tkinter tkMessageBox ....................................................................................................................... 322
Standard Attributes............................................................................................................................... 323
Tkinter Dimensions ........................................................................................................................... 324
Length options .................................................................................................................................. 324
Tkinter Colors .................................................................................................................................... 324
Color options ..................................................................................................................................... 325
Tkinter Fonts ..................................................................................................................................... 325
Simple Tuple Fonts ............................................................................................................................ 325
Font object Fonts .............................................................................................................................. 325
X Window Fonts ................................................................................................................................ 325
Tkinter Anchors ................................................................................................................................. 326
Tkinter Relief styles ........................................................................................................................... 326
Tkinter Bitmaps ................................................................................................................................. 327
Tkinter Cursors .................................................................................................................................. 328
Python 3 – Basic Tutorial
 1. Python Overview
Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object-oriented scripting language.
Python is designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords frequently whereas the
other languages use punctuations. It has fewer syntactical constructions than other
languages.

• Python is Interpreted: Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do

not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL and
PHP.
• Python is Interactive: You can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with
the interpreter directly to write your programs.
• Python is Object-Oriented: Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of
programming that encapsulates code within objects.
• Python is a Beginner's Language: Python is a great language for the beginner-
level programmers and supports the development of a wide range of applications
from simple text processing to WWW browsers to games.

History of Python
Python was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early nineties at the
National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands.

• Python is derived from many other languages, including ABC, Modula-3, C, C++,
Algol-68, SmallTalk, and Unix shell and other scripting languages.
• Python is copyrighted. Like Perl, Python source code is now available under the
GNU General Public License (GPL).
• Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute, although
Guido van Rossum still holds a vital role in directing its progress.
• Python 1.0 was released in November 1994. In 2000, Python 2.0 was released.
Python 2.7.11 is the latest edition of Python 2.
• Meanwhile, Python 3.0 was released in 2008. Python 3 is not backward
compatible with Python 2. The emphasis in Python 3 had been on the removal of
duplicate programming constructs and modules so that "There should be one --
and preferably only one -- obvious way to do it." Python 3.5.1 is the latest
version of Python 3.
Python Features
Python's features include-

• Easy-to-learn: Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined
syntax. This allows a student to pick up the language quickly.
• Easy-to-read: Python code is more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.
• Easy-to-maintain: Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintained.
• A broad standard library: Python's bulk of the library is very portable and cross-
platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.
• Interactive Mode: Python has support for an interactive mode, which allows
interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code.
• Portable: Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the
same interface on all platforms.
• Extendable: You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These
modules enable programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more
efficient.
• Databases: Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.
• GUI Programming: Python supports GUI applications that can be created and
ported to many system calls, libraries and windows systems, such as Windows
MFC, Macintosh, and the X Window system of Unix.
• Scalable: Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than
shell scripting.
• Apart from the above-mentioned features, Python has a big list of good features.
A few are listed below-
• It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.
• It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for
building large applications.
• It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type
checking.
• It supports automatic garbage collection.
• It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.
 2. Local Environment Setup
Open a terminal window and type "python" to find out if it is already installed and which
version is installed.

Getting Python
Windows platform

Binaries of latest version of Python 3 (Python 3.5.1) are available on this download page
The following different installation options are available.

• Windows x86-64 embeddable zip file

• Windows x86-64 executable installer

• Windows x86-64 web-based installer

• Windows x86 embeddable zip file

• Windows x86 executable installer

• Windows x86 web-based installer

Note:In order to install Python 3.5.1, minimum OS requirements are Windows 7 with SP1.
For versions 3.0 to 3.4.x, Windows XP is acceptable.

Setting up PATH
Programs and other executable files can be in many directories. Hence, the operating
systems provide a search path that lists the directories that it searches for executables.

• The important features are-

• The path is stored in an environment variable, which is a named string
maintained by the operating system. This variable contains information available
to the command shell and other programs.
• The path variable is named as PATH in Unix or Path in Windows (Unix is case-
sensitive; Windows is not).
• In Mac OS, the installer handles the path details. To invoke the Python
interpreter from any particular directory, you must add the Python directory to
your path.

Setting Path at Windows

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Windows-

At the command prompt : type

path %path%;C:\Python and press Enter.

Note: C:\Python is the path of the Python directory.

 3. Python 3 – Basic Syntax
The Python language has many similarities to Perl, C, and Java. However, there are some
definite differences between the languages.

First Python Program

Let us execute the programs in different modes of programming.

Interactive Mode Programming

Invoking the interpreter without passing a script file as a parameter brings up the following
prompt-

$ python
Python 3.3.2 (default, Dec 10 2013, 11:35:01) [GCC 4.6.3] on Linux
Type "help", "copyright", "credits", or "license" for more information.
>>>
On Windows:
Python 3.4.3 (v3.4.3:9b73f1c3e601, Feb 24 2015, 22:43:06) [MSC v.1600 32 bit (Intel)]
on
win32
Type "copyright", "credits" or "license()" for more information.
>>>
Type the following text at the Python prompt and press Enter-

>>> print ("Hello, Python!")

If you are running the older version of Python (Python 2.x), use of parenthesis as inprint
function is optional. This produces the following result-

Hello, Python!

Script Mode Programming

Invoking the interpreter with a script parameter begins execution of the script and continues
until the script is finished. When the script is finished, the interpreter is no longer active.

Let us write a simple Python program in a script. Python files have the extension.py. Type
the following source code in a test.py file-

print ("Hello, Python!")

We assume that you have the Python interpreter set in PATH variable. Now, try to run this
program as follows-

On Windows

C:\Python34>Python test.py

This produces the following result-

Hello, Python!
Python Identifiers
A Python identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module or other
object. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore (_) followed by
zero or more letters, underscores and digits (0 to 9).

Python does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within identifiers. Python
is a case sensitive programming language. Thus, Manpower and manpower are two different
identifiers in Python.

Here are naming conventions for Python identifiers-

• Class names start with an uppercase letter. All other identifiers start with a
lowercase letter.
• Starting an identifier with a single leading underscore indicates that the identifier
is private.
• Starting an identifier with two leading underscores indicates a strong private
identifier.
• If the identifier also ends with two trailing underscores, the identifier is a
language- defined special name.

Reserved Words
The following list shows the Python keywords. These are reserved words and you cannot use
them as constants or variables or any other identifier names. All the Python keywords
contain lowercase letters only.

and exec Not

as finally or

assert for pass

break from print

class global raise

continue if return

def import try

del in while

elif is with

else lambda yield

except
Lines and Indentation
Python does not use braces({}) to indicate blocks of code for class and function definitions
or flow control. Blocks of code are denoted by line indentation, which is rigidly enforced.

The number of spaces in the indentation is variable, but all statements within the block
must be indented the same amount. For example-

if True:
print ("True") else:
print ("False")

However, the following block generates an error-

if True:
print ("Answer") print ("True")
else:
print "(Answer") print ("False")

Multi-Line Statements
Statements in Python typically end with a new line. Python, however, allows the use of the
line continuation character (\) to denote that the line should continue. For example-

total = item_one +
\ item_two +
\ item_three

The statements contained within the [], {}, or () brackets do not need to use the line
continuation character. For example-

days = ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday']

Quotation in Python
Python accepts single ('), double (") and triple (''' or """) quotes to denote string literals, as
long as the same type of quote starts and ends the string.

The triple quotes are used to span the string across multiple lines. For example, all the
following are legal-

word = 'word'
sentence = "This is a sentence." paragraph = """This is a paragraph. It is
made up of multiple lines and sentences."""

Comments in Python
A hash sign (#) that is not inside a string literal is the beginning of a comment. All
characters after the #, up to the end of the physical line, are part of the comment and the
Python interpreter ignores them.

#!/usr/bin/python3
# First comment
print ("Hello, Python!") # second comment

This produces the following result-

 Hello, Python!
You can type a comment on the same line after a statement or expression-

name = "Madisetti" # This is again comment

Python does not have multiple-line commenting feature. You have to comment each line
individually as follows-

# This is a comment.
# This is a comment, too. # This is a comment, too.
# I said that already.

Using Blank Lines

A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a blank line and
Python totally ignores it.

In an interactive interpreter session, you must enter an empty physical line to terminate a
multiline statement.

Waiting for the User

The following line of the program displays the prompt and the statement saying “Press the
enter key to exit”, and then waits for the user to take action −

#!/usr/bin/python3
input("\n\nPress the enter key to exit.")

Here, "\n\n" is used to create two new lines before displaying the actual line. Once the user
presses the key, the program ends. This is a nice trick to keep a console window open until
the user is done with an application.

Multiple Statements on a Single Line

The semicolon ( ; ) allows multiple statements on a single line given that no statement
starts a new code block. Here is a sample snip using the semicolon-

import sys; x = 'foo'; sys.stdout.write(x + '\n')

Multiple Statement Groups as Suites

Groups of individual statements, which make a single code block are called suites in Python.
Compound or complex statements, such as if, while, def, and class require a header line and
a suite.

Header lines begin the statement (with the keyword) and terminate with a colon ( : ) and
are followed by one or more lines which make up the suite. For example −

if expression : suite
elif expression : suite
else :
suite

Command Line Arguments

Many programs can be run to provide you with some basic information about how they
should be run. Python enables you to do this with -h:
 $ python -h
usage: python [option] ... [-c cmd | -m mod | file | -] [arg] ... Options and arguments
(and corresponding environment variables):
-c cmd : program passed in as string (terminates option list)
-d : debug output from parser (also PYTHONDEBUG=x)
-E : ignore environment variables (such as PYTHONPATH)
-h : print this help message and exit [ etc. ]

You can also program your script in such a way that it should accept various options.
Command Line Arguments is an advance topic. Let us understand it.

Command Line Arguments

Python provides a getopt module that helps you parse command-line options and
arguments.

$ python test.py arg1 arg2 arg3

The Python sys module provides access to any command-line arguments via the
sys.argv. This serves two purposes-

• sys.argv is the list of command-line arguments.

• len(sys.argv) is the number of command-line arguments. Here sys.argv[0] is
the program i.e. the script name.

Example
Consider the following script test.py-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import sys
print ('Number of arguments:', len(sys.argv), 'arguments.')
print ('Argument List:', str(sys.argv))

Now run the above script as follows –

$ python test.py arg1 arg2 arg3

This produces the following result-

Number of arguments: 4 arguments.

Argument List: ['test.py', 'arg1', 'arg2', 'arg3']
NOTE: As mentioned above, the first argument is always the script name and it is also being
counted in number of arguments.
 4. Python 3 – Variable Types
Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. It means that when
you create a variable, you reserve some space in the memory.

Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter allocates memory and decides what
can be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by assigning different data types to the
variables, you can store integers, decimals or characters in these variables.

Assigning Values to Variables

Python variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space. The declaration
happens automatically when you assign a value to a variable. The equal sign (=) is used to
assign values to variables.

The operand to the left of the = operator is the name of the variable and the operand to the
right of the = operator is the value stored in the variable. For example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
counter = 100 # An integer assignment
miles = 1000.0 # A floating point
name = "John" # A string print (counter)
print (miles)
print (name)

Here, 100, 1000.0 and "John" are the values assigned to counter, miles, and name
variables, respectively. This produces the following result −

100
1000.0
John

Multiple Assignment
Python allows you to assign a single value to several variables simultaneously. For example-

a=b=c=1
Here, an integer object is created with the value 1, and all the three variables are assigned
to the same memory location. You can also assign multiple objects to multiple variables.

For example-

a, b, c = 1, 2, “john”
Here, two integer objects with values 1 and 2 are assigned to the variables a and b
respectively, and one string object with the value "john" is assigned to the variable c.

Standard Data Types

The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a person's age is stored as
a numeric value and his or her address is stored as alphanumeric characters. Python has
various standard data types that are used to define the operations possible on them and the
storage method for each of them.
Python has five standard data types-

• Numbers
• String
• List
• Tuple
• Dictionary

Python Numbers
Number data types store numeric values. Number objects are created when you assign a
value to them. For example-

var1 = 1
var2 = 10

You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del statement. The
syntax of the del statement is −

del var1[,var2[,var3[ ,varN]]]]

You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement. For example-

del var
del var_a, var_b
Python supports three different numerical types −

• int (signed integers)

• float (floating point real values)
• complex (complex numbers)

All integers in Python 3 are represented as long integers. Hence, there is no separate
number type as long.

Examples
Here are some examples of numbers-

int float complex

10 0.0 3.14j
100 15.20 45.j
-786 -21.9 9.322e-36j
080 32.3+e18 .876j
-0490 -90. -.6545+0J
-0x260 -32.54e100 3e+26J
0x69 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j

A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating-point numbers denoted by x +

yj, where x and y are real numbers and j is the imaginary unit.

Python Strings
Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters represented in the
quotation marks. Python allows either pair of single or double quotes. Subsets of strings can
be taken using the slice operator ([ ] and [:] ) with indexes starting at 0 in the beginning of
the string and working their way from -1 to the end.

The plus (+) sign is the string concatenation operator and the asterisk (*) is the repetition
operator. For example-

#!/usr/bin/python3 str = 'Hello World!'

print (str) # Prints complete string
print (str[0]) # Prints first character of the string
print (str[2:5]) # Prints characters starting from 3rd to 5th
print (str[2:]) # Prints string starting from 3rd character print (str * 2) # Prints string two
times
print (str + "TEST") # Prints concatenated string
This will produce the following result-

Hello World!
H
llo
llo World!
Hello World!Hello World!
Hello World!TEST

Python Lists
Lists are the most versatile of Python's compound data types. A list contains items
separated by commas and enclosed within square brackets ([]). To some extent, lists are
similar to arrays in C. One of the differences between them is that all the items belonging to
a list can be of different data type.

The values stored in a list can be accessed using the slice operator ([ ] and [:]) with indexes
starting at 0 in the beginning of the list and working their way to end -1. The plus (+) sign
is the list concatenation operator, and the asterisk (*) is the repetition operator. For
example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ] tinylist = [123, 'john']
print (list) # Prints complete list
print (list[0]) # Prints first element of the list
print (list[1:3]) # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print (list[2:]) # Prints elements starting from 3rd element print (tinylist * 2) # Prints list
two times
print (list + tinylist) # Prints concatenated lists
This produces the following result-

['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003]

abcd
[786, 2.23]
[2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003]
[123, 'john', 123, 'john']
['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john']
Python Tuples
A tuple is another sequence data type that is similar to the list. A tuple consists of a number
of values separated by commas. Unlike lists, however, tuples are enclosed within
parenthesis.
The main difference between lists and tuples is- Lists are enclosed in brackets ( [ ] ) and
their elements and size can be changed, while tuples are enclosed in parentheses ( ( ) ) and
cannot be updated. Tuples can be thought of as read-only lists. For example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 )
tinytuple = (123, 'john')
print (tuple) # Prints complete tuple
print (tuple[0]) # Prints first element of the tuple
print (tuple[1:3]) # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print (tuple[2:]) # Prints elements starting from 3rd element
print (tinytuple * 2) # Prints tuple two times
print (tuple + tinytuple) # Prints concatenated tuple

This produces the following result-

('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003)

abcd
(786, 2.23)
(2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003)
(123, 'john', 123, 'john')
('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john')

The following code is invalid with tuple, because we attempted to update a tuple, which is
not allowed. Similar case is possible with lists −

#!/usr/bin/python3
tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 )
list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ]
tuple[2] = 1000 # Invalid syntax with tuple
list[2] = 1000 # Valid syntax with list

Python Dictionary
Python's dictionaries are kind of hash-table type. They work like associative arrays or
hashes found in Perl and consist of key-value pairs. A dictionary key can be almost any
Python type, but are usually numbers or strings. Values, on the other hand, can be any
arbitrary Python object.

Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({ }) and values can be assigned and accessed
using square braces ([]). For example-
 #!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {}
dict['one'] = "This is one"
dict[2] = "This is two"
tinydict = {'name': 'john','code':6734, 'dept': 'sales'}
print (dict['one']) # Prints value for 'one' key
print (dict[2]) # Prints value for 2 key
print (tinydict) # Prints complete dictionary
print (tinydict.keys()) # Prints all the keys
print (tinydict.values()) # Prints all the values

This produces the following result-

This is one
This is two
{'dept': 'sales', 'code': 6734, 'name': 'john'}
['dept', 'code', 'name']
['sales', 6734, 'john']

Dictionaries have no concept of order among the elements. It is incorrect to say that the
elements are "out of order"; they are simply unordered.

Data Type Conversion

Sometimes, you may need to perform conversions between the built-in types. To convert
between types, you simply use the type-name as a function.

There are several built-in functions to perform conversion from one data type to another.
These functions return a new object representing the converted value.

Function Description
int(x [,base]) Converts x to an integer. The base specifies the base if x is astring.
float(x) Converts x to a floating-point number.
complex(real Creates a complex number.
[,imag])
str(x) Converts object x to a string representation.
repr(x) Converts object x to an expression string.
eval(str) Evaluates a string and returns an object.
tuple(s) Converts s to a tuple.
list(s) Converts s to a list.
set(s) Converts s to a set.
dict(d) Creates a dictionary. d must be a sequence of (key,value) tuples.
frozenset(s) Converts s to a frozen set.
chr(x) Converts an integer to a character.
unichr(x) Converts an integer to a Unicode character.
ord(x) Converts a single character to its integer value.
hex(x) Converts an integer to a hexadecimal string.
oct(x) Converts an integer to an octal string.
5. Python 3 – Basic Operators
Operators are the constructs, which can manipulate the value of operands. Consider the
expression 4 + 5 = 9. Here, 4 and 5 are called operands and + is called the operator.

Types of Operators
Python language supports the following types of operators-

• Arithmetic Operators
• Comparison (Relational) Operators
• Assignment Operators
• Logical Operators
• Bitwise Operators
• Membership Operators
• Identity Operators

Let us have a look at all the operators one by one.

Python Arithmetic Operators

Assume variable a holds the value 10 and variable b holds the value 21, then-

Operator Description Example

+ Addition Adds values on either side of the operator. a + b = 31
- Subtraction Subtracts right hand operand from left hand a – b = -11
operand.
* Multiplication Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b = 210
/ Division Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b / a = 2.1
% Modulus Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b%a=1
and returns remainder
** Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on a**b =10 to the power
operators 20
// Floor Division The division of operands where the result is the 9//2 = 4 and 9.0//2.0 =
quotient in which the digits after the decimal 4.0
point are removed.
Example
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then-

#!/usr/bin/python3 a = 21
b = 10
c=0
c=a+b
print ("Line 1 - Value of c is ", c)
c=a-b
print ("Line 2 - Value of c is ", c )
c=a*b
print ("Line 3 - Value of c is ", c)
c=a/b
print ("Line 4 - Value of c is ", c )
c=a%b
print ("Line 5 - Value of c is ", c)
a=2
b=3
c = a**b
print ("Line 6 - Value of c is ", c)
a = 10
b=5
c = a//b
print ("Line 7 - Value of c is ", c)

When you execute the above program, it produces the following result-

Line 1 - Value of c is 31
Line 2 - Value of c is 11
Line 3 - Value of c is 210
Line 4 - Value of c is 2.1
Line 5 - Value of c is 1
Line 6 - Value of c is 8
Line 7 - Value of c is 2
Python Comparison Operators
These operators compare the values on either side of them and decide the relation among
them. They are also called Relational operators.

Assume variable a holds the value 10 and variable b holds the value 20, then-

Operator Descrip Example

tion

== If the values of two operands are equal, then the (a == b) is not true.
condition becomes true.
!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition (a!= b) is true.
becomes true.
> If the value of left operand is greater than the value of (a > b) is not true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.
< If the value of left operand is less than the value of right (a < b) is true.
operand, then condition becomes true.
>= If the value of left operand is greater than or equal (a >= b) is not true.
to the value of right operand, then condition
becomes true.
<= If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the (a <= b) is true.
value of right operand, then condition becomes true.
Example
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then-

#!/usr/bin/python3 a = 21
b = 10
if ( a == b ):
print ("Line 1 - a is equal to b")
else:
print ("Line 1 - a is not equal to b")

if ( a != b ):
print ("Line 2 - a is not equal to b")
else:
print ("Line 2 - a is equal to b")

if ( a < b ):
print ("Line 3 - a is less than b" )
else:
print ("Line 3 - a is not less than b")

if ( a > b ):
print ("Line 4 - a is greater than b")
else:
print ("Line 4 - a is not greater than b")

a,b=b,a #values of a and b swapped. a becomes 10, b becomes 21

if ( a <= b ):
 print ("Line 5 - a is either less than or equal to b")
else:
print ("Line 5 - a is neither less than nor equal to b")

if ( b >= a ):
print ("Line 6 - b is either greater than or equal to b")
else:
print ("Line 6 - b is neither greater than nor equal to b")

When you execute the above program, it produces the following result-

Line 1 - a is not equal to b

Line 2 - a is not equal to b
Line 3 - a is not less than b
Line 4 - a is greater than b
Line 5 - a is either less than or equal to b
Line 6 - b is either greater than or equal to b

Python Assignment Operators

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then-

Operator Description Example

= Assigns values from right side operands toleft c=a + b assignsvalue of a
side operand + b into c
+= Add AND It adds right operand to the left operandand c+= a is equivalentto c = c
assign the result to left operand +a
-= Subtract AND It subtracts right operand from the left operand c-= a is equivalentto c = c
and assign the result to left operand -a
*= Multiply AND It multiplies right operand with the left operand c*= a is equivalentto c = c
and assign the result to left operand *a
/= Divide AND It divides left operand with the right operand c/= a is equivalentto c = c /
and assign the result to left operand ac /= a isequivalent to c = c
/a
%= Modulus AND It takes modulus using two operands andassign c%= a is equivalentto c = c
the result to left operand %a
**= Exponent AND Performs exponential (power) calculationon c**= a isequivalent to c
operators and assign value to the left operand = c** a
//= Floor Division It performs floor division on operators andassign c//= a is equivalentto c = c
value to the left operand // a
Example
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then-

#!/usr/bin/python3
a = 21
b = 10
c=0

c=a+b
print ("Line 1 - Value of c is ", c)
 c += a
print ("Line 2 - Value of c is ", c )

c *= a
print ("Line 3 - Value of c is ", c )

c /= a
print ("Line 4 - Value of c is ", c )

c = 2 c %= a
print ("Line 5 - Value of c is ", c)

c **= a
print ("Line 6 - Value of c is ", c)

c //= a
print ("Line 7 - Value of c is ", c)
When you execute the above program, it produces the following result-

Line 1 - Value of c is 31
Line 2 - Value of c is 52
Line 3 - Value of c is 1092
Line 4 - Value of c is 52.0
Line 5 - Value of c is 2
Line 6 - Value of c is 2097152
Line 7 - Value of c is 99864
Python Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. Assume if a = 60; and b =
13; Now in binary format they will be as follows-

a = 0011 1100

b = 0000 1101

a&b = 0000 1100

a|b = 0011 1101

a^b = 0011 0001

~a = 1100 0011

Pyhton's built-in function bin() can be used to obtain binary representation of an integer
number.

Operator Description Example

& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result, if itexists in (a & b) (means 00001100)
both operands
| Binary OR It copies a bit, if it exists in either operand. (a | b) = 61 (means0011
1101)
^ Binary XOR It copies the bit, if it is set in one operandbut not (a ^ b) = 49 (means0011
both. 0001)
~ Binary Ones It is unary and has the effect of 'flipping'bits. (~a ) = -61 (means 1100
Complements 0011 in 2's complement
form due to a signed binary
number.
<< Binary Left The left operand’s value is moved left by the a << = 240 (means1111
Shift number of bits specified by the rightoperand. 0000)
>> Binary Right The left operand’s value is moved right by the a >> = 15 (means0000
Shift number of bits specified by the right operand. 1111)
The following Bitwise operators are supported by Python language-

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
a = 60 # 60 = 0011 1100
b = 13 # 13 = 0000 1101

print ('a=',a,':',bin(a),'b=',b,':',bin(b)) c = 0
c = a & b; # 12 = 0000 1100
print ("result of AND is ", c,':',bin(c))
c = a | b; # 61 = 0011 1101
print ("result of OR is ", c,':',bin(c))
c = a ^ b; # 49 = 0011 0001
print ("result of EXOR is ", c,':',bin(c))

c = ~a; # -61 = 1100 0011

print ("result of COMPLEMENT is ", c,':',bin(c))
c = a << 2; # 240 = 1111 0000
print ("result of LEFT SHIFT is ", c,':',bin(c))
c = a >> 2; # 15 = 0000 1111
print ("result of RIGHT SHIFT is ", c,':',bin(c))
When you execute the above program, it produces the following result-

a= 60 : 0b111100 b= 13 : 0b1101
result of AND is 12 : 0b1100
result of OR is 61 : 0b111101
result of EXOR is 49 : 0b110001
result of COMPLEMENT is -61 : -0b111101
result of LEFT SHIFT is 240 : 0b11110000
result of RIGHT SHIFT is 15 : 0b111

Python Logical Operators

The following logical operators are supported by Python language. Assume variable a holds
True and variable b holds False then-

Operator Description Example

and Logical If both the operands are true then condition (a and b) is
AND becomes true. False.
or Logical OR If any of the two operands are non-zero then (a or b) is
condition becomes true. True.
not Logical NOT Used to reverse the logical state of its operand. Not(a and b)is
True.
Python Membership Operators
Python’s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as strings, lists, or
tuples. There are two membership operators as explained below-

Operator Description Example

in Evaluates to true, if it finds a variablein the specified x in y, here in results ina 1 if x is

sequence and false otherwise. a member of sequence y.

not in Evaluates to true, if it does not find a variable in the x not in y, here not in results in
specified sequence andfalse otherwise. a 1 if x is not a member of
sequence y.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
a = 10
b = 20
list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

if (a in list):
print ("Line 1 - a is available in the given list")
else:
print ("Line 1 - a is not available in the given list")

if ( b not in list ):
print ("Line 2 - b is not available in the given list")
else:
print ("Line 2 - b is available in the given list")

c=b/a
if ( c in list ):
print ("Line 3 - a is available in the given list")
else:
print ("Line 3 - a is not available in the given list")

When you execute the above program, it produces the following result-

Line 1 - a is not available in the given list

Line 2 - b is not available in the given list
Line 3 - a is available in the given list
Python Identity Operators
Identity operators compare the memory locations of two objects. There are two Identity
operators as explained below:

Operator Description Example

is Evaluates to true if the variables on either side of the x is y, here is results in 1 if

operator point to thesame object and false otherwise. id(x) equals id(y).

is not Evaluates to false if the variables on either side of the x is not y, here is not results
operator point to thesame object and true otherwise. in 1 if id(x) is not equal to
id(y).

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
a = 20
b = 20
print ('Line 1','a=',a,':',id(a), 'b=',b,':',id(b))

if ( a is b ):
print ("Line 2 - a and b have same identity")
else:
print ("Line 2 - a and b do not have same identity")

if ( id(a) == id(b) ):
print ("Line 3 - a and b have same identity")
else:
print ("Line 3 - a and b do not have same identity")
b = 30
print ('Line 4','a=',a,':',id(a), 'b=',b,':',id(b))

if ( a is not b ):
print ("Line 5 - a and b do not have same identity")
else:
print ("Line 5 - a and b have same identity").
When you execute the above program, it produces the following result-

Line 1 a= 20 : 1594701888 b= 20 : 1594701888

Line 2 -a and b have same identity
Line 3 -a and b have same identity
Line 4 a= 20 : 1594701888 b= 30 : 1594702048
Line 5 -a and b do not have same identity

Python Operators Precedence

The following table lists all the operators from highest precedence to the lowest.

Operator Description

** Exponentiation (raise to the power)

~+- Complement, unary plus and minus (method names forthe last
two are +@ and -@)
* / % // Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division

+- Addition and subtraction

>> << Right and left bitwise shift

& Bitwise 'AND'

^| Bitwise exclusive `OR' and regular `OR'

<= < > >= Comparison operators

<> == != Equality operators

= %= /= //= -= += *= **= Assignment operators

is is not Identity operators

in not in Membership operators

not or and Logical operators

Operator precedence affects the evaluation of an an expression.

For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because the operator * has
higher precedence than +, so it first multiplies 3*2 and then is added to 7.

Here, the operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those with
the lowest appear at the bottom.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
a = 20
b = 10
c = 15
d=5
print ("a:%d b:%d c:%d d:%d" % (a,b,c,d ))
e = (a + b) * c / d #( 30 * 15 ) / 5
print ("Value of (a + b) * c / d is ", e)

e = ((a + b) * c) / d # (30 * 15 ) / 5
print ("Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is ", e)

e = (a + b) * (c / d) # (30) * (15/5)
print ("Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is ", e)

e = a + (b * c) / d # 20 + (150/5)
print ("Value of a + (b * c) / d is ", e)
When you execute the above program, it produces the following result-
a:20 b:10 c:15 d:5
Value of (a + b) * c / d is 90.0
Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is 90.0
Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is 90.0
Value of a + (b * c) / d is 50.0
6. Python 3 – Decision Making
Decision-making is the anticipation of conditions occurring during the execution of a
program and specified actions taken according to the conditions.

Decision structures evaluate multiple expressions, which produce TRUE or FALSE as the
outcome. You need to determine which action to take and which statements to execute if
the outcome is TRUE or FALSE otherwise.

Following is the general form of a typical decision-making structure found in most of the
programming languages-

Python programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as TRUE, and any
zero or null values as FALSE value.

Python programming language provides the following types of decision-making statements.

Statement Description

if statements
An if statement consists of a Boolean expression followed byone or more
statements.

if...else statements
An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which
executes when the boolean expression isFALSE.

nested if statements
You can use one if or else if statement insideanother if or else if
statement(s).

Let us go through each decision-making statement quickly.

IF Statement
The IF statement is similar to that of other languages. The if statement contains a logical
expression using which the data is compared and a decision is made based on the result of
the comparison.

Syntax
if expression:
statement(s)

If the boolean expression evaluates to TRUE, then the block of statement(s) inside the if
statement is executed. In Python, statements in a block are uniformly indented after the :
symbol. If boolean expression evaluates to FALSE, then the first set of code after the end of
block is executed.

Flow Diagram

Example

#!/usr/bin/python3 var1 = 100

if var1:
print ("1 - Got a true expression value")
print (var1)
var2 = 0 if var2:
print ("2 - Got a true expression value") print (var2)
print ("Good bye!")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

1 - Got a true expression value

100
Good bye!
IF...ELIF...ELSE Statements
An else statement can be combined with an if statement. An else statement contains a block
of code that executes if the conditional expression in the if statement resolves to 0 or a
FALSE value.

The else statement is an optional statement and there could be at the most only one else
statement following if.

Syntax
The syntax of the if...else statement is-

if expression:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)
Flow Diagram

Example

#!/usr/bin/python3
amount=int(input("Enter amount: "))
if amount<1000:
discount=amount*0.05
print ("Discount",discount)
else:
discount=amount*0.10
print ("Discount",discount)

print ("Net payable:",amount-discount)

In the above example, discount is calculated on the input amount. Rate of discount is 5%, if
the amount is less than 1000, and 10% if it is above 10000. When the above code is
executed, it produces the following result-
 Enter amount: 600
Discount 30.0
Net payable: 570.0
Enter amount: 1200
Discount 120.0
Net payable: 1080.0

The elif Statement

The elif statement allows you to check multiple expressions for TRUE and execute a block of
code as soon as one of the conditions evaluates to TRUE.

Similar to the else, the elif statement is optional. However, unlike else, for which there can
be at the most one statement, there can be an arbitrary number of elif statements following
an if.

Syntax
if expression1:
statement(s)
elif expression2:
statement(s)
elif expression3:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)
Core Python does not provide switch or case statements as in other languages, but we can
use if..elif...statements to simulate switch case as follows-

Example

#!/usr/bin/python3
amount=int(input("Enter amount: "))
if amount<1000:
discount=amount*0.05
print ("Discount",discount)
elif amount<5000:
discount=amount*0.10
print ("Discount",discount)
else:
discount=amount*0.15
print ("Discount",discount)
print ("Net payable:",amount-discount)

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

 Enter amount: 600
Discount 30.0
Net payable: 570.0

Enter amount: 3000

Discount 300.0
Net payable: 2700.0

Enter amount: 6000

Discount 900.0
Net payable: 5100.0

Nested IF Statements
There may be a situation when you want to check for another condition after a condition
resolves to true. In such a situation, you can use the nested if construct.

In a nested if construct, you can have an if...elif...else construct inside another if...elif...else
construct.

Syntax
The syntax of the nested if...elif...else construct may be-

if expression1:
statement(s)
if expression2:
statement(s)
elif expression3:
statement(s)
else
statement(s)
elif expression4:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)
Example

# !/usr/bin/python3
num=int(input("enter number"))
if num%2==0:
if num%3==0:
print ("Divisible by 3 and 2")
else:
print ("divisible by 2 not divisible by 3")
else:
if num%3==0:
print ("divisible by 3 not divisible by 2")
else:
print ("not Divisible by 2 not divisible by 3")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

enter number8
divisible by 2 not divisible by 3

enter number15
divisible by 3 not divisible by 2

enter number12
Divisible by 3 and 2

enter number5
not Divisible by 2 not divisible by 3

Single Statement Suites

If the suite of an if clause consists only of a single line, it may go on the same line as the
header statement.

Here is an example of a one-line if clause-

#!/usr/bin/python3 var = 100

if ( var == 100 ) : print ("Value of expression is 100")
print ("Good bye!")

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Value of expression is 100

Good bye!
 7. Python 3 – Loops
In general, statements are executed sequentially- The first statement in a function is
executed first, followed by the second, and so on. There may be a situation when you need
to execute a block of code several number of times.

Programming languages provide various control structures that allow more complicated
execution paths.

A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times.

The following diagram illustrates a loop statement.

Python programming language provides the following types of loops to handle looping
requirements.

Loop Type Description

while loop Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is

TRUE. It tests the condition before executing theloop body.
for loop Executes a sequence of statements multiple times andabbreviates the
code that manages the loop variable.
nested loops You can use one or more loop inside any another while, or for loop.
While Loop Statements
A while loop statement in Python programming language repeatedly executes a target
statement as long as a given condition is true.

Syntax
The syntax of a while loop in Python programming language is-

while expression:
statement(s)
Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements with uniform indent.
The condition may be any expression, and true is any non-zero value. The loop iterates
while the condition is true.

When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately following
the loop.

In Python, all the statements indented by the same number of character spaces after a
programming construct are considered to be part of a single block of code. Python uses
indentation as its method of grouping statements.

Flow Diagram

Here, a key point of the while loop is that the loop might not ever run. When the condition is
tested and the result is false, the loop body will be skipped and the first statement after the
while loop will be executed.
Example

#!/usr/bin/python3
count = 0
while (count < 9):
print ('The count is:', count)
count = count + 1
print ("Good bye!")

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

The count is: 0

The count is: 1
The count is: 2
The count is: 3
The count is: 4
The count is: 5
The count is: 6
The count is: 7
The count is: 8
Good bye!
The block here, consisting of the print and increment statements, is executed repeatedly
until count is no longer less than 9. With each iteration, the current value of the index count
is displayed and then increased by 1.

The Infinite Loop

A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes FALSE. You must be cautious
when using while loops because of the possibility that this condition never resolves to a
FALSE value. This results in a loop that never ends. Such a loop is called an infinite loop.

An infinite loop might be useful in client/server programming where the server needs to run
continuously so that client programs can communicate with it as and when required.

#!/usr/bin/python3
var = 1
while var == 1 : # This constructs an infinite loop
num = int(input("Enter a number :"))
print ("You entered: ", num)
print ("Good bye!")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Enter a number :20

You entered: 20
Enter a number :29
You entered: 29
Enter a number :3
You entered: 3
Enter a number :11
You entered: 11
Enter a number :22
You entered: 22
Enter a number :Traceback (most recent call last):
File "examples\test.py", line 5, in
 num = int(input("Enter a number :"))
KeyboardInterrupt
The above example goes in an infinite loop and you need to use CTRL+C to exit the
program.

Using else Statement with Loops

Python supports having an else statement associated with a loop statement.

• If the else statement is used with a for loop, the else statement is executed when
the loop has exhausted iterating the list.
• If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is executed when
the condition becomes false.

The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a while
statement that prints a number as long as it is less than 5, otherwise the else statement
gets executed.

#!/usr/bin/python3 count = 0
while count < 5:
print (count, " is less than 5")
count = count + 1
else:
print (count, " is not less than 5")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

0 is less than 5
1 is less than 5
2 is less than 5
3 is less than 5
4 is less than 5
5 is not less than 5

Single Statement Suites

Similar to the if statement syntax, if your while clause consists only of a single statement, it
may be placed on the same line as the while header.

Here is the syntax and example of a one-line while clause-

#!/usr/bin/python3
flag = 1
while (flag): print ('Given flag is really true!')
print ("Good bye!")
The above example goes into an infinite loop and you need to press CTRL+C keys to exit.
For Loop Statements
The for statement in Python has the ability to iterate over the items of any sequence, such
as a list or a string.

Syntax
for iterating_var in sequence:
statements(s)
If a sequence contains an expression list, it is evaluated first. Then, the first item in the
sequence is assigned to the iterating variable iterating_var. Next, the statements block is
executed. Each item in the list is assigned to iterating_var, and the statement(s) block is
executed until the entire sequence is exhausted.

Flow Diagram

The range() function

The built-in function range() is the right function to iterate over a sequence of numbers. It
generates an iterator of arithmetic progressions.

>>> range(5)
range(0, 5)
>>> list(range(5))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
range() generates an iterator to progress integers starting with 0 upto n-1. To obtain a list
object of the sequence, it is typecasted to list(). Now this list can be iterated using the for
statement.

>>> for var in list(range(5)):

print (var)
This will produce the following output.
 0
1
2
3
4
Example

#!/usr/bin/python3
for letter in 'Python': # traversal of a string sequence
print ('Current Letter:', letter)
print()
fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango']
for fruit in fruits: # traversal of List sequence
print ('Current fruit:', fruit)
print ("Good bye!")

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
Current Letter : h
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : n
Current fruit : banana
Current fruit : apple
Current fruit : mango
Good bye!
Iterating by Sequence Index
An alternative way of iterating through each item is by index offset into the sequence itself.
Following is a simple example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango']
for index in range(len(fruits)):
print ('Current fruit :', fruits[index])
print ("Good bye!")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Current fruit : banana

Current fruit : apple
Current fruit : mango
Good bye!
Here, we took the assistance of the len() built-in function, which provides the total number
of elements in the tuple as well as the range() built-in function to give us the actual
sequence to iterate over.
Using else Statement with Loops
Python supports having an else statement associated with a loop statement.

• If the else statement is used with a for loop, the else block is executed only if for
loops terminates normally (and not by encountering break statement).
• If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is executed when
the condition becomes false.

The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a for statement
that searches for even number in given list.

#!/usr/bin/python3
numbers=[11,33,55,39,55,75,37,21,23,41,13]
for num in numbers:
if num%2==0:
print ('the list contains an even number')
break
else:
print ('the list does not contain even number')

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

the list does not contain even number

Nested loops
Python programming language allows the use of one loop inside another loop. The following
section shows a few examples to illustrate the concept.

Syntax
for iterating_var in sequence:
for iterating_var in sequence:
statements(s)
statements(s)
The syntax for a nested while loop statement in Python programming language is as
follows-

while expression:
while expression:
statement(s)
statement(s)
A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside any other type of
loop. For example, a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice versa.

Example
The following program uses a nested-for loop to display multiplication tables from 1-10.

#!/usr/bin/python3 import sys

for i in range(1,11):
for j in range(1,11):
k=i*j
print (k, end=' ')
print()
The print() function inner loop has end=' ' which appends a space instead of default
newline. Hence, the numbers will appear in one row.

Last print() will be executed at the end of inner for loop.

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result –

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Loop Control Statements
The Loop control statements change the execution from its normal sequence. When the
execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are
destroyed.

Python supports the following control statements.

Control Statement Description

break statement Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the
statement immediately following the loop.
continue statement Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately
retest its condition priorto reiterating.
pass statement The pass statement in Python is used when a statement is required
syntactically but you donot want any command or code to execute.
Let us go through the loop control statements briefly.

Break statement
The break statement is used for premature termination of the current loop. After
abandoning the loop, execution at the next statement is resumed, just like the traditional
break statement in C.

The most common use of break is when some external condition is triggered requiring a
hasty exit from a loop. The break statement can be used in both while and for loops.

If you are using nested loops, the break statement stops the execution of the innermost
loop and starts executing the next line of the code after the block.

Syntax
The syntax for a break statement in Python is as follows-

Break
Flow Diagram

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
for letter in 'Python': # First Example
if letter == 'h':
break
print ('Current Letter :', letter)

var = 10 # Second Example

while var > 0:
print ('Current variable value :', var)
var = var -1
if var == 5:
break
print ("Good bye!")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
Current variable value : 10
Current variable value : 9
Current variable value : 8
Current variable value : 7
Current variable value : 6
Good bye!

The following program demonstrates the use of break in a for loop iterating over a list. User
inputs a number, which is searched in the list. If it is found, then the loop terminates with
the 'found' message.
 #!/usr/bin/python3
no=int(input('any number: '))
numbers=[11,33,55,39,55,75,37,21,23,41,13]
for num in numbers:
if num==no:
print ('number found in list')
break
else:
print ('number not found in list')
The above program will produce the following output-

any number: 33
number found in list
any number: 5
number not found in list

Continue Statement
The continue statement in Python returns the control to the beginning of the current loop.
When encountered, the loop starts next iteration without executing the remaining
statements in the current iteration.

The continue statement can be used in both while and for loops.

Syntax
continue
Flow Diagram
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
for letter in 'Python': # First Example
if letter == 'h':
continue
print ('Current Letter :', letter)
var = 10 # Second Example
while var > 0:
var = var -1
if var == 5:
continue
print ('Current variable value :', var)
print ("Good bye!")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : n
Current variable value : 9
Current variable value : 8
Current variable value : 7
Current variable value : 6
Current variable value : 4
Current variable value : 3
Current variable value : 2
Current variable value : 1
Current variable value : 0
Good bye!

Pass Statement
It is used when a statement is required syntactically but you do not want any command or
code to execute.

The pass statement is a null operation; nothing happens when it executes. The pass
statement is also useful in places where your code will eventually go, but has not been
written yet i.e. in stubs).

Syntax
pass

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
for letter in 'Python':
if letter == 'h':
pass
print ('This is pass block')
print ('Current Letter :', letter)
print ("Good bye!")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-
 Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
This is pass block
Current Letter : h
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : n
Good bye!
Iterator and Generator
Iterator is an object, which allows a programmer to traverse through all the elements of a
collection, regardless of its specific implementation. In Python, an iterator object
implements two methods, iter() and next().

String, List or Tuple objects can be used to create an Iterator.

list=[1,2,3,4]
it = iter(list) # this builds an iterator object
print (next(it)) #prints next available element in iterator
Iterator object can be traversed using regular for statement
!usr/bin/python3
for x in it:
print (x, end=" ")
or using next() function
while True:
try:
print (next(it))
except StopIteration:
sys.exit() #you have to import sys module for this
A generator is a function that produces or yields a sequence of values using yield method.

When a generator function is called, it returns a generator object without even beginning
execution of the function. When the next() method is called for the first time, the function
starts executing, until it reaches the yield statement, which returns the yielded value. The
yield keeps track i.e. remembers the last execution and the second next() call continues
from previous value.

The following example defines a generator, which generates an iterator for all the Fibonacci
numbers.

!usr/bin/python3
import sys
def fibonacci(n): #generator function
a, b, counter = 0, 1, 0
while True:
if (counter > n):
return
yield a
a, b = b, a + b
counter += 1
f = fibonacci(5) #f is iterator object

while
True:
try:
print (next(f), end="")
except StopIteration:
sys.exit()
 8. Python 3 – Numbers
Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types. This means,
changing the value of a number data type results in a newly allocated object.

Number objects are created when you assign a value to them. For example-

var1 = 1
var2 = 10
You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del statement. The
syntax of the del statement is −

del var1[,var2[,var3[ ,varN]]]]

You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement. For example-

del var
del var_a, var_b
Python supports different numerical types-

• int (signed integers): They are often called just integers or ints. They are positive or
negative whole numbers with no decimal point. Integers in Python 3 are of unlimited
size. Python 2 has two integer types - int and long. There is no 'long integer' in
Python 3 anymore.
• float (floating point real values) : Also called floats, they represent real numbers and
are written with a decimal point dividing the integer and the fractional parts. Floats
may also be in scientific notation, with E or e indicating the power of 10 (2.5e2 = 2.5
x 102 = 250).
• complex (complex numbers) : are of the form a + bJ, where a and b are floats and J
(or j) represents the square root of -1 (which is an imaginary number). The real part
of the number is a, and the imaginary part is b. Complex numbers are not used
much in Python programming.

It is possible to represent an integer in hexa-decimal or octal form.

>>> number = 0xA0F #Hexa-decimal

>>> number
2575
>>> number=0o37 #Octal
>>> number
31
Examples
Here are some examples of numbers.

int float complex

10 0.0 3.14j

100 15.20 45.j

-786 -21.9 9.322e-36j

080 32.3+e18 .876j

 -0490 -90. -.6545+0J

-0x260 -32.54e100 3e+26J

0x69 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j

A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating-point numbers denoted by a +
bj, where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the complex number.

Number Type Conversion

Python converts numbers internally in an expression containing mixed types to a common
type for evaluation. Sometimes, you need to coerce a number explicitly from one type to
another to satisfy the requirements of an operator or function parameter.

• Type int(x) to convert x to a plain integer.

• Type long(x) to convert x to a long integer.
• Type float(x) to convert x to a floating-point number.
• Type complex(x) to convert x to a complex number with real part x and imaginary
part zero.
• Type complex(x, y) to convert x and y to a complex number with real part x and
imaginary part y. x and y are numeric expressions.

Mathematical Functions
Python includes the following functions that perform mathematical calculations.

Function Returns ( Description )

abs(x) The absolute value of x: the (positive) distance between x and zero.
ceil(x) The ceiling of x: the smallest integer not less than x.
cmp(x, y) -1 if x < y, 0 if x == y, or 1 if x > y. Deprecated in Python 3;Instead
use return (x>y)-(x<y).
exp(x) The exponential of x: ex
fabs(x) The absolute value of x.
floor(x) The floor of x: the largest integer not greater than x.
log(x) The natural logarithm of x, for x> 0.
log10(x) The base-10 logarithm of x for x> 0.
max(x1, x2,...) The largest of its arguments: the value closest to positive infinity.
min(x1, x2,...) The smallest of its arguments: the value closest to negativeinfinity.
modf(x) The fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both parts have
the same sign as x. The integer part is returned as a float.
pow(x, y) The value of x**y.
round(x [,n]) x rounded to n digits from the decimal point. Python rounds awayfrom zero
as a tie-breaker: round(0.5) is 1.0 and round(-0.5) is -1.0.
sqrt(x) The square root of x for x > 0.
Let us learn about these functions in detail.
Number abs() Method
Description
The abs() method returns the absolute value of x i.e. the positive distance between x and
zero.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for abs() method-

abs( x )
Parameters
x - This is a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns the absolute value of x.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the abs() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
print ("abs(-45) : ", abs(-45))
print ("abs(100.12) : ", abs(100.12))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

abs(-45) : 45
abs(100.12) : 100.12

Number ceil() Method

Description
The ceil() method returns the ceiling value of x i.e. the smallest integer not less than x.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the ceil() method-

import math
math.ceil( x )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then
we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This is a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns the smallest integer not less than x.
Example
The following example shows the usage of the ceil() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math # This will import math module
print ("math.ceil(-45.17) : ", math.ceil(-45.17))
print ("math.ceil(100.12) : ", math.ceil(100.12))
print ("math.ceil(100.72) : ", math.ceil(100.72))
print ("math.ceil(math.pi) : ", math.ceil(math.pi))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

math.ceil(-45.17) : -45
math.ceil(100.12) : 101
math.ceil(100.72) : 101
math.ceil(math.pi) : 4

Number exp() Method

Description
The exp() method returns exponential of x: ex.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the exp() method-

import math
math.exp( x )
Note: This function is not accessible directly. Therefore, we need to import the math module
and then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
X - This is a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns exponential of x: ex.

Example
The following example shows the usage of exp() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math # This will import math module
print ("math.exp(-45.17) : ", math.exp(-45.17))
print ("math.exp(100.12) : ", math.exp(100.12))
print ("math.exp(100.72) : ", math.exp(100.72))
print ("math.exp(math.pi) : ", math.exp(math.pi))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

math.exp(-45.17) : 2.4150062132629406e-20
math.exp(100.12) : 3.0308436140742566e+43
math.exp(100.72) : 5.522557130248187e+43
math.exp(math.pi) : 23.140692632779267
Number fabs() Method
Description
The fabs() method returns the absolute value of x. Although similar to the abs() function,
there are differences between the two functions. They are-

• abs() is a built in function whereas fabs() is defined in math module.

• fabs() function works only on float and integer whereas abs() works with complex
number also.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the fabs() method-

import math
math.fabs( x )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This is a numeric value.

Return Value
This method returns the absolute value of x.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the fabs() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math # This will import math module
print ("math.fabs(-45.17) : ", math.fabs(-45.17))
print ("math.fabs(100.12) : ", math.fabs(100.12))
print ("math.fabs(100.72) : ", math.fabs(100.72))
print ("math.fabs(math.pi) : ", math.fabs(math.pi))
When we run the above program, it produces following result-

math.fabs(-45.17) : 45.17
math.fabs(100) : 100.0
math.fabs(100.72) : 100.72
math.fabs(math.pi) : 3.141592653589793
Number floor() Method
Description
The floor() method returns the floor of x i.e. the largest integer not greater than x.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the floor() method-

import math
math.floor( x )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This is a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns the largest integer not greater than x.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the floor() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math # This will import math module
print ("math.floor(-45.17) : ", math.floor(-45.17))
print ("math.floor(100.12) : ", math.floor(100.12))
print ("math.floor(100.72) : ", math.floor(100.72))
print ("math.floor(math.pi) : ", math.floor(math.pi))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

math.floor(-45.17) : -46
math.floor(100.12) : 100
math.floor(100.72) : 100
math.floor(math.pi) : 3

Number log() Method

Description
The log() method returns the natural logarithm of x, for x > 0.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the log() method-

import math
math.log( x )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This is a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns natural logarithm of x, for x > 0.
Example
The following example shows the usage of the log() method.
#!/usr/bin/python3
import math # This will import math module
print ("math.log(100.12) : ", math.log(100.12))
print ("math.log(100.72) : ", math.log(100.72))
print ("math.log(math.pi) : ", math.log(math.pi))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

math.log(100.12) : 4.6063694665635735
math.log(100.72) : 4.612344389736092
math.log(math.pi) : 1.1447298858494002

Number log10() Method

Description
The log10() method returns base-10 logarithm of x for x > 0.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for log10() method-

import math
math.log10( x )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This is a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns the base-10 logarithm of x for x > 0.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the log10() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math # This will import math module
print ("math.log10(100.12) : ", math.log10(100.12))
print ("math.log10(100.72) : ", math.log10(100.72))
print ("math.log10(119) : ", math.log10(119))
print ("math.log10(math.pi) : ", math.log10(math.pi))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

math.log10(100.12) : 2.0005208409361854
math.log10(100.72) : 2.003115717099806
math.log10(119) : 2.0755469613925306
math.log10(math.pi) : 0.49714987269413385
Number max() Method
Description
The max() method returns the largest of its arguments i.e. the value closest to positive
infinity.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for max() method-

max( x, y, z, )
Parameters
• x - This is a numeric expression.
• y - This is also a numeric expression.
• z - This is also a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns the largest of its arguments.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the max() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
print ("max(80, 100, 1000) : ", max(80, 100, 1000))
print ("max(-20, 100, 400) : ", max(-20, 100, 400))
print ("max(-80, -20, -10) : ", max(-80, -20, -10))
print ("max(0, 100, -400) : ", max(0, 100, -400))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

max(80, 100, 1000) : 1000

max(-20, 100, 400) : 400
max(-80, -20, -10) : -10
max(0, 100, -400) : 100
Number min() Method
Description
The method min() returns the smallest of its arguments i.e. the value closest to negative
infinity.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the min() method-

min( x, y, z,)

Parameters
• x - This is a numeric expression.
• y - This is also a numeric expression.
• z - This is also a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns the smallest of its arguments.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the min() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
print ("min(80, 100, 1000) : ", min(80, 100, 1000))
print ("min(-20, 100, 400) : ", min(-20, 100, 400))
print ("min(-80, -20, -10) : ", min(-80, -20, -10))
print ("min(0, 100, -400) : ", min(0, 100, -400))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

min(80, 100, 1000) : 80

min(-20, 100, 400) : -20
min(-80, -20, -10) : -80
min(0, 100, -400) : -400
Number modf() Method
Description
The modf() method returns the fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both
parts have the same sign as x. The integer part is returned as a float.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the modf() method-

import math math.modf( x )

Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This is a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns the fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both the parts
have the same sign as x. The integer part is returned as a float.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the modf() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math # This will import math module
print ("math.modf(100.12) : ", math.modf(100.12))
print ("math.modf(100.72) : ", math.modf(100.72))
print ("math.modf(119) : ", math.modf(119))
print ("math.modf(math.pi) : ", math.modf(math.pi))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-
 math.modf(100.12) : (0.12000000000000455, 100.0)
math.modf(100.72) : (0.7199999999999989, 100.0)
math.modf(119) : (0.0, 119.0)
math.modf(math.pi) : (0.14159265358979312, 3.0)

Number pow() Method

Return Value
This method returns the value of x,y.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the pow() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math # This will import math module
print ("math.pow(100, 2) : ", math.pow(100, 2))
print ("math.pow(100, -2) : ", math.pow(100, -2))
print ("math.pow(2, 4) : ", math.pow(2, 4))
print ("math.pow(3, 0) : ", math.pow(3, 0))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

math.pow(100, 2) : 10000.0
math.pow(100, -2) : 0.0001
math.pow(2, 4) : 16.0
math.pow(3, 0) : 1.0

Number round() Method

Description
round() is a built-in function in Python. It returns x rounded to n digits from the decimal
point.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the round() method-

round( x [, n] )
Parameters
• x - This is a numeric expression.
• n - Represents number of digits from decimal point up to which x is to be rounded.
Default is 0.

Return Value
This method returns x rounded to n digits from the decimal point.
Example
The following example shows the usage of round() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
print ("round(70.23456) : ", round(70.23456))
print ("round(56.659,1) : ", round(56.659,1))
print ("round(80.264, 2) : ", round(80.264, 2))
print ("round(100.000056, 3) : ", round(100.000056, 3))
print ("round(-100.000056, 3) : ", round(-100.000056, 3))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

round(70.23456) : 70
round(56.659,1) : 56.7
round(80.264, 2) : 80.26
round(100.000056, 3) : 100.0
round(-100.000056, 3) : -100.0

Number sqrt() Method

Description
The sqrt() method returns the square root of x for x > 0.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for sqrt() method-

import math
math.sqrt( x )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This is a numeric expression.

Return Value
This method returns square root of x for x > 0.

Example
The following example shows the usage of sqrt() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math # This will import math module
print ("math.sqrt(100) : ", math.sqrt(100))
print ("math.sqrt(7) : ", math.sqrt(7))
print ("math.sqrt(math.pi) : ", math.sqrt(math.pi))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

math.sqrt(100) : 10.0
math.sqrt(7) : 2.6457513110645907
math.sqrt(math.pi) : 1.7724538509055159
Random Number Functions
Random numbers are used for games, simulations, testing, security, and privacy
applications. Python includes the following functions that are commonly used.

Function Description
choice(seq) A random item from a list, tuple, or string.

randrange ([start,] stop [,step]) A randomly selected element from range(start,stop,

step).
random() A random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r and r
is less than 1.
seed([x]) Sets the integer starting value used in generating random
numbers. Call this function before calling any other
random module function. Returns None.
shuffle(lst) Randomizes the items of a list in place. Returns None.

uniform(x, y) A random float r, such that x is less than or equalto r and

r is less than y.
Number choice() Method
Description
The choice() method returns a random item from a list, tuple, or string.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for choice() method-

choice( seq )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the random module and
then we need to call this function using the random static object.

Parameters
seq - This could be a list, tuple, or string...

Return Value
This method returns a random item.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the choice() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3 import random

print ("returns a random number from range(100) : ",random.choice(range(100)))
print ("returns random element from list [1, 2, 3, 5, 9]) : ", random.choice([1,
2, 3, 5, 9]))
print("returns random character from string 'Hello World' : ",random.choice('Hello
World'))
When we run the above program, it produces a result similar to the following-
 returns a random number from range(100) : 19
returns random element from list [1, 2, 3, 5, 9]) : 9 returns random character from string
'Hello World' : r

Number randrange() Method

Description
The randrange() method returns a randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the randrange() method-

randrange ([start,] stop [,step])

Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the random module and
then we need to call this function using the random static object.

Parameters
• start - Start point of the range. This would be included in the range. Default is 0.
• stop - Stop point of the range. This would be excluded from the range.
• step - Value with which number is incremented. Default is 1.

Return Value
This method returns a random item from the given range.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the randrange() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3 import random

# randomly select an odd number between 1-100
print ("randrange(1,100, 2) : ", random.randrange(1, 100, 2)) # randomly select a
number between 0-99
print ("randrange(100) : ", random.randrange(100))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

randrange(1,100, 2) : 83
randrange (100): 93

Number random() Method

Description
The random() method returns a random floating point number in the range [0.0, 1.0].

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the random() method-

random ( )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the random module and
then we need to call this function using the random static object.
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a random float r, such that 0.0 <= r <= 1.0

Example
The following example shows the usage of the random() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3 import random

# First random number
print ("random() : ", random.random()) # Second random number
print ("random() : ", random.random())
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

random() : 0.281954791393
random() : 0.309090465205

Number seed() Method

Description
The seed() method initializes the basic random number generator. Call this function before
calling any other random module function.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the seed() method-

seed ([x], [y])

Note: This function initializes the basic random number generator.

Parameters
• x - This is the seed for the next random number. If omitted, then it takes system
time to generate the next random number. If x is an int, it is used directly.
• Y - This is version number (default is 2). str, byte or byte array object gets
converted in int. Version 1 used hash() of x.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the seed() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3 import random random.seed()

print ("random number with default seed", random.random()) random.seed(10)
print ("random number with int seed", random.random()) random.seed("hello",2)
print ("random number with string seed", random.random())
When we run above program, it produces following result-
 random number with default seed 0.2524977842762465
random number with int seed 0.5714025946899135
random number with string seed 0.3537754404730722

Number shuffle() Method

Description
The shuffle() method randomizes the items of a list in place.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the shuffle() method-

shuffle (lst,[random])
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the shuffle module and
then we need to call this function using the random static object.

Parameters
• lst - This could be a list or tuple.
• random - This is an optional 0 argument function returning float between 0.0 - 1.0.
Default is None.

Return Value
This method returns reshuffled list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the shuffle() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3 import random

list = [20, 16, 10, 5];
random.shuffle(list)
print ("Reshuffled list : ", list)
random.shuffle(list)
print ("Reshuffled list : ", list)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Reshuffled list : [16, 5, 10, 20]

Reshuffled list : [20, 5, 10, 16]

Number uniform() Method

Description
The uniform() method returns a random float r, such that x is less than or equal to r and r is
less than y.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the uniform() method-

uniform(x, y)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the uniform module and
then we need to call this function using the random static object.
Parameters
• x - Sets the lower limit of the random float.
• y - Sets the upper limit of the random float.

Return Value
This method returns a floating point number r such that x <=r < y.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the uniform() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3 import random

print ("Random Float uniform(5, 10) : ", random.uniform(5, 10))
print ("Random Float uniform(7, 14) : ", random.uniform(7, 14))
Let us run the above program. This will produce the following result-

Random Float uniform(5, 10) : 5.52615217015

Random Float uniform(7, 14) : 12.5326369199

Trigonometric Functions
Python includes the following functions that perform trigonometric calculations.

Function Description
acos(x) Return the arc cosine of x, in radians.

asin(x) Return the arc sine of x, in radians.

atan(x) Return the arc tangent of x, in radians.

atan2(y, x) Return atan(y / x), in radians.

cos(x) Return the cosine of x radians.

hypot(x, y) Return the Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y).

sin(x) Return the sine of x radians.

tan(x) Return the tangent of x radians.

degrees(x) Converts angle x from radians to degrees.

radians(x) Converts angle x from degrees to radians.

Number acos() Method

Description
The acos() method returns the arc cosine of x in radians.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for acos() method-

acos(x)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This must be a numeric value in the range -1 to 1. If x is greater than 1 then it will
generate 'math domain error'.

Return Value
This method returns arc cosine of x, in radians.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the acos() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math
print ("acos(0.64) : ", math.acos(0.64))
print ("acos(0) : ", math.acos(0))
print ("acos(-1) : ", math.acos(-1))
print ("acos(1) : ", math.acos(1))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

acos(0.64) : 0.876298061168
acos(0) : 1.57079632679
acos(-1) : 3.14159265359
acos(1) : 0.0
Number asin() Method
Description
The asin() method returns the arc sine of x (in radians).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for the asin() method-

asin(x)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function usingthe math static object.

Parameters
x - This must be a numeric value in the range -1 to 1. If x is greater than 1 then it will
generate 'math domain error'.

Return Value
This method returns arc sine of x, in radians.
Example
The following example shows the usage of the asin() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math
print ("asin(0.64) : ", math.asin(0.64))
print ("asin(0) : ", math.asin(0))
print ("asin(-1) : ", math.asin(-1))
print ("asin(1) : ", math.asin(1))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

asin(0.64) : 0.694498265627
asin(0) : 0.0
asin(-1) : -1.57079632679
asin(1) : 1.5707963267
Number atan() Method

Description
The atan() method returns the arc tangent of x, in radians.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for atan() method-

atan(x)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This must be a numeric value.

Return Value
This method returns arc tangent of x, in radians.

Example
The following example shows the usage of the atan() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math
print ("atan(0.64) : ", math.atan(0.64))
print ("atan(0) : ", math.atan(0))
print ("atan(10) : ", math.atan(10))
print ("atan(-1) : ", math.atan(-1))
print ("atan(1) : ", math.atan(1))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

atan(0.64) : 0.569313191101
atan(0) : 0.0
atan(10) : 1.4711276743
atan(-1) : -0.785398163397
 atan(1) : 0.785398163397
Number atan2() Method
Description
The atan2() method returns atan(y / x), in radians.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for atan2() method-

atan2(y, x)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
y - This must be a numeric value.

x - This must be a numeric value.

Return Value
This method returns atan(y / x), in radians.

Example
The following example shows the usage of atan2() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math
print ("atan2(-0.50,-0.50) : ", math.atan2(-0.50,-0.50))
print ("atan2(0.50,0.50) : ", math.atan2(0.50,0.50))
print ("atan2(5,5) : ", math.atan2(5,5))
print ("atan2(-10,10) : ", math.atan2(-10,10))
print ("atan2(10,20) : ", math.atan2(10,20))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

atan2(-0.50,-0.50) : -2.35619449019
atan2(0.50,0.50) : 0.785398163397
atan2(5,5) : 0.785398163397
atan2(-10,10) : -0.785398163397
atan2(10,20) : 0.463647609001

Number cos() Method

Description
The cos() method returns the cosine of x radians.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for cos() method-

cos(x)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.
Parameters
x - This must be a numeric value.

Return Value
This method returns a numeric value between -1 and 1, which represents the cosine of the
angle.

Example
The following example shows the usage of cos() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math
print ("cos(3) : ", math.cos(3))
print ("cos(-3) : ", math.cos(-3))
print ("cos(0) : ", math.cos(0))
print ("cos(math.pi) : ", math.cos(math.pi))
print ("cos(2*math.pi) : ", math.cos(2*math.pi))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

cos(3) : -0.9899924966
cos(-3) : -0.9899924966
cos(0) : 1.0
cos(math.pi) : -1.0
cos(2*math.pi) : 1.0

Number hypot() Method

Description
The method hypot() return the Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y). This is length of vector
from origin to point (x,y)

Syntax
Following is the syntax for hypot() method-

hypot(x, y)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then
we need to call this function using math static object.

Parameters
x - This must be a numeric value.
y - This must be a numeric value.
Return Value
This method returns Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y).

Example
The following example shows the usage of hypot() method.
 #!/usr/bin/python3
import math
print ("hypot(3, 2) : ", math.hypot(3, 2))
print ("hypot(-3, 3) : ", math.hypot(-3, 3))
print ("hypot(0, 2) : ", math.hypot(0, 2))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

hypot(3, 2) : 3.60555127546
hypot(-3, 3) : 4.24264068712
hypot(0, 2) : 2.0

Number sin() Method

Description
The sin() method returns the sine of x, in radians.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for sin() method-

sin(x)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This must be a numeric value.

Return Value
This method returns a numeric value between -1 and 1, which represents the sine of the
parameter x.

Example
The following example shows the usage of sin() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3 import math

print ("sin(3) : ", math.sin(3))
print ("sin(-3) : ", math.sin(-3))
print ("sin(0) : ", math.sin(0))
print ("sin(math.pi) : ", math.sin(math.pi))
print ("sin(math.pi/2) : ", math.sin(math.pi/2))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

sin(3) : 0.14112000806
sin(-3) : -0.14112000806
sin(0) : 0.0
sin(math.pi) : 1.22460635382e-16
sin(math.pi/2) : 1

Number tan() Method

Description
The tan() method returns the tangent of x radians.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for tan() method.

tan(x)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then
we need to call this function using math static object.

Parameters
x - This must be a numeric value.

Return Value
This method returns a numeric value between -1 and 1, which represents the tangent of the
parameter x.

Example
The following example shows the usage of tan() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math
print ("(tan(3) : ", math.tan(3))
print ("tan(-3) : ", math.tan(-3))
print ("tan(0) : ", math.tan(0))
print ("tan(math.pi) : ", math.tan(math.pi))
print ("tan(math.pi/2) : ", math.tan(math.pi/2))
print ("tan(math.pi/4) : ", math.tan(math.pi/4))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

print ("(tan(3) : ", math.tan(3))

print ("tan(-3) : ", math.tan(-3))
print ("tan(0) : ", math.tan(0))
print ("tan(math.pi) : ", math.tan(math.pi))
print ("tan(math.pi/2) : ", math.tan(math.pi/2))
print ("tan(math.pi/4) : ", math.tan(math.pi/4))

Number degrees() Method

Description
The degrees() method converts angle x from radians to degrees..

Syntax
Following is the syntax for degrees() method-

degrees(x)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This must be a numeric value.

Return Value
This method returns the degree value of an angle.

Example
The following example shows the usage of degrees() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math
print ("degrees(3) : ", math.degrees(3))
print ("degrees(-3) : ", math.degrees(-3))
print ("degrees(0) : ", math.degrees(0))
print ("degrees(math.pi) : ", math.degrees(math.pi))
print ("degrees(math.pi/2) : ", math.degrees(math.pi/2))
print ("degrees(math.pi/4) : ", math.degrees(math.pi/4))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

degrees(3) : 171.88733853924697
degrees(-3) : -171.88733853924697
degrees(0) : 0.0
degrees(math.pi) : 180.0
degrees(math.pi/2) : 90.0
degrees(math.pi/4) : 45.0

Number radians() Method

Description
The radians() method converts angle x from degrees to radians.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for radians() method-

radians(x)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import the math module and
then we need to call this function using the math static object.

Parameters
x - This must be a numeric value.

Return Value
This method returns radian value of an angle.
Example
The following example shows the usage of radians() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import math
print ("radians(3) : ", math.radians(3))
print ("radians(-3) : ", math.radians(-3))
print ("radians(0) : ", math.radians(0))
print ("radians(math.pi) : ", math.radians(math.pi))
print ("radians(math.pi/2) : ", math.radians(math.pi/2))
print ("radians(math.pi/4) : ", math.radians(math.pi/4))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

radians(3) : 0.0523598775598
radians(-3) : -0.0523598775598
radians(0) : 0.0
radians(math.pi) : 0.0548311355616
radians(math.pi/2) : 0.0274155677808
radians(math.pi/4) : 0.0137077838904
 9. Python 3 – Strings
Strings are amongst the most popular types in Python. We can create them simply by
enclosing characters in quotes. Python treats single quotes the same as double quotes.
Creating strings is as simple as assigning a value to a variable. For example-

var1 = 'Hello World!'

var2 = "Python Programming"
Accessing Values in Strings
Python does not support a character type; these are treated as strings of length one, thus
also considered a substring.

To access substrings, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to
obtain your substring. For example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
var1 = 'Hello World!'
var2 = "Python Programming"
print ("var1[0]: ", var1[0])
print ("var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5])
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

var1[0]: H
var2[1:5]: ytho
Updating Strings
You can "update" an existing string by (re)assigning a variable to another string. The new
value can be related to its previous value or to a completely different string altogether. For
example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
var1 = 'Hello World!'
print ("Updated String :- ", var1[:6] + 'Python')
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Updated String :- Hello Python

Escape Characters
Following table is a list of escape or non-printable characters that can be represented with
backslash notation.

An escape character gets interpreted; in a single quoted as well as double quoted strings.

Backslash Hexadecimal
Description
notation character
A 0x07 Bell or alert

b 0x08 Backspace

\cx Control-x

\C-x Control-x

\e 0x1b Escape

\f 0x0c Formfeed

\M-\C-x Meta-Control-x

\n 0x0a Newline

\nnn Octal notation, where n is in the range0.7

\r 0x0d Carriage return

\s 0x20 Space

\t 0x09 Tab
String Special Operators
Assume string variable a holds 'Hello' and variable b holds 'Python', then-

Operator Description Example

+ Concatenation - Adds values on either side of the a + b will give
operator HelloPython
* Repetition - Creates new strings, concatenating a*2 will give -
multiple copies of the same string HelloHello
[] Slice - Gives the character from the given index a[1] will give e

[:] Range Slice - Gives the characters from the given a[1:4] will give ell
range
in Membership - Returns true if a character exists in H in a will give 1
the given string
not in Membership - Returns true if a character does not M not in a will give
exist in the given string 1
r/R Raw String - Suppresses actual meaning of Escape print r'\n' prints \n
characters. The syntax for raw strings is exactly the and print
same as for normal strings with the exception of the R'\n'prints \n
raw string operator, the letter "r," which precedes
the quotation marks. The "r" can be lowercase (r) or
uppercase (R) and must be placed immediately
preceding the first quote mark.
String Formatting Operator
One of Python's coolest features is the string format operator %. This operator is unique to
strings and makes up for the pack of having functions from C's printf() family. Following is a
simple example −

#!/usr/bin/python3
print ("My name is %s and weight is %d kg!" % ('Zara', 21))
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

My name is Zara and weight is 21 kg!

Here is the list of complete set of symbols which can be used along with %-

Format Symbol Conversion

%c character

%s string conversion via str() prior to formatting

%i signed decimal integer

%d signed decimal integer

%u unsigned decimal integer

%o octal integer

%x hexadecimal integer (lowercase letters)

%X hexadecimal integer (UPPERcase letters)

%e exponential notation (with lowercase 'e')

%E exponential notation (with UPPERcase 'E')

%f floating point real number

%g the shorter of %f and %e

%G the shorter of %f and %E

Other supported symbols and functionality are listed in the following table-

Symbol Functionality
* argument specifies width or precision

- left justification

+ display the sign

<sp> leave a blank space before a positive number

# add the octal leading zero ( '0' ) or hexadecimal leading '0x'

or '0X', depending on whether 'x' or 'X' were used.
0 pad from left with zeros (instead of spaces)

% '%%' leaves you with a single literal '%'

(var) mapping variable (dictionary arguments)

m.n. m is the minimum total width and n is the number of digits

to display after the decimal point (if appl.)
Triple Quotes
Python's triple quotes comes to the rescue by allowing strings to span multiple lines,
including verbatim NEWLINEs, TABs, and any other special characters.

The syntax for triple quotes consists of three consecutive single or double quotes.

#!/usr/bin/python3
para_str = """this is a long string that is made up of several lines and non-printable
characters such as
TAB ( \t ) and they will show up that way when displayed. NEWLINEs within the string,
whether explicitly given like this within the brackets [ \n ], or just a NEWLINE within the
variable assignment will also show up.
"""
print (para_str)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result. Note how every single
special character has been converted to its printed form, right down to the last NEWLINE at
the end of the string between the "up." and closing triple quotes. Also note that NEWLINEs
occur either with an explicit carriage return at the end of a line or its escape code (\n) −

this is a long string that is made up of

several lines and non-printable characters such as
TAB ( ) and they will show up that way when displayed. NEWLINEs within the string,
whether explicitly given like this within the brackets [
], or just a NEWLINE within
the variable assignment will also show up.
Raw strings do not treat the backslash as a special character at all. Every character you put
into a raw string stays the way you wrote it-

#!/usr/bin/python3
print ('C:\\nowhere')
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

C:\nowhere
Now let us make use of raw string. We would put expression in r'expression' as follows-

print (r'C:\\nowhere')
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

C:\\nowhere

Unicode String
In Python 3, all strings are represented in Unicode. In Python 2 are stored internally as 8-
bit ASCII, hence it is required to attach 'u' to make it Unicode. It is no longer necessary
now.
Built-in String Methods
Python includes the following built-in methods to manipulate strings-

No. Methods with Description

1 capitalize()
Capitalizes first letter of string
center(width, fillchar)
2
Returns a string padded with fillchar with the original string centered to a totalof width columns.
count(str, beg= 0,end=len(string))
3 Counts how many times str occurs in string or in a substring of string if startingindex beg and
ending index end are given.
decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')
4
Decodes the string using the codec registered for encoding. encoding defaultsto the default
string encoding.
encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')
5
Returns encoded string version of string; on error, default is to raise aValueError
unless errors is given with 'ignore' or 'replace'.
endswith(suffix, beg=0, end=len(string))
6 Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and endingindex end are
given) ends with suffix; returns true if so and false otherwise.
expandtabs(tabsize=8)
7
Expands tabs in string to multiple spaces; defaults to 8 spaces per tab if tabsizenot provided.
find(str, beg=0 end=len(string))
8
Determine if str occurs in string or in a substring of string if starting index begand ending index
end are given returns index if found and -1 otherwise.
index(str, beg=0, end=len(string))
9
Same as find(), but raises an exception if str not found.

isalnum()
10
Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters arealphanumeric and false
otherwise.

isalpha()
11
Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters are alphabeticand false
otherwise.

isdigit()
12
Returns true if the string contains only digits and false otherwise.

islower()
13
Returns true if string has at least 1 cased character and all cased charactersare in lowercase
and false otherwise.
 isnumeric()
14
Returns true if a unicode string contains only numeric characters and falseotherwise.

isspace()
15
Returns true if string contains only whitespace characters and false otherwise.
istitle()
16
Returns true if string is properly "titlecased" and false otherwise.

isupper()
17
Returns true if string has at least one cased character and all cased charactersare in uppercase
and false otherwise.

join(seq)
18
Merges (concatenates) the string representations of elements in sequence seqinto a string, with
separator string.

len(string)
19
Returns the length of the string

ljust(width[, fillchar])
20
Returns a space-padded string with the original string left-justified to a totalof width
columns.

lower()
21
Converts all uppercase letters in string to lowercase.

lstrip()
22
Removes all leading whitespace in string.

maketrans()
23
Returns a translation table to be used in translate function.

max(str)
24
Returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.
min(str)
25
Returns the min alphabetical character from the string str.

replace(old, new [, max])

26
Replaces all occurrences of old in string with new or at most max occurrencesif max given.

27 rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
Same as find(), but search backwards in string.

28 rindex( str, beg=0, end=len(string))

Same as index(), but search backwards in string.
 rjust(width,[, fillchar])
29
Returns a space-padded string with the original string right-justified to a totalof width columns.

rstrip()
30
Removes all trailing whitespace of string.

split(str="", num=string.count(str))
31
Splits string according to delimiter str (space if not provided) and returns listof substrings;
split into at most num substrings if given.

splitlines( num=string.count('\n'))
32
Splits string at all (or num) NEWLINEs and returns a list of each line withNEWLINEs
removed.

startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
33
Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and ending index end are
given) starts with substring str; returns true if so and false otherwise.
strip([chars])
34
Performs both lstrip() and rstrip() on string

swapcase()
35
Inverts case for all letters in string.

title()
36
Returns "titlecased" version of string, that is, all words begin with uppercaseand the rest are
lowercase.

translate(table, deletechars="")
37
Translates string according to translation table str(256 chars), removing thosein the del string.

upper()
38
Converts lowercase letters in string to uppercase.

zfill (width)
39
Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a total of width characters;intended for
numbers, zfill() retains any sign given (less one zero).
isdecimal()
40
Returns true if a unicode string contains only decimal characters and falseotherwise.

String capitalize() Method

It returns a copy of the string with only its first character capitalized.

Syntax
str.capitalize()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
string

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print ("str.capitalize() : ", str.capitalize())

Result
str.capitalize() : This is string example. wow!!!

String center() Method

The method center() returns centered in a string of length width. Padding is done using the
specified fillchar. Default filler is a space.

Syntax
str.center(width[, fillchar])
Parameters
• width - This is the total width of the string.
• fillchar - This is the filler character.

Return Value
This method returns a string that is at least width characters wide, created by padding the
string with the character fillchar (default is a space).

Example
The following example shows the usage of the center() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print ("str.center(40, 'a') : ", str.center(40, 'a'))
Result
str.center(40, 'a') : aaaathis is string example. wow!!!aaaa
String count() Method
Description
The count() method returns the number of occurrences of substring sub in the range [start,
end]. Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation.

Syntax
str.count(sub, start= 0,end=len(string))
Parameters
• sub - This is the substring to be searched.
• start - Search starts from this index. First character starts from 0 index. By default
search starts from 0 index.
• end - Search ends from this index. First character starts from 0 index. By default
search ends at the last index.

Return Value
Centered in a string of length width.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
str="this is string example. wow!!!"
sub='i'
print ("str.count('i') : ", str.count(sub)) sub='exam'
print ("str.count('exam', 10, 40) : ", str.count(sub,10,40))
Result
str.count('i') : 3
str.count('exam', 4, 40) :
String decode() Method
Description
The decode() method decodes the string using the codec registered for encoding. It defaults
to the default string encoding.

Syntax
Str.decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')
Parameters
• encoding - This is the encodings to be used. For a list of all encoding schemes please
visit: Standard Encodings.
• errors - This may be given to set a different error handling scheme. The default for
errors is 'strict', meaning that encoding errors raise a UnicodeError. Other possible
values are 'ignore', 'replace', 'xmlcharrefreplace', 'backslashreplace' and any other
name registered via codecs.register_error()..

Return Value
Decoded string.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
Str = "this is string example. wow!!!";
Str = Str.encode('base64','strict'); print "Encoded String: " + Str
print "Decoded String: " + Str.decode('base64','strict')
Result
Encoded String: b'dGhpcyBpcyBzdHJpbmcgZXhhbXBsZS4uLi53b3chISE=' Decoded String:
this is string example. wow!!!

String encode() Method

Description
The encode() method returns an encoded version of the string. Default encoding is the
current default string encoding. The errors may be given to set a different error handling
scheme.

Syntax
str.encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')
Parameters
• encoding - This is the encodings to be used. For a list of all encoding schemes please
visit: Standard Encodings.
• errors - This may be given to set a different error handling scheme. The default for
errors is 'strict', meaning that encoding errors raise a UnicodeError. Other possible
values are 'ignore', 'replace', 'xmlcharrefreplace', 'backslashreplace' and any other
name registered via codecs.register_error().

Return Value
Decoded string.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import base64
Str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
Str=base64.b64encode(Str.encode('utf-8',errors='strict')) print ("Encoded String: " , Str)
Result
Encoded String: b'dGhpcyBpcyBzdHJpbmcgZXhhbXBsZS4uLi53b3chISE='
String endswith() Method
Description
It returns True if the string ends with the specified suffix, otherwise return False optionally
restricting the matching with the given indices start and end.

Syntax
str.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])
Parameters
• suffix - This could be a string or could also be a tuple of suffixes to look for.
• start - The slice begins from here.
• end - The slice ends here.
Return Value
TRUE if the string ends with the specified suffix, otherwise FALSE.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
Str='this is string example wow!!!'
suffix='!!'
print (Str.endswith(suffix)) print (Str.endswith(suffix,20)) suffix='exam'
print (Str.endswith(suffix))
print (Str.endswith(suffix, 0, 19))
Result
True True False True
String expandtabs() Method
Description
The expandtabs() method returns a copy of the string in which the tab characters ie. '\t' are
expanded using spaces, optionally using the given tabsize (default 8)..

Syntax
str.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
Parameters
tabsize - This specifies the number of characters to be replaced for a tab character '\t'.

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which tab characters i.e., '\t' have been
expanded using spaces.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is\tstring example wow!!!"
print ("Original string: " + str)
print ("Defualt exapanded tab: " + str.expandtabs())
print ("Double exapanded tab: " + str.expandtabs(16))
Result
Original string: this is string example. wow!!!
Defualt exapanded tab: this is string examplewow!!!
Double exapanded tab: this is string example wow!!!

String find() Method

Description
The find() method determines if the string str occurs in string, or in a substring of string if
the starting index beg and ending index end are given.
Syntax
str.find(str, beg=0 end=len(string))
Parameters
• str - This specifies the string to be searched.
• beg - This is the starting index, by default its 0.
• end - This is the ending index, by default its equal to the lenght of the string.

Return Value
Index if found and -1 otherwise.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
str1 = "this is string example wow!!!"
str2 = "exam";
print (str1.find(str2)) print (str1.find(str2, 10))
print (str1.find(str2, 40))
Result
15
15
-1
String index() Method
Description
The index() method determines if the string str occurs in string or in a substring of string, if
the starting index beg and ending index end are given. This method is same as find(), but
raises an exception if sub is not found.

Syntax
str.index(str, beg=0 end=len(string))
Parameters
• str - This specifies the string to be searched.
• beg - This is the starting index, by default its 0.
• end - This is the ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string.

Return Value
Index if found otherwise raises an exception if str is not found.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
str1 = "this is string example wow!!!"
str2 = "exam";
print (str1.index(str2)) print (str1.index(str2, 10))
print (str1.index(str2, 40))
Result
15
 15
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 7, in print (str1.index(str2, 40))
ValueError: substring not found
shell returned 1
String isalnum() Method
Description
The isalnum() method checks whether the string consists of alphanumeric characters.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isalnum() method-

str.isa1num()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all the characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at
least one character, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isalnum() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this2016" # No space in this string print (str.isalnum())
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.isalnum())
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

True False
String isalpha() Method
Description
The isalpha() method checks whether the string consists of alphabetic characters only.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for islpha() method-

str.isalpha()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all the characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at
least one character, false otherwise.
Example
The following example shows the usage of isalpha() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this"; # No space & digit in this string
print (str.isalpha())
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.isalpha())
Result
True False
String isdigit() Method
Description
The method isdigit() checks whether the string consists of digits only.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isdigit() method-

str.isdigit()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one
character, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isdigit() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "123456"; # Only digit in this string
print (str.isdigit())
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.isdigit())
Result
True False
String islower() Method
Description
The islower() method checks whether all the case-based characters (letters) of the string
are lowercase.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for islower() method-

str.islower()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there is at
least one cased character, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of islower() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "THIS is string example wow!!!"
print (str.islower())
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.islower())
Result
False True
String isnumeric() Method
Description
The isnumeric() method checks whether the string consists of only numeric characters. This
method is present only on unicode objects.

Note: Unlike Python 2, all strings are represented in Unicode in Python 3. Given below is an
example illustrating it.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isnumeric() method-

str.isnumeric()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all characters in the string are numeric, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isnumeric() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this2016"
print (str.isnumeric())
str = "23443434"
print (str.isnumeric())
Result
False True
String isspace() Method
Description
The isspace() method checks whether the string consists of whitespace..

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isspace() method-

str.isspace()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if there are only whitespace characters in the string and there is at
least one character, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isspace() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = " " print (str.isspace())
str = "This is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.isspace())
Result
True False
String istitle() Method
Description
The istitle() method checks whether all the case-based characters in the string following
non-casebased letters are uppercase and all other case-based characters are lowercase.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for istitle() method-

str.istitle()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if the string is a titlecased string and there is at least one
character, for example uppercase characters may only follow uncased characters and
lowercase characters only cased ones. It returns false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of istitle() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
 str = "This Is String Example...Wow!!!" print (str.istitle())
str = "This is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.istitle())
Result
True False
String isupper() Method
Description
The isupper() method checks whether all the case-based characters (letters) of the string
are uppercase.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isupper() method-

str.isupper()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all the cased characters in the string are uppercase and there is
at least one cased character, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isupper() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE. WOW!!!"
print (str.isupper())
str = "THIS is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.isupper())
Result
True False
String join() Method
Description
The join() method returns a string in which the string elements of sequence have been
joined by str separator.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for join() method-

str.join(sequence)
Parameters
sequence - This is a sequence of the elements to be joined.

Return Value
This method returns a string, which is the concatenation of the strings in the sequence

seq. The separator between elements is the string providing this method.

Example
The following example shows the usage of join() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
s = "-"
seq = ("a", "b", "c") # This is sequence of strings.
print (s.join( seq ))
Result
a-b-c
String len() Method
Description
The len() method returns the length of the string.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for len() method −

len( str )
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the length of the string.

Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print ("Length of the string: ", len(str))
Result
Length of the string: 32
String ljust() Method
Description
The method ljust() returns the string left justified in a string of length width. Padding is
done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if width
is less than len(s).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for ljust() method −

str.ljust(width[, fillchar])
Parameters
• width - This is string length in total after padding.
• fillchar - This is filler character, default is a space.

Return Value
This method returns the string left justified in a string of length width. Padding is done using
the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if width is less than
len(s).

Example
The following example shows the usage of ljust() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print str.ljust(50, '*')
Result
this is string examplewow!!!******************
String lower() Method
Description
The method lower() returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have
been lowercased.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for lower() method −

str.lower()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have been
lowercased.

Example
The following example shows the usage of lower() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE. WOW!!!"
print (str.lower())
Result
this is string examplewow!!!
String lstrip() Method
Description
The lstrip() method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from
the beginning of the string (default whitespace characters).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for lstrip() method-

str.lstrip([chars])
Parameters
chars - You can supply what chars have to be trimmed.

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the
beginning of the string (default whitespace characters).

Example
The following example shows the usage of lstrip() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = " this is string examplewow!!!"
print (str.lstrip())
str = "*****this is string example. wow!!!*****"
print (str.lstrip('*'))
Result
this is string examplewow!!!
this is string examplewow!!!*****
String maketrans() Method
Description
The maketrans() method returns a translation table that maps each character in the
intabstring into the character at the same position in the outtab string. Then this table is
passed to the translate() function.

Note: Both intab and outtab must have the same length.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for maketrans() method-

str.maketrans(intab, outtab]);
Parameters
• intab - This is the string having actual characters.
• outtab - This is the string having corresponding mapping character.

Return Value
This method returns a translate table to be used translate() function.
Example
The following example shows the usage of maketrans() method. Under this, every vowel in
a string is replaced by its vowel position −

#!/usr/bin/python3
intab = "aeiou"
outtab = "12345"
trantab = str.maketrans(intab, outtab) str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.translate(trantab))
Result
th3s 3s str3ng 2x1mpl2 w4w!!!

String max() Method

Description
The max() method returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for max() method-

max(str)
Parameters
str - This is the string from which max alphabetical character needs to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.

Example
The following example shows the usage of max() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is a string example. really!!!"
print ("Max character: " + max(str))
str = "this is a string example. wow!!!"
print ("Max character: " + max(str))
Result

Max character: y
Max character: x
String min() Method
Description
The min() method returns the min alphabetical character from the string str.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for min() method-

min(str)
Parameters
str - This is the string from which min alphabetical character needs to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.

Example
The following example shows the usage of min() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "www.helloworld.com"
print ("Min character: " + min(str))
str = "TUTORIALSPOINT"
print ("Min character: " + min(str))
Result
Min character: .
Min character: A
String replace() Method
Description
The replace() method returns a copy of the string in which the occurrences of old have been
replaced with new, optionally restricting the number of replacements to max.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for replace() method-

str.replace(old, new[, max])

Parameters
• old - This is old substring to be replaced.
• new - This is new substring, which would replace old substring.
• max - If this optional argument max is given, only the first count occurrences are
replaced.

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by
new. If the optional argument max is given, only the first count occurrences are replaced.

Example
The following example shows the usage of replace() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example....wow!!! this is really string"
print (str.replace("is", "was"))
print (str.replace("is", "was", 3))
Result

thwas was string example....wow!!! thwas was really string

thwas was string example....wow!!! thwas is really string
String rfind() Method
Description
The rfind() method returns the last index where the substring str is found, or -1 if no such
index exists, optionally restricting the search to string[beg:end].

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rfind() method-

str.rfind(str, beg=0 end=len(string))

Parameters
• str - This specifies the string to be searched.
• beg - This is the starting index, by default its 0.
• end - This is the ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string.

Return Value
This method returns last index if found and -1 otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of rfind() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str1 = "this is really a string example wow!!!"
str2 = "is"
print (str1.rfind(str2))
print (str1.rfind(str2, 0, 10))
print (str1.rfind(str2, 10, 0))
print (str1.find(str2))
print (str1.find(str2, 0, 10))
print (str1.find(str2, 10, 0))
Result
5
5
-1
2
2
-1
String rindex() Method
Description
The rindex() method returns the last index where the substring str is found, or raises an
exception if no such index exists, optionally restricting the search to string[beg:end].

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rindex() method-

str.rindex(str, beg=0 end=len(string))

Parameters
 • str - This specifies the string to be searched.
• beg - This is the starting index, by default its 0.
• len - This is ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string.

Return Value
This method returns last index if found otherwise raises an exception if str is not found.

Example
The following example shows the usage of rindex() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str1 = "this is really a string example. wow!!!"
str2 = "is"
print (str1.rindex(str2)) print (str1.rindex(str2,10))
Result
5
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 5, in print (str1.rindex(str2,10))
ValueError: substring not found
String rjust() Method
Description
The rjust() method returns the string right justified in a string of length width. Padding is
done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if width
is less than len(s).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rjust() method-

str.rjust(width[, fillchar])
Parameters
• width - This is the string length in total after padding.
• fillchar - This is the filler character, default is a space.

Return Value
This method returns the string right justified in a string of length width. Padding is done
using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if the width is
less than len(s).

Example
The following example shows the usage of rjust() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.rjust(50, '*'))
Result
******************this is string example wow!!!

String rstrip() Method

Description
The rstrip() method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from
the end of the string (default whitespace characters).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rstrip() method-

str.rstrip([chars])
Parameters
chars - You can supply what chars have to be trimmed.

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the end
of the string (default whitespace characters).

Example
The following example shows the usage of rstrip() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = " this is string example....wow!!! " print (str.rstrip())
str = "*****this is string example. wow!!!*****"
print (str.rstrip('*'))
Result

this is string examplewow!!!

*****this is string example. wow!!!
String split() Method
Description
The split() method returns a list of all the words in the string, using str as the separator
(splits on all whitespace if left unspecified), optionally limiting the number of splits to num.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for split() method-

str.split(str="", num=string.count(str)).
Parameters
• str - This is any delimeter, by default it is space.
• num - this is number of lines to be made

Return Value
This method returns a list of lines.
Example
The following example shows the usage of split() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.split( )) print (str.split('i',1))
print (str.split('w'))
Result
['this', 'is', 'string', 'example. wow!!!']
['th', 's is string example. wow!!!']
['this is string example....', 'o', '!!!']
String splitlines() Method
Description
The splitlines() method returns a list with all the lines in string, optionally including the line
breaks (if num is supplied and is true).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for splitlines() method-

str.splitlines( num=string.count('\n'))
Parameters
num - This is any number, if present then it would be assumed that the line breaks need to
be included in the lines.

Return Value
This method returns true if found matching with the string otherwise false.

Example
The following example shows the usage of splitlines() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is \nstring example \nwow!!!"
print (str.splitlines( ))
Result
['this is ', 'string example....', 'wow!!!']
String startswith() Method
Description
The startswith() method checks whether the string starts with str, optionally restricting the
matching with the given indices start and end.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for startswith() method-

str.startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string));
Parameters
• str - This is the string to be checked.
• beg - This is the optional parameter to set start index of the matching boundary.
• end - This is the optional parameter to set start index of the matching boundary.

Return Value
This method returns true if found matching with the string otherwise false.

Example
The following example shows the usage of startswith() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.startswith( 'this' ))
print (str.startswith( 'string', 8 ))
print (str.startswith( 'this', 2, 4 ))
Result
True True False
String strip() Method
Description
The strip() method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from
the beginning and the end of the string (default whitespace characters).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for strip() method −

str.strip([chars]);
Parameters
chars - The characters to be removed from beginning or end of the string.

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all the chars have been stripped from the
beginning and the end of the string.

Example
The following example shows the usage of strip() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "*****this is string example wow!!!*****"
print (str.strip( '*' ))
Result
this is string examplewow!!!
String swapcase() Method
Description
The swapcase() method returns a copy of the string in which all the case-based characters
have had their case swapped.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for swapcase() method-

str.swapcase();
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all the case-based characters have had
their case swapped.

Example
The following example shows the usage of swapcase() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.swapcase())
str = "This Is String Example. WOW!!!"
print (str.swapcase())

Result
THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE WOW!!!
tHIS iS sTRING eXAMPLE wow!!!
String title() Method
Description
The title() method returns a copy of the string in which first characters of all the words are
capitalized.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for title() method-

str.title();
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which first characters of all the words are
capitalized.
Example
The following example shows the usage of title() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print (str.title())
Result
This Is String Example Wow!!!
String translate() Method
Description
The method translate() returns a copy of the string in which all the characters have been
translated using table (constructed with the maketrans() function in the string module),
optionally deleting all characters found in the string deletechars.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for translate() method-

str.translate(table[, deletechars]);
Parameters
• table - You can use the maketrans() helper function in the string module to create a
translation table.
• deletechars - The list of characters to be removed from the source string.

Return Value
This method returns a translated copy of the string.

Example
The following example shows the usage of translate() method. Under this, every vowel in a
string is replaced by its vowel position.

#!/usr/bin/python3
from string import maketrans # Required to call maketrans function.
intab = "aeiou"
outtab = "12345"
trantab = maketrans(intab, outtab)
str = "this is string example. wow!!!";
print (str.translate(trantab))
Result
th3s 3s str3ng 2x1mpl2 w4w!!!
Following is the example to delete 'x' and 'm' characters from the string-

#!/usr/bin/python3
from string import maketrans # Required to call maketrans function.
intab = "aeiouxm"
outtab = "1234512"
trantab = maketrans(intab, outtab)
str = "this is string example. wow!!!";
 print (str.translate(trantab))
Result
th3s 3s str3ng 21pl2.w4w!!!
String upper() Method
Description
The upper() method returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have
been uppercased.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for upper() method −

str.upper()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have been
uppercased.

Example
The following example shows the usage of upper() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print ("str.upper : ",str.upper())
Result
str.upper : THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE WOW!!!
String zfill() Method
Description
The zfill() method pads string on the left with zeros to fill width.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for zfill() method-

str.zfill(width)
Parameters
width - This is final width of the string. This is the width which we would get after filling
zeros.

Return Value
This method returns padded string.
Example
The following example shows the usage of zfill() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this is string example. wow!!!"
print ("str.zfill : ",str.zfill(40))
print ("str.zfill : ",str.zfill(50))
Result

str.zfill : 00000000this is string example. wow!!!

str.zfill : 000000000000000000this is string example. wow!!!

String isdecimal() Method

Description
The isdecimal() method checks whether the string consists of only decimal characters. This
method are present only on unicode objects.

Note: Unlike in Python 2, all strings are represented as Unicode in Python 3. Given Below is
an example illustrating it.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isdecimal() method-

str.isdecimal()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all the characters in the string are decimal, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isdecimal() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
str = "this2016"
print (str.isdecimal())
str = "23443434"
print (str.isdecimal())
Result
False True
 10. Python 3 – Lists
The most basic data structure in Python is the sequence. Each element of a sequence is
assigned a number - its position or index. The first index is zero, the second index is one,
and so forth.

Python has six built-in types of sequences, but the most common ones are lists and tuples,
which we would see in this tutorial.

There are certain things you can do with all the sequence types. These operations include
indexing, slicing, adding, multiplying, and checking for membership. In addition, Python has
built-in functions for finding the length of a sequence and for finding its largest and smallest
elements.

Python Lists
The list is the most versatile datatype available in Python, which can be written as a list of
comma-separated values (items) between square brackets. Important thing about a list is
that the items in a list need not be of the same type.

Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values between square

brackets. For example-

list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
list3 = ["a", "b", "c", "d"];
Similar to string indices, list indices start at 0, and lists can be sliced, concatenated and so
on.

Accessing Values in Lists

To access values in lists, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices
to obtain value available at that index. For example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]
list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ]
print ("list1[0]: ", list1[0])
print ("list2[1:5]: ", list2[1:5])
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

list1[0]: physics list2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5]

Updating Lists
You can update single or multiple elements of lists by giving the slice on the left-hand side
of the assignment operator, and you can add to elements in a list with the append()
method. For example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
list = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000] print ("Value available at index 2 : ", list[2])
list[2] = 2001
print ("New value available at index 2 : ", list[2])
Note: The append() method is discussed in the subsequent section. When the above code is
executed, it produces the following result −

Value available at index 2 :

 1997
New value available at index 2 :
2001
Delete List Elements
To remove a list element, you can use either the del statement if you know exactly which
element(s) you are deleting. You can use the remove() method if you do not know exactly
which items to delete. For example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
list = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000] print (list)
del list[2]
print ("After deleting value at index 2 : ", list)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]

After deleting value at index 2 : ['physics', 'chemistry', 2000]
Note: remove() method is discussed in subsequent section.

Basic List Operations

Lists respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation and
repetition here too, except that the result is a new list, not a string.

In fact, lists respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in the
prior chapter.

Python Expression Results Description

len([1, 2, 3]) 3 Length

[1, 2, 3] + [4, 5, 6] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] Concatenation

['Hi!'] * 4 ['Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!'] Repetition

3 in [1, 2, 3] True Membership

for x in [1,2,3] : print (x,end='') 1 2 3 Iteration

Indexing, Slicing and Matrixes

Since lists are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for lists as they do for
strings.

Assuming the following input-

L=['C++'', 'Java', 'Python']

Python Expression Results Description

L[2] 'Python' Offsets start at zero
L[-2] 'Java' Negative: count from the
right
L[1:] ['Java', 'Python'] Slicing fetches sections
Built-in List Functions & Methods
Python includes the following list functions-

SN Function with Description

1 cmp(list1, list2)
No longer available in Python 3.
2 len(list)
Gives the total length of the list.
3 max(list)
Returns item from the list with max value.

4 min(list)
Returns item from the list with min value.

5 list(seq)
Converts a tuple into list.

Let us understand the use of these functions.

List len() Method

Description
The len() method returns the number of elements in the list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for len() method-

len(list)
Parameters
list - This is a list for which, number of elements are to be counted.

Return Value
This method returns the number of elements in the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 'maths'] print (len(list1))
list2=list(range(5)) #creates list of numbers between 0-4
print (len(list2))
When we run above program, it produces following result-

3
5
List max() Method
Description
The max() method returns the elements from the list with maximum value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for max() method-

max(list)
Parameters
list - This is a list from which max valued element are to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the elements from the list with maximum value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of max() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1, list2 = ['C++','Java', 'Python'], [456, 700, 200]
print ("Max value element : ", max(list1))
print ("Max value element : ", max(list2))
When we run above program, it produces following result-

Max value element : Python

Max value element : 700
List min() Method
Description
The method min() returns the elements from the list with minimum value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for min() method-

min(list)
Parameters
list - This is a list from which min valued element is to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the elements from the list with minimum value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of min() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1, list2 = ['C++','Java', 'Python'], [456, 700, 200]
print ("min value element : ", min(list1))
print ("min value element : ", min(list2))
When we run above program, it produces following result-

min value element : C++

min value element : 200
List list() Method
Description
The list() method takes sequence types and converts them to lists. This is used to convert a
given tuple into list.

Note: Tuple are very similar to lists with only difference that element values of a tuple can
not be changed and tuple elements are put between parentheses instead of square bracket.
This function also converts characters in a string into a list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for list() method-

list( seq )
Parameters
seq - This is a tuple or string to be converted into list.

Return Value
This method returns the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of list() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
aTuple = (123, 'C++', 'Java', 'Python')
list1 = list(aTuple)
print ("List elements : ", list1)
str="Hello World"
list2=list(str)
print ("List elements : ", list2)
When we run above program, it produces following result-

List elements : [123, 'C++', 'Java', 'Python']

List elements : ['H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'W', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']
Python includes the following list methods-

SN Methods with Description

list.append(obj)
1
Appends object obj to list
list.count(obj)
2
Returns count of how many times obj occurs in list
list.extend(seq)
3
Appends the contents of seq to list
list.index(obj)
4
Returns the lowest index in list that obj appears
list.insert(index, obj)
5
Inserts object obj into list at offset index
list.pop(obj=list[-1])
6
Removes and returns last object or obj from list
list.remove(obj)
7 Removes object obj from list

list.reverse()
8 Reverses objects of list in place

list.sort([func])
9 Sorts objects of list, use compare func if given

List append() Method

Description
The append() method appends a passed obj into the existing list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for append() method-

list.append(obj)
Parameters
obj - This is the object to be appended in the list.

Return Value
This method does not return any value but updates existing list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of append() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['C++', 'Java', 'Python']
list1.append('C#')
print ("updated list : ", list1)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

updated list : ['C++', 'Java', 'Python', 'C#']

List count() Method
Description
The count() method returns count of how many times obj occurs in list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for count() method-

list.count(obj)
Parameters
obj - This is the object to be counted in the list.

Return Value
This method returns count of how many times obj occurs in list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of count() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 123];
print ("Count for 123 : ", aList.count(123))
print ("Count for zara : ", aList.count('zara'))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Count for 123 : 2

Count for zara : 1
List extend() Method
Description
The extend() method appends the contents of seq to list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for extend() method-

list.extend(seq)
Parameters
seq - This is the list of elements
Return Value
This method does not return any value but adds the content to an existing list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of extend() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 'maths']
list2=list(range(5)) #creates list of numbers between 0-4
list1.extend('Extended List :', list2)
print (list1)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Extended List : ['physics', 'chemistry', 'maths', 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

List index() Method
Description
The index() method returns the lowest index in list that obj appears.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for index() method-

list.index(obj)
Parameters
obj - This is the object to be find out.

Return Value
This method returns index of the found object otherwise raises an exception indicating that
the value is not found.

Example
The following example shows the usage of index() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 'maths']
print ('Index of chemistry', list1.index('chemistry'))
print ('Index of C#', list1.index('C#'))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Index of chemistry 1
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 3, in
print ('Index of C#', list1.index('C#'))
ValueError: 'C#' is not in list
List insert() Method
Description
The insert() method inserts object obj into list at offset index.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for insert() method-

list.insert(index, obj)
Parameters
• index - This is the Index where the object obj need to be inserted.
• obj - This is the Object to be inserted into the given list.

Return Value
This method does not return any value but it inserts the given element at the given index.

Example
The following example shows the usage of insert() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 'maths']
list1.insert(1, 'Biology')
print ('Final list : ', list1)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Final list : ['physics', 'Biology', 'chemistry', 'maths']

List pop() Method
Description
The pop() method removes and returns last object or obj from the list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for pop() method-

list.pop(obj=list[-1])
Parameters
obj - This is an optional parameter, index of the object to be removed from the list.

Return Value
This method returns the removed object from the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of pop() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['physics', 'Biology', 'chemistry', 'maths']
list1.pop()
 print ("list now : ", list1)
list1.pop(1)
print ("list now : ", list1)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

list now : ['physics', 'Biology', 'chemistry']

list now : ['physics', 'chemistry']
List remove() Method
Parameters
obj - This is the object to be removed from the list.

Return Value
This method does not return any value but removes the given object from the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of remove() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['physics', 'Biology', 'chemistry', 'maths']
list1.remove('Biology')
print ("list now : ", list1)
list1.remove('maths')
print ("list now : ", list1)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

list now : ['physics', 'chemistry', 'maths']

list now : ['physics', 'chemistry']
List reverse() Method
Description
The reverse() method reverses objects of list in place.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for reverse() method-

list.reverse()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value but reverse the given object from the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of reverse() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['physics', 'Biology', 'chemistry', 'maths']
list1.reverse()
 print ("list now : ", list1)
When we run above program, it produces following result-

list now : ['maths', 'chemistry', 'Biology', 'physics']

List sort() Method
Description
The sort() method sorts objects of list, use compare function if given.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for sort() method-

list.sort([func])
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value but reverses the given object from the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of sort() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1 = ['physics', 'Biology', 'chemistry', 'maths']
list1.sort()
print ("list now : ", list1)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

list now : ['Biology', 'chemistry', 'maths', 'physics']

 11. Python 3 – Tuples
A tuple is a sequence of immutable Python objects. Tuples are sequences, just like lists. The
main difference between the tuples and the lists is that the tuples cannot be changed unlike
lists. Tuples use parentheses, whereas lists use square brackets.

Creating a tuple is as simple as putting different comma-separated values. Optionally, you

can put these comma-separated values between parentheses also. For example-

tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000)

tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 )
tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d"
The empty tuple is written as two parentheses containing nothing.

tup1 = ();
To write a tuple containing a single value you have to include a comma, even though there
is only one value.

tup1 = (50,)
Like string indices, tuple indices start at 0, and they can be sliced, concatenated, and so on.

Accessing Values in Tuples

To access values in tuple, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices
to obtain the value available at that index. For example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000)
tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 )
print ("tup1[0]: ", tup1[0])
print ("tup2[1:5]: ", tup2[1:5])
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

tup1[0]: physics
tup2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5]
Updating Tuples
Tuples are immutable, which means you cannot update or change the values of tuple
elements. You are able to take portions of the existing tuples to create new tuples as the
following example demonstrates.

#!/usr/bin/python3
tup1 = (12, 34.56)
tup2 = ('abc', 'xyz')
# Following action is not valid for tuples # tup1[0] = 100;
# So let's create a new tuple as follows tup3 = tup1 + tup2
print (tup3)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

(12, 34.56, 'abc', 'xyz')

Delete Tuple Elements
Removing individual tuple elements is not possible. There is, of course, nothing wrong with
putting together another tuple with the undesired elements discarded.

To explicitly remove an entire tuple, just use the del statement. For example-
 #!/usr/bin/python3
tup = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000); print (tup)
del tup;
print ("After deleting tup : ")
print (tup)
This produces the following result.

Note: An exception is raised. This is because after del tup, tuple does not exist any more.

('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000)

After deleting tup :
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 9, in <module>
print tup;
NameError: name 'tup' is not defined
Basic Tuples Operations
Tuples respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation and
repetition here too, except that the result is a new tuple, not a string.

In fact, tuples respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in the
previous chapter.

Python Expression Resul Description

ts
len((1, 2, 3)) 3 Length

(1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 6) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) Concatenation

('Hi!',) * 4 ('Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!') Repetition

3 in (1, 2, 3) True Membership

for x in (1,2,3) : print (x, end='') 123 Iteration

Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes

Since tuples are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for tuples as they do
for strings, assuming the following input-

T=('C++', 'Java', 'Python')

Python Expression Results Description

T[2] 'Python' Offsets start at zero

T[-2] 'Java' Negative: count from the right

T[1:] ('Java', 'Python') Slicing fetches sections

No Enclosing Delimiters
No enclosing Delimiters is any set of multiple objects, comma-separated, written without
identifying symbols, i.e., brackets for lists, parentheses for tuples, etc., default to tuples, as
indicated in these short examples.
Built-in Tuple Functions
Python includes the following tuple functions-

SN Function with Description

cmp(tuple1, tuple2)
1
No longer available in Python 3.
len(tuple)
2
Gives the total length of the tuple.
max(tuple)
3
Returns item from the tuple with max value.
min(tuple)
4
Returns item from the tuple with min value.
tuple(seq)
5
Converts a list into tuple.
Tuple len() Method
Description
The len() method returns the number of elements in the tuple.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for len() method-

len(tuple)
Parameters
tuple - This is a tuple for which number of elements to be counted.

Return Value
This method returns the number of elements in the tuple.

Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
tuple1, tuple2 = (123, 'xyz', 'zara'), (456, 'abc')
print ("First tuple length : ", len(tuple1))
print ("Second tuple length : ", len(tuple2))
When we run above program, it produces following result-

First tuple length : 3

Second tuple length : 2
Tuple max() Method
Description
The max() method returns the elements from the tuple with maximum value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for max() method-

max(tuple)
Parameters
tuple - This is a tuple from which max valued element to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the elements from the tuple with maximum value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of max() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
tuple1, tuple2 = ('maths', 'che', 'phy', 'bio'), (456, 700, 200)
print ("Max value element : ", max(tuple1))
print ("Max value element : ", max(tuple2))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Max value element : phy Max value element : 700

Tuple min() Method
Description
The min() method returns the elements from the tuple with minimum value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for min() method-

min(tuple)
Parameters
tuple - This is a tuple from which min valued element is to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the elements from the tuple with minimum value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of min() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
tuple1, tuple2 = ('maths', 'che', 'phy', 'bio'), (456, 700, 200)
print ("min value element : ", min(tuple1))
print ("min value element : ", min(tuple2))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-
 min value element : bio
min value element : 200
Tuple tuple() Method
Description
The tuple() method converts a list of items into tuples.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for tuple() method-

tuple( seq )
Parameters
seq - This is a tuple to be converted into tuple.

Return Value
This method returns the tuple.

Example
The following example shows the usage of tuple() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
list1= ['maths', 'che', 'phy', 'bio']
tuple1=tuple(list1)
print ("tuple elements : ", tuple1)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

tuple elements : ('maths', 'che', 'phy', 'bio')

 12. Python 3 – Dictionary
Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:), the items are separated by commas,
and the whole thing is enclosed in curly braces. An empty dictionary without any items is
written with just two curly braces, like this: {}.

Keys are unique within a dictionary while values may not be. The values of a dictionary can
be of any type, but the keys must be of an immutable data type such as strings, numbers,
or tuples.

Accessing Values in Dictionary

To access dictionary elements, you can use the familiar square brackets along with the key
to obtain its value. Following is a simple example.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
print ("dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'])
print ("dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'])
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

dict['Name']: Zara
dict['Age']: 7
If we attempt to access a data item with a key, which is not a part of the dictionary, we get
an error as follows-

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};
print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice']
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

dict['Zara']:
Traceback (most recent call last): File
"test.py", line 4, in <module>
print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice']; KeyError:
'Alice'

Updating Dictionary
You can update a dictionary by adding a new entry or a key-value pair, modifying an
existing entry, or deleting an existing entry as shown in a simple example given below.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
dict['Age'] = 8; # update existing entry
dict['School'] = "DPS School" # Add new entry
print ("dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'])
print ("dict['School']: ", dict['School'])
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

dict['Age']: 8 dict['School']: DPS School

Delete Dictionary Elements
You can either remove individual dictionary elements or clear the entire contents of a
dictionary. You can also delete entire dictionary in a single operation.

To explicitly remove an entire dictionary, just use the del statement. Following is a simple
example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
del dict['Name'] # remove entry with key 'Name'
dict.clear() # remove all entries in dict del dict # delete entire dictionary
print ("dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'])
print ("dict['School']: ", dict['School'])
This produces the following result.

Note: An exception is raised because after del dict, the dictionary does not exist anymore.

dict['Age']:
Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 8, in <module>
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
TypeError: 'type' object is unsubscriptable
Note: The del() method is discussed in subsequent section.

Properties of Dictionary Keys

Dictionary values have no restrictions. They can be any arbitrary Python object, either
standard objects or user-defined objects. However, same is not true for the keys.

There are two important points to remember about dictionary keys-

(a) More than one entry per key is not allowed. This means no duplicate key is allowed.
When duplicate keys are encountered during assignment, the last assignment wins. For
example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Manni'}
print ("dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'])
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

dict['Name']: Manni
(b) Keys must be immutable. This means you can use strings, numbers or tuples as
dictionary keys but something like ['key'] is not allowed. Following is a simple example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7}
print ("dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'])
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 3, in <module>

dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7}
TypeError: list objects are unhashable
Built-in Dictionary Functions & Methods
Python includes the following dictionary functions-

SN Functions with Description

cmp(dict1, dict2)
1
No longer available in Python 3.
len(dict)
2 Gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the number of itemsin
the dictionary.
str(dict)
3
Produces a printable string representation of a dictionary.
type(variable)
4 Returns the type of the passed variable. If passed variable is dictionary, then it
would return a dictionary type.
Dictionary len() Method
Description
The method len() gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the number
of items in the dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for len() method-

len(dict)
Parameters
dict - This is the dictionary, whose length needs to be calculated.

Return Value
This method returns the length.

Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Manni', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
print ("Length : %d" % len (dict))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Length : 3
Dictionary str() Method
Description
The method str() produces a printable string representation of a dictionary.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for str() method −

str(dict)
Parameters
dict - This is the dictionary.

Return Value
This method returns string representation.

Example
The following example shows the usage of str() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Manni', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
print ("Equivalent String : %s" % str (dict))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Equivalent String : {'Name': 'Manni', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}

Dictionary type() Method
Description
The method type() returns the type of the passed variable. If passed variable is dictionary
then it would return a dictionary type.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for type() method-

type(dict)
Parameters
dict - This is the dictionary.

Return Value
This method returns the type of the passed variable.

Example
The following example shows the usage of type() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Manni', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
print ("Variable Type : %s" % type (dict))

When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Variable Type : <type 'dict'>

Python includes the following dictionary methods-

SN Methods with Description

dict.clear()
1
Removes all elements of dictionary dict.
dict.copy()
2
Returns a shallow copy of dictionary dict.
dict.fromkeys()
3
Create a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set to value.
dict.get(key, default=None)
4
For key key, returns value or default if key not in dictionary.
dict.has_key(key)
5
Removed, use the in operation instead.
dict.items()
6
Returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs.
dict.keys()
7
Returns list of dictionary dict's keys.
dict.setdefault(key, default=None)
8
Similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is not already in dict.
dict.update(dict2)
9
Adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs to dict.
dict.values()
10
Returns list of dictionary dict's values.
Dictionary clear() Method
Description
The method clear() removes all items from the dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for clear() method-

dict.clear()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of clear() method.

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}

print ("Start Len : %d" % len(dict)) dict.clear()
print ("End Len : %d" % len(dict))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Start Len : 2
End Len : 0
Dictionary copy() Method
Description
The method copy() returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for copy() method-

dict.copy()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.

Example
The following example shows the usage of copy() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict1 = {'Name': 'Manni', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
dict2 = dict1.copy()
print ("New Dictionary : ",dict2)
When we run the above program, it produces following result-

New dictionary : {'Name': 'Manni', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}

Dictionary fromkeys() Method
Description
The method fromkeys() creates a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set to
value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for fromkeys() method-

dict.fromkeys(seq[, value]))
Parameters
• seq - This is the list of values which would be used for dictionary keys preparation.
• value - This is optional, if provided then value would be set to this value

Return Value
This method returns the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of fromkeys() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
seq = ('name', 'age', 'sex')
dict = dict.fromkeys(seq)
print ("New Dictionary : %s" % str(dict))
dict = dict.fromkeys(seq, 10)
print ("New Dictionary : %s" % str(dict))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

New Dictionary : {'age': None, 'name': None, 'sex': None}

New Dictionary : {'age': 10, 'name': 10, 'sex': 10}
Dictionary get() Method
Description
The method get() returns a value for the given key. If the key is not available then returns
default value None.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for get() method-

dict.get(key, default=None)
Parameters
• key - This is the Key to be searched in the dictionary.
• default - This is the Value to be returned in case key does not exist.

Return Value
This method returns a value for the given key. If the key is not available, then returns
default value as None.

Example
The following example shows the usage of get() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 27}
print ("Value : %s" % dict.get('Age'))
print ("Value : %s" % dict.get('Sex', "NA"))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Value : 27 Value : NA
Dictionary items() Method
Description
The method items() returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for items() method-

dict.items()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a list of tuple pairs.

Example
The following example shows the usage of items() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}
print ("Value : %s" % dict.items())
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Value : [('Age', 7), ('Name', 'Zara')]

Dictionary keys() Method

Description
The method keys() returns a list of all the available keys in the dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for keys() method-

dict.keys()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a list of all the available keys in the dictionary.

Example
The following example shows the usage of keys() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}
print ("Value : %s" % dict.keys())
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-
 Value : ['Age', 'Name']
Dictionary setdefault() Method
Description
The method setdefault() is similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if the key is not
already in dict.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for setdefault() method-

dict.setdefault(key, default=None)
Parameters
• key - This is the key to be searched.
• default - This is the Value to be returned in case key is not found.

Return Value
This method returns the key value available in the dictionary and if given key is not
available then it will return provided default value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of setdefault() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}
print ("Value : %s" % dict.setdefault('Age', None))
print ("Value : %s" % dict.setdefault('Sex', None))
print (dict)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Value : 7 Value : None

{'Name': 'Zara', 'Sex': None, 'Age': 7}
Dictionary update() Method
Description
The method update() adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs in to dict. This function does
not return anything.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for update() method-

dict.update(dict2)
Parameters
dict2 - This is the dictionary to be added into dict.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of update() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}
dict2 = {'Sex': 'female' }
dict.update(dict2)
print ("updated dict : ", dict)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

updated dict : {'Sex': 'female', 'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Zara'}

Dictionary values() Method
Description
The method values() returns a list of all the values available in a given dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for values() method-

dict.values()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a list of all the values available in a given dictionary.

Example
The following example shows the usage of values() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
dict = {'Sex': 'female', 'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Zara'}
print ("Values : ", list(dict.values()))
When we run above program, it produces following result-

Values : ['female', 7, 'Zara']

 13. Python 3 – Sets
A Python set is the collection of the unordered items. Each element in the set must be
unique, immutable, and the sets remove the duplicate elements. Sets are mutable which
means we can modify it after its creation.

Unlike other collections in Python, there is no index attached to the elements of the set, i.e.,
we cannot directly access any element of the set by the index. However, we can print them
all together, or we can get the list of elements by looping through the set.

Creating a set
The set can be created by enclosing the comma-separated immutable items with the curly
braces {}. Python also provides the set() method, which can be used to create the set by
the passed sequence.

Example 1: Using curly braces

Days = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday",
"Sunday"}
print(Days)
print(type(Days))
print("looping through the set elements ... ")
for i in Days:
print(i)
Output:
{'Friday', 'Tuesday', 'Monday', 'Saturday', 'Thursday', 'Sunday', 'Wednesday'}
<class 'set'>
looping through the set elements ...
Friday
Tuesday
Monday
Saturday
Thursday
Sunday
Wednesday
Example 2: Using set() method
Days = set(["Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday",
"Sunday"])
print(Days)
print(type(Days))
print("looping through the set elements ... ")
for i in Days:
print(i)
Output:
{'Friday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Saturday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Sunday'}
<class 'set'>
looping through the set elements ...
Friday
Wednesday
Thursday
Saturday
 Monday
Tuesday
Sunday
It can contain any type of element such as integer, float, tuple etc. But mutable elements
(list, dictionary, set) can't be a member of set. Consider the following example.

# Creating a set which have immutable elements

set1 = {1,2,3, "JavaTpoint", 20.5, 14}
print(type(set1))
#Creating a set which have mutable element
set2 = {1,2,3,["Javatpoint",4]}
print(type(set2))
Output:
<class 'set'>
Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-5-9605bb6fbc68> in <module>
4
5 #Creating a set which holds mutable elements
----> 6 set2 = {1,2,3,["Javatpoint",4]}
7 print(type(set2))

TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

In the above code, we have created two sets, the set set1 have immutable elements and
set2 have one mutable element as a list. While checking the type of set2, it raised an error,
which means set can contain only immutable elements.

Creating an empty set is a bit different because empty curly {} braces are also used to
create a dictionary as well. So Python provides the set() method used without an argument
to create an empty set.

# Empty curly braces will create dictionary

set3 = {}
print(type(set3))
# Empty set using set() function
set4 = set()
print(type(set4))
Output:
<class 'dict'>
<class 'set'>
Let's see what happened if we provide the duplicate element to the set.

set5 = {1,2,4,4,5,8,9,9,10}
print("Return set with unique elements:",set5)
Output:
Return set with unique elements: {1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10}
In the above code, we can see that set5 consisted of multiple duplicate elements when we
printed it remove the duplicity from the set.

Adding items to the set

Python provides the add() method and update() method which can be used to add some
particular item to the set. The add() method is used to add a single element whereas the
update() method is used to add multiple elements to the set. Consider the following
example.

Example: 1 - Using add() method

Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
print(months)
print("\nAdding other months to the set...");
Months.add("July");
Months.add ("August");
print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
print(Months)
print("\nlooping through the set elements ... ")
for i in Months:
print(i)
Output:
printing the original set ...
{'February', 'May', 'April', 'March', 'June', 'January'}
Adding other months to the set...
Printing the modified set...
{'February', 'July', 'May', 'April', 'March', 'August', 'June', 'January'}
looping through the set elements ...
February
July
May
April
March
August
June
January
To add more than one item in the set, Python provides the update() method. It accepts
iterable as an argument.

Consider the following example.

Example - 2 Using update() function

Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
print(Months)
print("\nupdating the original set ... ")
Months.update(["July","August","September","October"]);
print("\nprinting the modified set ... ")
print(Months);
Output:

printing the original set ...

{'January', 'February', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'March'}
updating the original set ...
printing the modified set ...
{'January', 'February', 'April', 'August', 'October', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'September',
'March'}
Removing items from the set
Python provides the discard() method and remove() method which can be used to remove
the items from the set. The difference between these function, using discard() function if
the item does not exist in the set then the set remain unchanged whereas remove() method
will through an error.

Consider the following example.

Example-1 Using discard() method

months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
print(months)
print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
months.discard("January");
months.discard("May");
print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
print(months)
print("\nlooping through the set elements ... ")
for i in months:
print(i)
Output:
printing the original set ...
{'February', 'January', 'March', 'April', 'June', 'May'}
Removing some months from the set...
Printing the modified set...
{'February', 'March', 'April', 'June'}
looping through the set elements ...
February
March
April
June
Python provides also the remove() method to remove the item from the set. Consider the
following example to remove the items using remove() method.

Example-2 Using remove() function

months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
print(months)
print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
months.remove("January");
months.remove("May");
print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
print(months)
Output:

printing the original set ...

{'February', 'June', 'April', 'May', 'January', 'March'}
Removing some months from the set...
Printing the modified set...
{'February', 'June', 'April', 'March'}
We can also use the pop() method to remove the item. Generally, the pop() method will
always remove the last item but the set is unordered, we can't determine which element will
be popped from set.

Consider the following example to remove the item from the set using pop() method.

Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])

print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
print(Months)
print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
Months.pop();
Months.pop();
print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
print(Months)
Output:
printing the original set ...
{'June', 'January', 'May', 'April', 'February', 'March'}
Removing some months from the set...
Printing the modified set...
{'May', 'April', 'February', 'March'}
In the above code, the last element of the Month set is March but the pop() method
removed the June and January because the set is unordered and the pop() method could
not determine the last element of the set.

Python provides the clear() method to remove all the items from the set.

Consider the following example.

Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])

print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
print(Months)
print("\nRemoving all the items from the set...");
Months.clear()
print("\nPrinting the modified set...")
print(Months)
Output:
printing the original set ...
{'January', 'May', 'June', 'April', 'March', 'February'}
Removing all the items from the set...
Printing the modified set...
set()
Difference between discard() and remove()
Despite the fact that discard() and remove() method both perform the same task, There is
one main difference between discard() and remove().

If the key to be deleted from the set using discard() doesn't exist in the set, the Python will
not give the error. The program maintains its control flow.

On the other hand, if the item to be deleted from the set using remove() doesn't exist in the
set, the Python will raise an error.

Consider the following example.

Example-
Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
print(Months)
print("\nRemoving items through discard() method...");
Months.discard("Feb"); #will not give an error although the key feb is not available in the
set
print("\nprinting the modified set...")
print(Months)
print("\nRemoving items through remove() method...");
Months.remove("Jan") #will give an error as the key jan is not available in the set.
print("\nPrinting the modified set...")
print(Months)
Output:
printing the original set ...
{'March', 'January', 'April', 'June', 'February', 'May'}
Removing items through discard() method...
printing the modified set...
{'March', 'January', 'April', 'June', 'February', 'May'}
Removing items through remove() method...
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "set.py", line 9, in
Months.remove("Jan")
KeyError: 'Jan'
Python Set Operations
Set can be performed mathematical operation such as union, intersection, difference, and
symmetric difference. Python provides the facility to carry out these operations with
operators or methods. We describe these operations as follows.

Union of two Sets

The union of two sets is calculated by using the pipe (|) operator. The union of the two sets
contains all the items that are present in both the sets.

Consider the following example to calculate the union of two sets.

Example 1: using union | operator

Days1 = {"Monday","Tuesday","Wednesday","Thursday", "Sunday"}
Days2 = {"Friday","Saturday","Sunday"}
print(Days1|Days2) #printing the union of the sets
Output:

{'Friday', 'Sunday', 'Saturday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Monday', 'Thursday'}

Python also provides the union() method which can also be used to calculate the union of
two sets. Consider the following example.

Example 2: using union() method

Days1 = {"Monday","Tuesday","Wednesday","Thursday"}
Days2 = {"Friday","Saturday","Sunday"}
print(Days1.union(Days2)) #printing the union of the sets
Output:
{'Friday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Thursday', 'Wednesday', 'Sunday', 'Saturday'}
Intersection of two sets
The intersection of two sets can be performed by the and & operator or the intersection()
function. The intersection of the two sets is given as the set of the elements that common in
both sets.

Consider the following example.

Example 1: Using & operator

Days1 = {"Monday","Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
Days2 = {"Monday","Tuesday","Sunday", "Friday"}
print(Days1&Days2) #prints the intersection of the two sets
Output:
{'Monday', 'Tuesday'}
Example 2: Using intersection() method
set1 = {"Devansh","John", "David", "Martin"}
set2 = {"Steve", "Milan", "David", "Martin"}
print(set1.intersection(set2)) #prints the intersection of the two sets
Output:
{'Martin', 'David'}
Example 3:
set1 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
set2 = {1,2,20,32,5,9}
set3 = set1.intersection(set2)
print(set3)
Output:
{1,2,5}
The intersection_update() method
The intersection_update() method removes the items from the original set that are not
present in both the sets (all the sets if more than one are specified).

The intersection_update() method is different from the intersection() method since it

modifies the original set by removing the unwanted items, on the other hand, the
intersection() method returns a new set.

Consider the following example.

a = {"Devansh", "bob", "castle"}

b = {"castle", "dude", "emyway"}
c = {"fuson", "gaurav", "castle"}
a.intersection_update(b, c)
print(a)
Output:

{'castle'}
Difference between the two sets
The difference of two sets can be calculated by using the subtraction (-) operator or
intersection() method. Suppose there are two sets A and B, and the difference is A-B that
denotes the resulting set will be obtained that element of A, which is not present in the set
B.

Consider the following example.

Example 1 : Using subtraction ( - ) operator

Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Sunday"}
print(Days1-Days2) #{"Wednesday", "Thursday" will be printed}
Output:
{'Thursday', 'Wednesday'}
Example 2 : Using difference() method
Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Sunday"}
print(Days1.difference(Days2)) # prints the difference of the two sets Days1 and Days2
Output:
{'Thursday', 'Wednesday'}
Symmetric Difference of two sets
The symmetric difference of two sets is calculated by ^ operator or symmetric_difference()
method. Symmetric difference of sets, it removes that element which is present in both
sets. Consider the following example:

Example - 1: Using ^ operator

a = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
b = {1,2,9,8,10}
c = a^b
print(c)
Output:
{3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10}
Example - 2: Using symmetric_difference() method
a = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
b = {1,2,9,8,10}
c = a.symmetric_difference(b)
print(c)
Output:
{3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10}
Set comparisons
Python allows us to use the comparison operators i.e., <, >, <=, >= , == with the sets by
using which we can check whether a set is a subset, superset, or equivalent to other set.
The boolean true or false is returned depending upon the items present inside the sets.

Consider the following example.

 Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday"}
Days3 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Friday"}
#Days1 is the superset of Days2 hence it will print true.
print (Days1>Days2)
#prints false since Days1 is not the subset of Days2
print (Days1<Days2)
#prints false since Days2 and Days3 are not equivalent
print (Days2 == Days3)
Output:
True
False
False
FrozenSets
The frozen sets are the immutable form of the normal sets, i.e., the items of the frozen set
cannot be changed and therefore it can be used as a key in the dictionary.

The elements of the frozen set cannot be changed after the creation. We cannot change or
append the content of the frozen sets by using the methods like add() or remove().

The frozenset() method is used to create the frozenset object. The iterable sequence is
passed into this method which is converted into the frozen set as a return type of the
method.

Consider the following example to create the frozen set.

Frozenset = frozenset([1,2,3,4,5])
print(type(Frozenset))
print("\nprinting the content of frozen set...")
for i in Frozenset:
print(i);
Frozenset.add(6) #gives an error since we cannot change the content of Frozenset after
creation
Output:
<class 'frozenset'>
printing the content of frozen set...
1
2
3
4
5
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "set.py", line 6, in <module>
Frozenset.add(6) #gives an error since we can change the content of Frozenset after
creation
AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'
Frozenset for the dictionary
If we pass the dictionary as the sequence inside the frozenset() method, it will take only the
keys from the dictionary and returns a frozenset that contains the key of the dictionary as
its elements.
Consider the following example.

Dictionary = {"Name":"John", "Country":"USA", "ID":101}

print(type(Dictionary))
Frozenset = frozenset(Dictionary); #Frozenset will contain the keys of the dictionary
print(type(Frozenset))
for i in Frozenset:
print(i)
Output:
<class 'dict'>
<class 'frozenset'>
Name
Country
ID
Set Programming Example
Example - 1: Write a program to remove the given number from the set.
my_set = {1,2,3,4,5,6,12,24}
n = int(input("Enter the number you want to remove"))
my_set.discard(n)
print("After Removing:",my_set)
Output:
Enter the number you want to remove:12
After Removing: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 24}
Example - 2: Write a program to add multiple elements to the set.
set1 = set([1,2,4,"John","CS"])
set1.update(["Apple","Mango","Grapes"])
print(set1)
Output:
{1, 2, 4, 'Apple', 'John', 'CS', 'Mango', 'Grapes'}
Example - 3: Write a program to find the union between two set.
set1 = set(["Peter","Joseph", 65,59,96])
set2 = set(["Peter",1,2,"Joseph"])
set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)
Output:
{96, 65, 2, 'Joseph', 1, 'Peter', 59}
Example- 4: Write a program to find the intersection between two sets.
set1 = {23,44,56,67,90,45,"Javatpoint"}
set2 = {13,23,56,76,"Sachin"}
set3 = set1.intersection(set2)
print(set3)
Output:
{56, 23}
Example - 5: Write the program to add element to the frozenset.
set1 = {23,44,56,67,90,45,"Javatpoint"}
set2 = {13,23,56,76,"Sachin"}
set3 = set1.intersection(set2)
print(set3)
Output:

TypeError: 'frozenset' object does not support item assignment

Above code raised an error because frozensets are immutable and can't be changed after
creation.

Example - 6: Write the program to find the issuperset, issubset and superset.
set1 = set(["Peter","James","Camroon","Ricky","Donald"])
set2 = set(["Camroon","Washington","Peter"])
set3 = set(["Peter"])
issubset = set1 >= set2
print(issubset)
issuperset = set1 <= set2
print(issuperset)
issubset = set3 <= set2
print(issubset)
issuperset = set2 >= set3
print(issuperset)
Output:

False
False
True
True
 14. Python 3 – Date & Time
A Python program can handle date and time in several ways. Converting between date
formats is a common chore for computers. Python's time and calendar modules help track
dates and times.

What is Tick?
Time intervals are floating-point numbers in units of seconds. Particular instants in time are
expressed in seconds since 12:00am, January 1, 1970(epoch).

There is a popular time module available in Python, which provides functions for working
with times, and for converting between representations. The function time.time() returns
the current system time in ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970(epoch).

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import time; # This is required to include time module.
ticks = time.time()
print ("Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970:", ticks)
This would produce a result something as follows-

Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970: 1455508609.34375

Date arithmetic is easy to do with ticks. However, dates before the epoch cannot be
represented in this form. Dates in the far future also cannot be represented this way - the
cutoff point is sometime in 2038 for UNIX and Windows.

What is TimeTuple?
Many of the Python's time functions handle time as a tuple of 9 numbers, as shown below-

Index Field Values

0 4-digit year 2016

1 Month 1 to 12

2 Day 1 to 31

3 Hour 0 to 23

4 Minute 0 to 59

5 Second 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds)

6 Day of Week 0 to 6 (0 is Monday)

7 Day of year 1 to 366 (Julian day)

8 Daylight savings -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines DST

For Example-

>>>import time
>>> print (time.localtime())
This would produce a result as follows-
 time.struct_time(tm_year=2016, tm_mon=2, tm_mday=15, tm_hour=9, tm_min=29,
tm_sec=2, tm_wday=0, tm_yday=46, tm_isdst=0)
The above tuple is equivalent to struct_time structure. This structure has the following
attributes-

Index Attributes Values

0 tm_year 2016

1 tm_mon 1 to 12

2 tm_mday 1 to 31

3 tm_hour 0 to 23

4 tm_min 0 to 59

5 tm_sec 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds)

6 tm_wday 0 to 6 (0 is Monday)

7 tm_yday 1 to 366 (Julian day)

8 tm_isdst -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines DST

Getting current time

To translate a time instant from seconds since the epoch floating-point value into a time-
tuple, pass the floating-point value to a function (e.g., localtime) that returns a time-tuple
with all valid nine items.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
localtime = time.localtime(time.time())
print ("Local current time :", localtime)
This would produce the following result, which could be formatted in any other presentable
form-

Local current time : time.struct_time(tm_year=2016, tm_mon=2, tm_mday=15,

tm_hour=9, tm_min=29, tm_sec=2, tm_wday=0, tm_yday=46, tm_isdst=0)
Getting formatted time
You can format any time as per your requirement, but a simple method to get time in a
readable format is asctime() −

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
localtime = time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) )
print ("Local current time :", localtime)
This would produce the following result-

Local current time : Mon Feb 15 09:34:03 2016

Getting calendar for a month
The calendar module gives a wide range of methods to play with yearly and monthly
calendars. Here, we print a calendar for a given month ( Jan 2008 ).

#!/usr/bin/python3
import calendar
cal = calendar.month(2016, 2)
print ("Here is the calendar:")
print (cal)
This would produce the following result-

Here is the calendar:

February 2016
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29
The Time Module
There is a popular time module available in Python, which provides functions for working
with times and for converting between representations. Here is the list of all available
methods.

SN Function with Description

time.altzone
The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. This
1
is negative if the local DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western Europe, including
the UK). Use this if the daylight is nonzero.
time.asctime([tupletime])
2 Accepts a time-tuple and returns a readable 24-character string such as 'Tue Dec
11 18:07:14 2008'.
time.clock( )
Returns the current CPU time as a floating-point number of seconds. To measure
3
computational costs of different approaches, the value of time.clock is more useful
than that of time.time().
time.ctime([secs])
4
Like asctime(localtime(secs)) and without arguments is like asctime( )
time.gmtime([secs])
5 Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a time-tuple t
with the UTC time. Note : t.tm_isdst is always 0
time.localtime([secs])
Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a time-tuple t
6
with the local time (t.tm_isdst is 0 or 1, depending on whether DST applies to
instant secs by local rules).
time.mktime(tupletime)
7 Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns a floating-
point value with the instant expressed in seconds since the epoch.
time.sleep(secs)
8
Suspends the calling thread for secs seconds.
time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime])
9 Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns a string
representing the instant as specified by string fmt.
time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y')
10 Parses str according to format string fmt and returns the instant in time-tuple
format.
time.time( )
11 Returns the current time instant, a floating-point number of seconds since the
epoch.
time.tzset()
12 Resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The environment
variable TZ specifies how this is done.
Let us go through the functions briefly-
Time altzone() Method
Description
The method altzone() is the attribute of the time module. This returns the offset of the local
DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. This is negative if the local

DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western Europe, including the UK). Only use this if
daylight is nonzero.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for altzone() method-

time.altzone
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is
defined.

Example
The following example shows the usage of altzone() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
print ("time.altzone : ", time.altzone)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

time.altzone : -23400
Time asctime() Method
Description
The method asctime() converts a tuple or struct_time representing a time as returned by
gmtime() or localtime() to a 24-character string of the following form: 'Tue Feb 17 23:21:05
2009'.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for asctime() method-

time.asctime([t]))
Parameters
t - This is a tuple of 9 elements or struct_time representing a time as returned by gmtime()
or localtime() function.

Return Value
This method returns 24-character string of the following form: 'Tue Feb 17 23:21:05 2009'.
Example
The following example shows the usage of asctime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
t = time.localtime()
print ("asctime : ",time.asctime(t))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

asctime : Mon Feb 15 09:46:24 2016

Time clock() Method

Description
The method clock() returns the current processor time as a floating point number expressed
in seconds on Unix. The precision depends on that of the C function of the same name, but
in any case, this is the function to use for benchmarking Python or timing algorithms.

On Windows, this function returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first call to this
function, as a floating point number, based on the Win32 function Query Performance
Counter.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for clock() method-

time.clock()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the current processor time as a floating point number expressed in
seconds on Unix and in Windows it returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first call to
this function, as a floating point number.

Example
The following example shows the usage of clock() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
def procedure(): time.sleep(2.5)
# measure process time t0 = time.clock() procedure()
print (time.clock() - t0, "seconds process time") # measure wall time
t0 = time.time()
procedure()
print (time.time() - t0, "seconds wall time")
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

2.4993855364299096 seconds process time

2.5 seconds wall time
Note: Not all systems can measure the true process time. On such systems (including
Windows), clock usually measures the wall time since the program was started.

Time ctime() Method

Description
The method ctime() converts a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a string
representing local time. If secs is not provided or None, the current time as returned by
time() is used. This function is equivalent to asctime(localtime(secs)). Locale information is
not used by ctime().

Syntax
Following is the syntax for ctime() method-

time.ctime([ sec ])
Parameters
sec - These are the number of seconds to be converted into string representation.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of ctime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
print ("ctime : ", time.ctime())
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

ctime : Mon Feb 15 09:55:34 2016

Time gmtime() Method
Description
The method gmtime() converts a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a
struct_time in UTC in which the dst flag is always zero. If secs is not provided or None, the
current time as returned by time() is used.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for gmtime() method-

time.gmtime([ sec ])
Parameters
sec - These are the number of seconds to be converted into structure struct_time
representation.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of gmtime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
print ("gmtime :", time.gmtime(1455508609.34375))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

gmtime : time.struct_time(tm_year=2016, tm_mon=2, tm_mday=15, tm_hour=3,

tm_min=56, tm_sec=49, tm_wday=0, tm_yday=46, tm_isdst=0)
Time localtime() Method
Description
The method localtime() is similar to gmtime() but it converts number of seconds to local
time. If secs is not provided or None, the current time as returned by time() is used. The
dst flag is set to 1 when DST applies to the given time.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for localtime() method-

time.localtime([ sec ])
Parameters
sec - These are the number of seconds to be converted into structure struct_time
representation.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of localtime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
print ("time.localtime() : %s" , time.localtime())
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

time.localtime():time.struct_time(tm_year=2016,tm_mon=2,tm_mday=15, tm_hour=10,
tm_min=13, tm_sec=50, tm_wday=0, tm_yday=46, tm_isdst=0)
Time mktime() Method
Description
The method mktime() is the inverse function of localtime(). Its argument is the struct_time
or full 9-tuple and it returns a floating point number, for compatibility with time().

If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either OverflowError or ValueError
will be raised.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for mktime() method-
 time.mktime(t)
Parameters
t - This is the struct_time or full 9-tuple.

Return Value
This method returns a floating point number, for compatibility with time().

Example
The following example shows the usage of mktime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
t = (2016, 2, 15, 10, 13, 38, 1, 48, 0)
d=time.mktime(t)
print ("time.mktime(t) : %f" % d)
print ("asctime(localtime(secs)): %s" % time.asctime(time.localtime(d)))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

time.mktime(t) : 1455511418.000000
asctime(localtime(secs)): Mon Feb 15 10:13:38 2016
Time sleep() Method
Description
The method sleep() suspends execution for the given number of seconds. The argument
may be a floating point number to indicate a more precise sleep time.

The actual suspension time may be less than that requested because any caught signal will
terminate the sleep() following execution of that signal's catching routine.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for sleep() method-

time.sleep(t)
Parameters
t - This is the number of seconds for which the execution is to be suspended.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of sleep() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
print ("Start : %s" % time.ctime())
time.sleep( 5 )
print ("End : %s" % time.ctime())
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-
 Start : Mon Feb 15 12:08:42 2016
End : Mon Feb 15 12:08:47 2016
Time strftime() Method
Description
The method strftime() converts a tuple or struct_time representing a time as returned by
gmtime() or localtime() to a string as specified by the format argument.

If t is not provided, the current time as returned by localtime() is used. The format must be
a string. An exception ValueError is raised if any field in t is outside of the allowed range.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for strftime() method-

time.strftime(format[, t])
Parameters
• t - This is the time in number of seconds to be formatted.
• format - This is the directive which would be used to format given time.

The following directives can be embedded in the format string-

Directive
• %a - abbreviated weekday name
• %A - full weekday name
• %b - abbreviated month name
• %B - full month name
• %c - preferred date and time representation
• %C - century number (the year divided by 100, range 00 to 99)
• %d - day of the month (01 to 31)
• %D - same as %m/%d/%y
• %e - day of the month (1 to 31)
• %g - like %G, but without the century
• %G - 4-digit year corresponding to the ISO week number (see %V).
• %h - same as %b
• %H - hour, using a 24-hour clock (00 to 23)
• %I - hour, using a 12-hour clock (01 to 12)
• %j - day of the year (001 to 366)
• %m - month (01 to 12)
• %M - minute
• %n - newline character
• %p - either am or pm according to the given time value
• %r - time in a.m. and p.m. notation
• %R - time in 24 hour notation
• %S - second
• %t - tab character
• %T - current time, equal to %H:%M:%S
• %u - weekday as a number (1 to 7), Monday=1. Warning: In Sun Solaris Sunday=1
• %U - week number of the current year, starting with the first Sunday as the first day
of the first week
 • %V - The ISO 8601 week number of the current year (01 to 53), where week 1 is
the first week that has at least 4 days in the current year, and with Monday as the
first day of the week
• %W - week number of the current year, starting with the first Monday as the first
day of the first week
• %w - day of the week as a decimal, Sunday=0
• %x - preferred date representation without the time
• %X - preferred time representation without the date
• %y - year without a century (range 00 to 99)
• %Y - year including the century
• %Z or %z - time zone or name or abbreviation
• %% - a literal % character

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of strftime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
t = (2015, 12, 31, 10, 39, 45, 1, 48, 0)
t = time.mktime(t)
print (time.strftime("%b %d %Y %H:%M:%S", time.localtime(t)))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Dec 31 2015 10:39:45

Time strptime() Method
Description
The method strptime() parses a string representing a time according to a format. The return
value is a struct_time as returned by gmtime() or localtime().

The format parameter uses the same directives as those used by strftime(); it defaults to
"%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y" which matches the formatting returned by ctime().

If string cannot be parsed according to format, or if it has excess data after parsing,
ValueError is raised.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for strptime() method-

time.strptime(string[, format])
Parameters
• string - This is the time in string format which would be parsed based on the given
format.
• format - This is the directive which would be used to parse the given string.

Directive
The following directives can be embedded in the format string-
 • %a - abbreviated weekday name
• %A - full weekday name
• %b - abbreviated month name
• %B - full month name
• %c - preferred date and time representation
• %C - century number (the year divided by 100, range 00 to 99)
• %d - day of the month (01 to 31)
• %D - same as %m/%d/%y
• %e - day of the month (1 to 31)
• %g - like %G, but without the century
• %G - 4-digit year corresponding to the ISO week number (see %V).
• %h - same as %b
• %H - hour, using a 24-hour clock (00 to 23)
• %I - hour, using a 12-hour clock (01 to 12)
• %j - day of the year (001 to 366)
• %m - month (01 to 12)
• %M - minute
• %n - newline character
• %p - either am or pm according to the given time value
• %r - time in a.m. and p.m. notation
• %R - time in 24 hour notation
• %S - second
• %t - tab character
• %T - current time, equal to %H:%M:%S
• %u - weekday as a number (1 to 7), Monday=1. Warning: In Sun Solaris Sunday=1
• %U - week number of the current year, starting with the first Sunday as the first day
of the first week
• %V - The ISO 8601 week number of the current year (01 to 53), where week 1 is
the first week that has at least 4 days in the current year, and with Monday as the
first day of the week
• %W - week number of the current year, starting with the first Monday as the first
day of the first week
• %w - day of the week as a decimal, Sunday=0
• %x - preferred date representation without the time
• %X - preferred time representation without the date
• %y - year without a century (range 00 to 99)
• %Y - year including the century
• %Z or %z - time zone or name or abbreviation
• %% - a literal % character

Return Value
This return value is struct_time as returned by gmtime() or localtime().

Example
The following example shows the usage of strptime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
struct_time = time.strptime("30 12 2015", "%d %m %Y")
 print ("tuple : ", struct_time)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

tuple : time.struct_time(tm_year=2015, tm_mon=12, tm_mday=30, tm_hour=0,

tm_min=0, tm_sec=0, tm_wday=2, tm_yday=364, tm_isdst=-1)
Time time() Method
Description
The method time() returns the time as a floating point number expressed in seconds since
the epoch, in UTC.

Note: Even though the time is always returned as a floating point number, not all systems
provide time with a better precision than 1 second. While this function normally returns
non-decreasing values, it can return a lower value than a previous call if the system clock
has been set back between the two calls.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for time() method-

time.time()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the time as a floating point number expressed in seconds since the
epoch, in UTC.

Example
The following example shows the usage of time() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
print ("time.time(): %f " % time.time())
print (time.localtime( time.time() ))
print (time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) ))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

time.time(): 1455519806.011433
time.struct_time(tm_year=2016, tm_mon=2, tm_mday=15, tm_hour=12, tm_min=33,
tm_sec=26, tm_wday=0, tm_yday=46, tm_isdst=0)
Mon Feb 15 12:33:26 2016
Time tzset() Method
Description
The method tzset() resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The
environment variable TZ specifies how this is done.

The standard format of the TZ environment variable is (whitespace added for clarity)-

std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]

 • std and dst: Three or more alphanumerics giving the timezone abbreviations. These
will be propagated into time.tzname.
• offset: The offset has the form: .hh[:mm[:ss]]. This indicates the value added the
local time to arrive at UTC. If preceded by a '-', the timezone is east of the Prime
Meridian; otherwise, it is west. If no offset follows dst, summer time is assumed to
be one hour ahead of standard time.
• start[/time], end[/time]: Indicates when to change to and back from DST. The
format of the start and end dates are one of the following:
o Jn: The Julian day n (1 <= n <= 365). Leap days are not counted, so in all
years February 28 is day 59 and March 1 is day 60.
o n: The zero-based Julian day (0 <= n <= 365). Leap days are counted, and it
is possible to refer to February 29.
o Mm.n.d: The d'th day (0 <= d <= 6) or week n of month m of the year (1 <=
n <= 5, 1 <= m <= 12, where week 5 means 'the last d day in month m'
which may occur in either the fourth or the fifth week). Week 1 is the first
week in which the d'th day occurs. Day zero is Sunday.
o time: This has the same format as offset except that no leading sign ('-' or
'+') is allowed. The default, if time is not given, is 02:00:00.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for tzset() method-

time.tzset()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of tzset() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import time
import os
os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
time.tzset()
print time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
time.tzset()
print time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

13:00:40 02/17/09 EST

05:00:40 02/18/09 AEDT
There are two important attributes available with time module. They are-

SN Attribute with Description

time.timezone
1 Attribute time.timezone is the offset in seconds of the local time zone (withoutDST)
from UTC (>0 in the Americas; <=0 in most of Europe, Asia, Africa).
time.tzname
2 Attribute time.tzname is a pair of locale-dependent strings, which are the namesof
the local time zone without and with DST, respectively.
The calendar Module
The calendar module supplies calendar-related functions, including functions to print a text
calendar for a given month or year.

By default, calendar takes Monday as the first day of the week and Sunday as the last one.
To change this, call the calendar.setfirstweekday() function.

Here is a list of functions available with the calendar module-

SN Function with Description

calendar.calendar(year,w=2,l=1,c=6)
Returns a multiline string with a calendar for year year formatted into three columns
1
separated by c spaces. w is the width in characters of each date; each line has
length 21*w+18+2*c. l is the number of lines for each week.
calendar.firstweekday( )
2 Returns the current setting for the weekday that starts each week. By default,
when calendar is first imported, this is 0, meaning Monday.
calendar.isleap(year)
3
Returns True if year is a leap year; otherwise, False.
calendar.leapdays(y1,y2)
4
Returns the total number of leap days in the years within range(y1,y2).
calendar.month(year,month,w=2,l=1)
Returns a multiline string with a calendar for month month of year year, one line
5
per week plus two header lines. w is the width in characters of each date; each line
has length 7*w+6. l is the number of lines for each week.
calendar.monthcalendar(year,month)
Returns a list of lists of ints. Each sublist denotes a week. Days outside month
6
month of year year are set to 0; days within the month are set to their day-of-
month, 1 and up.
calendar.monthrange(year,month)
Returns two integers. The first one is the code of the weekday for the first day of
7
the month month in year year; the second one is the number of days in the month.
Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to 6 (Sunday); month numbers are 1 to 12.
calendar.prcal(year,w=2,l=1,c=6)
8
Like print calendar.calendar(year,w,l,c).
calendar.prmonth(year,month,w=2,l=1)
9
Like print calendar.month(year,month,w,l).
 calendar.setfirstweekday(weekday)
10 Sets the first day of each week to weekday code weekday. Weekday codes are 0
(Monday) to 6 (Sunday).
calendar.timegm(tupletime)
11 The inverse of time.gmtime: accepts a time instant in time-tuple form and returns
the same instant as a floating-point number of seconds since the epoch.
calendar.weekday(year,month,day)
12 Returns the weekday code for the given date. Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to6
(Sunday); month numbers are 1 (January) to 12 (December).
 15. Python 3 – Functions
A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single, related
action. Functions provide better modularity for your application and a high degree of code
reusing.

As you already know, Python gives you many built-in functions like print(), etc. but you can
also create your own functions. These functions are called user-defined functions.

Defining a Function
You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple rules to
define a function in Python.

• Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function name and
parentheses ( ( ) ).
• Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses. You
can also define parameters inside these parentheses.
• The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the documentation
string of the function or docstring.
• The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented.
• The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an
expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return
None.

Syntax
def functionname( parameters ):
"function_docstring"
function_suite
return [expression]
By default, parameters have a positional behavior and you need to inform them in the same
order that they were defined.

Example
The following function takes a string as input parameter and prints it on the standard
screen.

def printme( str ):

"This prints a passed string into this function"
print (str)
return
Calling a Function
Defining a function gives it a name, specifies the parameters that are to be included in the
function and structures the blocks of code.

Once the basic structure of a function is finalized, you can execute it by calling it from
another function or directly from the Python prompt. Following is an example to call the
printme() function-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Function definition is here
def printme( str ):
 "This prints a passed string into this function"
print (str)
return
# Now you can call printme function
printme("This is first call to the user defined function!")
printme("Again second call to the same function")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

This is first call to the user defined function!

Again second call to the same function
Pass by Reference vs Value
All parameters (arguments) in the Python language are passed by reference. It means if
you change what a parameter refers to within a function, the change also reflects back in
the calling function. For example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Function definition is here
def changeme( mylist ):
"This changes a passed list into this function"
print ("Values inside the function before change: ", mylist)
mylist[2]=50
print ("Values inside the function after change: ", mylist)
return
# Now you can call changeme function
mylist = [10,20,30]
changeme( mylist )
print ("Values outside the function: ", mylist)
Here, we are maintaining reference of the passed object and appending values in the same
object. Therefore, this would produce the following result-

Values inside the function before change: [10, 20, 30]

Values inside the function after change: [10, 20, 50]
Values outside the function: [10, 20, 50]
There is one more example where argument is being passed by reference and the reference
is being overwritten inside the called function.

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Function definition is here
def changeme( mylist ):
"This changes a passed list into this function"
mylist = [1,2,3,4] # This would assi new reference in mylist
print ("Values inside the function: ", mylist)
return
# Now you can call changeme function
mylist = [10,20,30]
changeme( mylist )
print ("Values outside the function: ", mylist)
The parameter mylist is local to the function changeme. Changing mylist within the function
does not affect mylist. The function accomplishes nothing and finally this would produce the
following result-

Values inside the function: [1, 2, 3, 4]

Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30]
Function Arguments
You can call a function by using the following types of formal arguments-

• Required arguments
• Keyword arguments
• Default arguments
• Variable-length arguments

Required Arguments
Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional order.
Here, the number of arguments in the function call should match exactly with the function
definition.

To call the function printme(), you definitely need to pass one argument, otherwise it gives
a syntax error as follows-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Function definition is here
def printme( str ):
"This prints a passed string into this function" print (str)
return
# Now you can call printme function
printme()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "test.py", line 11, in <module>
printme()
TypeError: printme() missing 1 required positional argument: 'str'
Keyword Arguments
Keyword arguments are related to the function calls. When you use keyword arguments in a
function call, the caller identifies the arguments by the parameter name.

This allows you to skip arguments or place them out of order because the Python interpreter
is able to use the keywords provided to match the values with parameters. You can also
make keyword calls to the printme() function in the following ways-

def printme( str ):

"This prints a passed string into this function"
print (str)
return
# Now you can call printme function
printme( str = "My string")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

My string
The following example gives a clearer picture. Note that the order of parameters does not
matter.

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Function definition is here
def printinfo( name, age ):
"This prints a passed info into this function"
 print ("Name: ", name)
print ("Age ", age)
return
# Now you can call printinfo function
printinfo( age=50, name="miki" )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Name: miki Age 50

Default Arguments
A default argument is an argument that assumes a default value if a value is not provided in
the function call for that argument. The following example gives an idea on default
arguments, it prints default age if it is not passed.

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Function definition is here
def printinfo( name, age = 35 ):
"This prints a passed info into this function"
print ("Name: ", name)
print ("Age ", age)
return
# Now you can call printinfo function
printinfo( age=50, name="miki" )
printinfo( name="miki" )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Name: miki Age 50

Name: miki Age 35
Variable-length Arguments
You may need to process a function for more arguments than you specified while defining
the function. These arguments are called variable-length arguments and are not named in
the function definition, unlike required and default arguments.

Syntax for a function with non-keyword variable arguments is given below-

def functionname([formal_args,] *var_args_tuple ):

"function_docstring"
function_suite
return [expression]
An asterisk (*) is placed before the variable name that holds the values of all nonkeyword
variable arguments. This tuple remains empty if no additional arguments are specified
during the function call. Following is a simple example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Function definition is here
def printinfo( arg1, *vartuple ):
"This prints a variable passed arguments"
print ("Output is: ")
print (arg1)
for var in vartuple:
print (var)
return
# Now you can call printinfo function
printinfo( 10 )
 printinfo( 70, 60, 50 )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Output is: 10
Output is: 70
60
50
The Anonymous Functions
These functions are called anonymous because they are not declared in the standard
manner by using the def keyword. You can use the lambda keyword to create small
anonymous functions.

• Lambda forms can take any number of arguments but return just one value in the
form of an expression. They cannot contain commands or multiple expressions.
• An anonymous function cannot be a direct call to print because lambda requires an
expression.
• Lambda functions have their own local namespace and cannot access variables other
than those in their parameter list and those in the global namespace.
• Although it appears that lambdas are a one-line version of a function, they are not
equivalent to inline statements in C or C++, whose purpose is to stack allocation by
passing function, during invocation for performance reasons.

Syntax
The syntax of lambda function contains only a single statement, which is as follows-

lambda [arg1 [,arg2, argn]]:expression

Following is an example to show how lambda form of function works-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Function definition is here
sum = lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 + arg2
# Now you can call sum as a function
print ("Value of total : ", sum( 10, 20 ))
print ("Value of total : ", sum( 20, 20 ))
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Value of total : 30
Value of total : 40
The return Statement
The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an expression to
the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return None.

All the examples given above are not returning any value. You can return a value from a
function as follows-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Function definition is here
def sum( arg1, arg2 ):
# Add both the parameters and return them."
total = arg1 + arg2
print ("Inside the function : ", total)
return total
 # Now you can call sum function
total = sum( 10, 20 )
print ("Outside the function : ", total )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Inside the function : 30

Outside the function : 30
Scope of Variables
All variables in a program may not be accessible at all locations in that program. This
depends on where you have declared a variable.

The scope of a variable determines the portion of the program where you can access a
particular identifier. There are two basic scopes of variables in Python-

• Global variables
• Local variables

Global vs. Local variables

Variables that are defined inside a function body have a local scope, and those defined
outside have a global scope.

This means that local variables can be accessed only inside the function in which they are
declared, whereas global variables can be accessed throughout the program body by all
functions. When you call a function, the variables declared inside it are brought into scope.
Following is a simple example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
total = 0 # This is global variable.
# Function definition is here
def sum( arg1, arg2 ):
# Add both the parameters and return them."
total = arg1 + arg2; # Here total is local variable.
print ("Inside the function local total : ", total)
return total
# Now you can call sum function
sum( 10, 20 )
print ("Outside the function global total : ", total )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Inside the function local total : 30

Outside the function global total : 0
Python Built-in Functions
The Python built-in functions are defined as the functions whose functionality is pre-defined
in Python. The python interpreter has several functions that are always present for use.
These functions are known as Built-in Functions. There are several built-in functions in
Python which are listed below:

Python abs() Function

The python abs() function is used to return the absolute value of a number. It takes only
one argument, a number whose absolute value is to be returned. The argument can be an
integer and floating-point number. If the argument is a complex number, then, abs()
returns its magnitude.
Example
# integer number
integer = -20
print('Absolute value of -40 is:', abs(integer))
# floating number
floating = -20.83
print('Absolute value of -40.83 is:', abs(floating))
Output:
Absolute value of -20 is: 20
Absolute value of -20.83 is: 20.83
Python all() Function
The python all() function accepts an iterable object (such as list, dictionary, etc.). It returns
true if all items in passed iterable are true. Otherwise, it returns False. If the iterable object
is empty, the all() function returns True.

Example
# all values true
k = [1, 3, 4, 6]
print(all(k))
# all values false
k = [0, False]
print(all(k))
# one false value
k = [1, 3, 7, 0]
print(all(k))
# one true value
k = [0, False, 5]
print(all(k))
# empty iterable
k = []
print(all(k))
Output:
True
False
False
False
True
Python bin() Function
The python bin() function is used to return the binary representation of a specified integer.
A result always starts with the prefix 0b.

Example
x = 10
y = bin(x)
print (y)
Output:
0b1010
Python bool()
The python bool() converts a value to boolean(True or False) using the standard truth
testing procedure.

Example
test1 = []
print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
test1 = [0]
print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
test1 = 0.0
print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
test1 = None
print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
test1 = True
print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
test1 = 'Easy string'
print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
Output:

[] is False
[0] is True
0.0 is False
None is False
True is True
Easy string is True
Python bytes()
The python bytes() in Python is used for returning a bytes object. It is an immutable version
of the bytearray() function.

It can create empty bytes object of the specified size.

Example
string = "Hello World."
array = bytes(string, 'utf-8')
print(array)
Output:
b ' Hello World.'
Python callable() Function
A python callable() function in Python is something that can be called. This built-in function
checks and returns true if the object passed appears to be callable, otherwise false.

Example
x=8
print(callable(x))
Output:
False
Python compile() Function
The python compile() function takes source code as input and returns a code object which
can later be executed by exec() function.

Example
# compile string source to code
code_str = 'x=5\ny=10\nprint("sum =",x+y)'
code = compile(code_str, 'sum.py', 'exec')
print(type(code))
exec(code)
exec(x)
Output:
<class 'code'>
sum = 15
Python exec() Function
The python exec() function is used for the dynamic execution of Python program which can
either be a string or object code and it accepts large blocks of code, unlike the eval()
function which only accepts a single expression.

Example
x=8
exec('print(x==8)')
exec('print(x+4)')
Output:
True
12
Python sum() Function
As the name says, python sum() function is used to get the sum of numbers of an iterable,
i.e., list.

Example
s = sum([1, 2,4 ])
print(s)
s = sum([1, 2, 4], 10)
print(s)
Output:

7
17
Python any() Function
The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true. Otherwise, it
returns False.

Example
l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
print(any(l))
l = [0, False]
 print(any(l))
l = [0, False, 5]
print(any(l))
l = []
print(any(l))
Output:

True
False
True
False
Python ascii() Function
The python ascii() function returns a string containing a printable representation of an
object and escapes the non-ASCII characters in the string using \x, \u or \U escapes.

Example
normalText = 'Python is interesting'
print(ascii(normalText))
otherText = 'Pythön is interesting'
print(ascii(otherText))
print('Pyth\xf6n is interesting')
Output:
'Python is interesting'
'Pyth\xf6n is interesting'
Pythön is interesting
Python bytearray()
The python bytearray() returns a bytearray object and can convert objects into bytearray
objects, or create an empty bytearray object of the specified size.

Example
string = "Python is a programming language."
# string with encoding 'utf-8'
arr = bytearray(string, 'utf-8')
print(arr)
Output:
bytearray(b'Python is a programming language.')
Python eval() Function
The python eval() function parses the expression passed to it and runs python
expression(code) within the program.

Example
x=8
print(eval('x + 1'))
Output:

9
Python float()
The python float() function returns a floating-point number from a number or string.

Example
# for integers
print(float(9))
# for floats
print(float(8.19))
# for string floats
print(float("-24.27"))
# for string floats with whitespaces
print(float(“-17.19\n"))
# string float error
print(float("xyz"))
Output:

9.0
8.19
-24.27
-17.19
ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'xyz'
Python format() Function
The python format() function returns a formatted representation of the given value.

Example
# d, f and b are a type
# integer
print(format(123, "d"))
# float arguments
print(format(123.4567898, "f"))
# binary format
print(format(12, "b"))
Output:
123
123.456790
1100
Python frozenset()
The python frozenset() function returns an immutable frozenset object initialized with
elements from the given iterable.

Example
# tuple of letters
letters = ('m', 'r', 'o', 't', 's')
fSet = frozenset(letters)
print('Frozen set is:', fSet)
print('Empty frozen set is:', frozenset())
Output:
Frozen set is: frozenset({'o', 'm', 's', 'r', 't'})
Empty frozen set is: frozenset()
Python getattr() Function
The python getattr() function returns the value of a named attribute of an object. If it is not
found, it returns the default value.

Example
class Details:
age = 22
name = "Phill"
details = Details()
print('The age is:', getattr(details, "age"))
print('The age is:', details.age)
Output:
The age is: 22
The age is: 22
Python globals() Function
The python globals() function returns the dictionary of the current global symbol table.

A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary information
about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.

Example
age = 22
globals()['age'] = 22
print('The age is:', age)
Output:
The age is: 22
Python hasattr() Function
The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true, otherwise it returns
False.

Example
l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
print(any(l))
l = [0, False]
print(any(l))
l = [0, False, 5]
print(any(l))
l = []
print(any(l))
Output:
True
False
True
False
Python iter() Function
The python iter() function is used to return an iterator object. It creates an object which can
be iterated one element at a time.
Example
# list of numbers
list = [1,2,3,4,5]
listIter = iter(list)
# prints '1'
print(next(listIter))
# prints '2'
print(next(listIter))
# prints '3'
print(next(listIter))
# prints '4'
print(next(listIter))
# prints '5'
print(next(listIter))
Output:

1
2
3
4
5
Python len() Function
The python len() function is used to return the length (the number of items) of an object.

Example
strA = 'Python'
print(len(strA))
Output:
6
Python list()
The python list() creates a list in python.

Example
# empty list
print(list())
# string
String = 'abcde'
print(list(String))
# tuple
Tuple = (1,2,3,4,5)
print(list(Tuple))
# list
List = [1,2,3,4,5]
print(list(List))
Output:
[]
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
[1,2,3,4,5]
[1,2,3,4,5]
Python locals() Function
The python locals() method updates and returns the dictionary of the current local symbol
table.

A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary information
about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.

Example
def localsAbsent():
return locals()
def localsPresent():
present = True
return locals()
print('localsNotPresent:', localsAbsent())
print('localsPresent:', localsPresent())
Output:
localsAbsent: {}
localsPresent: {'present': True}
Python map() Function
The python map() function is used to return a list of results after applying a given function
to each item of an iterable(list, tuple etc.).

Example
def calculateAddition(n):
return n+n
numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4)
result = map(calculateAddition, numbers)
print(result)
# converting map object to set
numbersAddition = set(result)
print(numbersAddition)
Output:
<map object at 0x7fb04a6bec18>
{8, 2, 4, 6}
Python memoryview() Function
The python memoryview() function returns a memoryview object of the given argument.

Example
#A random bytearray
randomByteArray = bytearray('ABC', 'utf-8')
mv = memoryview(randomByteArray)
# access the memory view's zeroth index
print(mv[0])
# It create byte from memory view
print(bytes(mv[0:2]))
# It create list from memory view
print(list(mv[0:3]))
Output:
65
b'AB'
[65, 66, 67]
Python object()
The python object() returns an empty object. It is a base for all the classes and holds the
built-in properties and methods which are default for all the classes.

Example
python = object()
print(type(python))
print(dir(python))
Output:

<class 'object'>
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
'__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__',
'__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__']
Python open() Function
The python open() function opens the file and returns a corresponding file object.

Example
# opens python.text file of the current directory
f = open("python.txt")
# specifying full path
f = open("C:/Python33/README.txt")
Output:
Since the mode is omitted, the file is opened in 'r' mode; opens for reading.
Python chr() Function
Python chr() function is used to get a string representing a character which points to a
Unicode code integer. For example, chr(97) returns the string 'a'. This function takes an
integer argument and throws an error if it exceeds the specified range. The standard range
of the argument is from 0 to 1,114,111.

Example
# Calling function
result = chr(102) # It returns string representation of a char
result2 = chr(112)
# Displaying result
print(result)
print(result2)
# Verify, is it string type?
print("is it string type:", type(result) is str)
Output:

ValueError: chr() arg not in range(0x110000)

Python complex()
Python complex() function is used to convert numbers or string into a complex number. This
method takes two optional parameters and returns a complex number. The first parameter
is called a real and second as imaginary parts.

Example
# Python complex() function example
# Calling function
a = complex(1) # Passing single parameter
b = complex(1,2) # Passing both parameters
# Displaying result
print(a)
print(b)
Output:
(1.5+0j)
(1.5+2.2j)
Python delattr() Function
Python delattr() function is used to delete an attribute from a class. It takes two
parameters, first is an object of the class and second is an attribute which we want to
delete. After deleting the attribute, it no longer available in the class and throws an error if
try to call it using the class object.

Example
class Student:
id = 101
name = "Pranshu"
email = "pranshu@abc.com"
# Declaring function
def getinfo(self):
print(self.id, self.name, self.email)
s = Student()
s.getinfo()
delattr(Student,'course') # Removing attribute which is not available
s.getinfo() # error: throws an error
Output:
101 Pranshu pranshu@abc.com
AttributeError: course
Python dir() Function
Python dir() function returns the list of names in the current local scope. If the object on
which method is called has a method named __dir__(), this method will be called and must
return the list of attributes. It takes a single object type argument.

Example
# Calling function
att = dir()
# Displaying result
print(att)
Output:
['__annotations__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__',
'__name__', '__package__', '__spec__']
Python divmod() Function
Python divmod() function is used to get remainder and quotient of two numbers. This
function takes two numeric arguments and returns a tuple. Both arguments are required
and numeric

Example
# Python divmod() function example
# Calling function
result = divmod(10,2)
# Displaying result
print(result)
Output:
(5, 0)
Python enumerate() Function
Python enumerate() function returns an enumerated object. It takes two parameters, first is
a sequence of elements and the second is the start index of the sequence. We can get the
elements in sequence either through a loop or next() method.

Example
# Calling function
result = enumerate([1,2,3])
# Displaying result
print(result)
print(list(result))
Output:
<enumerate object at 0x7ff641093d80>
[(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)]
Python dict()
Python dict() function is a constructor which creates a dictionary. Python dictionary provides
three different constructors to create a dictionary:

If no argument is passed, it creates an empty dictionary.

If a positional argument is given, a dictionary is created with the same key-value pairs.
Otherwise, pass an iterable object.

If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are added to the
dictionary created from the positional argument.

Example
# Calling function
result = dict() # returns an empty dictionary
result2 = dict(a=1,b=2)
# Displaying result
print(result)
 print(result2)
Output:
{}
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}
Python filter() Function
Python filter() function is used to get filtered elements. This function takes two arguments,
first is a function and the second is iterable. The filter function returns a sequence of those
elements of iterable object for which function returns true value.

The first argument can be none, if the function is not available and returns only elements
that are true.

Example
# Python filter() function example
def filterdata(x):
if x>5:
return x
# Calling function
result = filter(filterdata,(1,2,6))
# Displaying result
print(list(result))
Output:
[6]
Python hash() Function
Python hash() function is used to get the hash value of an object. Python calculates the
hash value by using the hash algorithm. The hash values are integers and used to compare
dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup. We can hash only the types which are given
below:

Hashable types: * bool * int * long * float * string * Unicode * tuple * code object.

Example
# Calling function
result = hash(21) # integer value
result2 = hash(22.2) # decimal value
# Displaying result
print(result)
print(result2)
Output:
21
461168601842737174
Python help() Function
Python help() function is used to get help related to the object passed during the call. It
takes an optional parameter and returns help information. If no argument is given, it shows
the Python help console. It internally calls python's help function.
Example
# Calling function
info = help() # No argument
# Displaying result
print(info)
Output:

Welcome to Python 3.5's help utility!

Python min() Function
Python min() function is used to get the smallest element from the collection. This function
takes two arguments, first is a collection of elements and second is key, and returns the
smallest element from the collection.

Example
# Calling function
small = min(2225,325,2025) # returns smallest element
small2 = min(1000.25,2025.35,5625.36,10052.50)
# Displaying result
print(small)
print(small2)
Output:
325
1000.25
Python set() Function
In python, a set is a built-in class, and this function is a constructor of this class. It is used
to create a new set using elements passed during the call. It takes an iterable object as an
argument and returns a new set object.

Example
# Calling function
result = set() # empty set
result2 = set('12')
result3 = set('javatpoint')
# Displaying result
print(result)
print(result2)
print(result3)
Output:
set()
{'1', '2'}
{'a', 'n', 'v', 't', 'j', 'p', 'i', 'o'}
Python hex() Function
Python hex() function is used to generate hex value of an integer argument. It takes an
integer argument and returns an integer converted into a hexadecimal string. In case, we
want to get a hexadecimal value of a float, then use float.hex() function.
Example
# Calling function
result = hex(1)
# integer value
result2 = hex(342)
# Displaying result
print(result)
print(result2)
Output:
0x1
0x156
Python id() Function
Python id() function returns the identity of an object. This is an integer which is guaranteed
to be unique. This function takes an argument as an object and returns a unique integer
number which represents identity. Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the
same id() value.

Example
# Calling function
val = id("Javatpoint") # string object
val2 = id(1200) # integer object
val3 = id([25,336,95,236,92,3225]) # List object
# Displaying result
print(val)
print(val2)
print(val3)
Output:
139963782059696
139963805666864
139963781994504
Python setattr() Function
Python setattr() function is used to set a value to the object's attribute. It takes three
arguments, i.e., an object, a string, and an arbitrary value, and returns none. It is helpful
when we want to add a new attribute to an object and set a value to it.

Example
class Student:
id = 0
name = ""

def __init__(self, id, name):

self.id = id
self.name = name

student = Student(102,"Sohan")
print(student.id)
print(student.name)
#print(student.email) product error
 setattr(student, 'email','sohan@abc.com') # adding new attribute
print(student.email)
Output:
102
Sohan
sohan@abc.com
Python slice() Function
Python slice() function is used to get a slice of elements from the collection of elements.
Python provides two overloaded slice functions. The first function takes a single argument
while the second function takes three arguments and returns a slice object. This slice object
can be used to get a subsection of the collection.

Example
# Calling function
result = slice(5) # returns slice object
result2 = slice(0,5,3) # returns slice object
# Displaying result
print(result)
print(result2)
Output:
slice(None, 5, None)
slice(0, 5, 3)
Python sorted() Function
Python sorted() function is used to sort elements. By default, it sorts elements in an
ascending order but can be sorted in descending also. It takes four arguments and returns a
collection in sorted order. In the case of a dictionary, it sorts only keys, not values.

Example
str = "javatpoint" # declaring string
# Calling function
sorted1 = sorted(str) # sorting string
# Displaying result
print(sorted1)
Output:
['a', 'a', 'i', 'j', 'n', 'o', 'p', 't', 't', 'v']
Python next() Function
Python next() function is used to fetch next item from the collection. It takes two
arguments, i.e., an iterator and a default value, and returns an element.

This method calls on iterator and throws an error if no item is present. To avoid the error,
we can set a default value.

Example
number = iter([256, 32, 82]) # Creating iterator
# Calling function
item = next(number)
# Displaying result
 print(item)
# second item
item = next(number)
print(item)
# third item
item = next(number)
print(item)
Output:
256
32
82
Python input() Function
Python input() function is used to get an input from the user. It prompts for the user input
and reads a line. After reading data, it converts it into a string and returns it. It throws an
error EOFError if EOF is read.

Example
# Calling function
val = input("Enter a value: ")
# Displaying result
print("You entered:",val)
Output:
Enter a value: 45
You entered: 45
Python int() Function
Python int() function is used to get an integer value. It returns an expression converted into
an integer number. If the argument is a floating-point, the conversion truncates the
number. If the argument is outside the integer range, then it converts the number into a
long type.

If the number is not a number or if a base is given, the number must be a string.

Example
# Calling function
val = int(10) # integer value
val2 = int(10.52) # float value
val3 = int('10') # string value
# Displaying result
print("integer values :",val, val2, val3)
Output:
integer values : 10 10 10
Python isinstance() Function
Python isinstance() function is used to check whether the given object is an instance of that
class. If the object belongs to the class, it returns true. Otherwise returns False. It also
returns true if the class is a subclass.

The isinstance() function takes two arguments, i.e., object and classinfo, and then it returns
either True or False.
Example
class Student:
id = 101
name = "John"
def __init__(self, id, name):
self.id=id
self.name=name
student = Student(1010,"John")
lst = [12,34,5,6,767]
# Calling function
print(isinstance(student, Student)) # isinstance of Student class
print(isinstance(lst, Student))
Output:
True
False
Python oct() Function
Python oct() function is used to get an octal value of an integer number. This method takes
an argument and returns an integer converted into an octal string. It throws an error
TypeError, if argument type is other than an integer.

Example
# Calling function
val = oct(10)
# Displaying result
print("Octal value of 10:",val)
Output:
Octal value of 10: 0o12
Python ord() Function
The python ord() function returns an integer representing Unicode code point for the given
Unicode character.

Example
# Code point of an integer
print(ord('8'))
# Code point of an alphabet
print(ord('R'))
# Code point of a character
print(ord('&'))
Output:

56
82
38
Python pow() Function
The python pow() function is used to compute the power of a number. It returns x to the
power of y. If the third argument(z) is given, it returns x to the power of y modulus z, i.e.
(x, y) % z.
Example
# positive x, positive y (x**y)
print(pow(4, 2))
# negative x, positive y
print(pow(-4, 2))
# positive x, negative y (x**-y)
print(pow(4, -2))
# negative x, negative y
print(pow(-4, -2))
Output:
16
16
0.0625
0.0625
Python print() Function
The python print() function prints the given object to the screen or other standard output
devices.

Example
print("Python is programming language.")
x=7
# Two objects passed
print("x =", x)
y=x
# Three objects passed
print('x =', x, '= y')
Output:
Python is programming language.
x=7
x=7=y
Python range() Function
The python range() function returns an immutable sequence of numbers starting from 0 by
default, increments by 1 (by default) and ends at a specified number.

Example
# empty range
print(list(range(0)))
# using the range(stop)
print(list(range(4)))
# using the range(start, stop)
print(list(range(1,7 )))
Output:
[]
[0, 1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
Python reversed() Function
The python reversed() function returns the reversed iterator of the given sequence.

Example
# for string
String = 'Java'
print(list(reversed(String)))
# for tuple
Tuple = ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
print(list(reversed(Tuple)))
# for range
Range = range(8, 12)
print(list(reversed(Range)))
# for list
List = [1, 2, 7, 5]
print(list(reversed(List)))
Output:
['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']
['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']
[11, 10, 9, 8]
[5, 7, 2, 1]
Python round() Function
The python round() function rounds off the digits of a number and returns the floating point
number.

Example
# for integers
print(round(10))
# for floating point
print(round(10.8))
# even choice
print(round(6.6))
Output:
10
11
7
Python issubclass() Function
The python issubclass() function returns true if object argument(first argument) is a
subclass of second class(second argument).

Example
class Rectangle:
def __init__(rectangleType):
print('Rectangle is a ', rectangleType)
class Square(Rectangle):
def __init__(self):
Rectangle.__init__('square')
print(issubclass(Square, Rectangle))
 print(issubclass(Square, list))
print(issubclass(Square, (list, Rectangle)))
print(issubclass(Rectangle, (list, Rectangle)))
Output:
True
False
True
True
Python str
The python str() converts a specified value into a string.

Example
str('4')
Output:
'4'
Python tuple() Function
The python tuple() function is used to create a tuple object.

Example
t1 = tuple()
print('t1=', t1)
# creating a tuple from a list
t2 = tuple([1, 6, 9])
print('t2=', t2)
# creating a tuple from a string
t1 = tuple('Java')
print('t1=',t1)
# creating a tuple from a dictionary
t1 = tuple({4: 'four', 5: 'five'})
print('t1=',t1)
Output:
t1= ()
t2= (1, 6, 9)
t1= ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
t1= (4, 5)
Python type()
The python type() returns the type of the specified object if a single argument is passed to
the type() built in function. If three arguments are passed, then it returns a new type
object.

Example
List = [4, 5]
print(type(List))
Dict = {4: 'four', 5: 'five'}
print(type(Dict))
class Python:
a=0
 InstanceOfPython = Python()
print(type(InstanceOfPython))
Output:
<class 'list'>
<class 'dict'>
<class '__main__.Python'>
Python vars() function
The python vars() function returns the __dict__ attribute of the given object.

Example
class Python:
def __init__(self, x = 7, y = 9):
self.x = x
self.y = y
InstanceOfPython = Python()
print(vars(InstanceOfPython))
Output:
{'y': 9, 'x': 7}
Python zip() Function
The python zip() Function returns a zip object, which maps a similar index of multiple
containers. It takes iterables (can be zero or more), makes it an iterator that aggregates
the elements based on iterables passed, and returns an iterator of tuples.

Example
numList = [4,5, 6]
strList = ['four', 'five', 'six']
# No iterables are passed
result = zip()
# Converting itertor to list
resultList = list(result)
print(resultList)
# Two iterables are passed
result = zip(numList, strList)
# Converting itertor to set
resultSet = set(result)
print(resultSet)
Output:
[]
{(5, 'five'), (4, 'four'), (6, 'six')}
 16. Python 3 – Modules
A module allows you to logically organize your Python code. Grouping related code into a
module makes the code easier to understand and use. A module is a Python object with
arbitrarily named attributes that you can bind and reference.

Simply, a module is a file consisting of Python code. A module can define functions, classes
and variables. A module can also include runnable code.

Example
The Python code for a module named aname normally resides in a file namedaname.py.
Here is an example of a simple module, support.py-

def print_func( par ):

print("Hello : ", par)
return
The import Statement
You can use any Python source file as a module by executing an import statement in some
other Python source file. The import has the following syntax-

import module1[, module2[,... moduleN]

When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports the module if the module
is present in the search path. A search path is a list of directories that the interpreter
searches before importing a module. For example, to import the module hello.py, you need
to put the following command at the top of the script-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Import module support
import support
# Now you can call defined function that module as follows
support.print_func("Zara")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Hello : Zara
A module is loaded only once, regardless of the number of times it is imported. This
prevents the module execution from happening repeatedly, if multiple imports occur.

The from...import Statement

Python's from statement lets you import specific attributes from a module into the current
namespace. The from...import has the following syntax-

from modname import name1[, name2[, ... nameN]]

For example, to import the function fibonacci from the module fib, use the following
statement-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Fibonacci numbers module
def fib(n): # return Fibonacci series up to n
result = []
a, b = 0, 1
while b < n:
result.append(b)
a, b = b, a+b
 return result
>>> from fib import fib
>>> fib(100)
[1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
This statement does not import the entire module fib into the current namespace; it just
introduces the item fibonacci from the module fib into the global symbol table of the
importing module.

The from...import * Statement:

It is also possible to import all the names from a module into the current namespace by
using the following import statement-

from modname import *

This provides an easy way to import all the items from a module into the current
namespace; however, this statement should be used sparingly.

Executing Modules as Scripts

Within a module, the module’s name (as a string) is available as the value of the global
variable name . The code in the module will be executed, just as if you imported it, but
with the name set to " main ".

Add this code at the end of your module-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Fibonacci numbers module
def fib(n): # return Fibonacci series up to n
result = []
a, b = 0, 1
while b < n:
result.append(b)
a, b = b, a+b
return result
if name == " main ":
f=fib(100)
print(f)
When you run the above code, the following output will be displayed.

[1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

Locating Modules
When you import a module, the Python interpreter searches for the module in the following
sequences-

• The current directory.

• If the module is not found, Python then searches each directory in the shell variable
PYTHONPATH.
• If all else fails, Python checks the default path. On UNIX, this default path is
normally /usr/local/lib/python3/.

The module search path is stored in the system module sys as the sys.path variable. The
sys.path variable contains the current directory, PYTHONPATH, and the installation-
dependent default.
Namespaces and Scoping
Variables are names (identifiers) that map to objects. A namespace is a dictionary of
variable names (keys) and their corresponding objects (values).

• A Python statement can access variables in a local namespace and in the global
namespace. If a local and a global variable have the same name, the local variable
shadows the global variable.
• Each function has its own local namespace. Class methods follow the same scoping
rule as ordinary functions.
• Python makes educated guesses on whether variables are local or global. It assumes
that any variable assigned a value in a function is local.
• Therefore, in order to assign a value to a global variable within a function, you must
first use the global statement.
• The statement global VarName tells Python that VarName is a global variable. Python
stops searching the local namespace for the variable.

For example, we define a variable Money in the global namespace. Within the function
Money, we assign Money a value, therefore Python assumes Money as a local variable.

However, we accessed the value of the local variable Money before setting it, so an
UnboundLocalError is the result. Uncommenting the global statement fixes the problem.

#!/usr/bin/python3
Money = 2000
def AddMoney():
# Uncomment the following line to fix the code:
# global Money
Money = Money + 1
print (Money)
AddMoney()
print (Money)
The dir( ) Function
The dir() built-in function returns a sorted list of strings containing the names defined by a
module.

The list contains the names of all the modules, variables and functions that are defined in a
module. Following is a simple example-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Import built-in module math
import math
content = dir(math)
print (content)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

[' doc ', ' file ', ' name ', 'acos', 'asin', 'atan', 'atan2', 'ceil', 'cos', 'cosh', 'degrees', 'e',
'exp', 'fabs', 'floor', 'fmod', 'frexp', 'hypot', 'ldexp', 'log', 'log10', 'modf', 'pi', 'pow',
'radians', 'sin', 'sinh', 'sqrt', 'tan', 'tanh']
Here, the special string variable name is the module's name, and file is the filename
from which the module was loaded.
The globals() and locals() Functions
The globals() and locals() functions can be used to return the names in the global and local
namespaces depending on the location from where they are called.

• If locals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can be
accessed locally from that function.
• If globals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can be
accessed globally from that function.

The return type of both these functions is dictionary. Therefore, names can be extracted
using the keys() function.

The reload() Function

When a module is imported into a script, the code in the top-level portion of a module is
executed only once.

Therefore, if you want to reexecute the top-level code in a module, you can use the
reload() function. The reload() function imports a previously imported module again. The
syntax of the reload() function is this-

reload(module_name)
Here, module_name is the name of the module you want to reload and not the string
containing the module name. For example, to reload hello module, do the following-

reload(hello)
Packages in Python
A package is a hierarchical file directory structure that defines a single Python application
environment that consists of modules and subpackages and sub-subpackages, and so on.

Consider a file Pots.py available in Phone directory. This file has the following line of source
code-

#!/usr/bin/python3
def Pots():
print ("I'm Pots Phone")
Similarly, we have other two files having different functions with the same name as above.
They are −

• Phone/Isdn.py file having function Isdn()

• Phone/G3.py file having function G3()

Now, create one more file init .py in the Phone directory-

• Phone/ init .py

To make all of your functions available when you have imported Phone, you need to put
explicit import statements in init .py as follows-

from Pots import Pots

from Isdn import Isdn
from G3 import G3
After you add these lines to init .py, you have all of these classes available when you import
the Phone package.
 #!/usr/bin/python3
# Now import your Phone Package.
import Phone
Phone.Pots()
Phone.Isdn()
Phone.G3()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

I'm Pots Phone

I'm 3G Phone
I'm ISDN Phone
In the above example, we have taken example of a single function in each file, but you can
keep multiple functions in your files. You can also define different Python classes in those
files and then you can create your packages out of those classes.
 17. Python 3 – Files I/O
This chapter covers all the basic I/O functions available in Python 3. For more functions,
please refer to the standard Python documentation.

Printing to the Screen

The simplest way to produce output is using the print statement where you can pass zero or
more expressions separated by commas. This function converts the expressions you pass
into a string and writes the result to standard output as follows-

#!/usr/bin/python3
print ("Python is really a great language,", "isn't it?")
This produces the following result on your standard screen-

Python is really a great language, isn't it?

Reading Keyboard Input
Python 2 has two built-in functions to read data from standard input, which by default
comes from the keyboard. These functions are input() and raw_input()

In Python 3, raw_input() function is deprecated. Moreover, input() functions read data from
keyboard as string, irrespective of whether it is enclosed with quotes ('' or "" ) or not.

The input Function

The input([prompt]) function is equivalent to raw_input, except that it assumes that the
input is a valid Python expression and returns the evaluated result to you.

#!/usr/bin/python3
>>> x=input("something:") something:10
>>> x '10'
>>> x=input("something:")
something:'10' #entered data treated as string with or without ''
>>> x "'10'"
Opening and Closing Files
Until now, you have been reading and writing to the standard input and output. Now, we
will see how to use actual data files.

Python provides basic functions and methods necessary to manipulate files by default. You
can do most of the file manipulation using a file object.

The open Function

Before you can read or write a file, you have to open it using Python's built-in open()
function. This function creates a file object, which would be utilized to call other support
methods associated with it.

Syntax
file object = open(file_name [, access_mode][, buffering])
Here are parameter details-

• file_name: The file_name argument is a string value that contains the name of the
file that you want to access.
 • access_mode: The access_mode determines the mode in which the file has to be
opened, i.e., read, write, append, etc. A complete list of possible values is given
below in the table. This is an optional parameter and the default file access mode is
read (r).
• buffering: If the buffering value is set to 0, no buffering takes place. If the buffering
value is 1, line buffering is performed while accessing a file. If you specify the
buffering value as an integer greater than 1, then buffering action is performed with
the indicated buffer size. If negative, the buffer size is the system default (default
behavior).

Here is a list of the different modes of opening a file-

Modes Description
Opens a file for reading only. The file pointer is placed at the beginning of the
r
file. This is the default mode.
Opens a file for reading only in binary format. The file pointer is placed at the
rb
beginning of the file. This is the default mode.
Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file pointer placed at the
r+
beginning of the file.
Opens a file for both reading and writing in binary format. The file pointer
rb+
placed at the beginning of the file.
Opens a file for writing only. Overwrites the file if the file exists. If the file
w
does not exist, creates a new file for writing.
Opens a file for writing only in binary format. Overwrites the file if the file
wb
exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.
Opens a file for both writing and reading. Overwrites the existing file if the file
w+
exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for reading and writing.
Opens a file for both writing and reading in binary format. Overwrites the
wb+ existing file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for
reading and writing.
Opens a file for appending. The file pointer is at the end of the file if the file
a exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file does not exist, it
creates a new file for writing.
Opens a file for appending in binary format. The file pointer is at the end of the
ab file if the file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file doesnot
exist, it creates a new file for writing.
Opens a file for both appending and reading. The file pointer is at the end of
a+ the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. If the file does not
exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing.
Opens a file for both appending and reading in binary format. The file pointeris
ab+ at the end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. Ifthe
file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing.
The file Object Attributes
Once a file is opened and you have one file object, you can get various information related
to that file.

Here is a list of all the attributes related to a file object-

Attribute Description
file.closed Returns true if file is closed, false otherwise.

file.mode Returns access mode with which file was opened.

file.name Returns name of the file.

Note: softspace attribute is not supported in Python 3.x

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
print ("Closed or not : ", fo.closed)
print ("Opening mode : ", fo.mode)
fo.close()
This produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Closed or not : False
Opening mode : wb
The close() Method
The close() method of a file object flushes any unwritten information and closes the file
object, after which no more writing can be done.

Python automatically closes a file when the reference object of a file is reassigned to
another file. It is a good practice to use the close() method to close a file.

Syntax
fileObject.close();
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
# Close opened file
fo.close()
This produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Reading and Writing Files
The file object provides a set of access methods to make our lives easier. We would see how
to use read() and write() methods to read and write files.
The write() Method
The write() method writes any string to an open file. It is important to note that Python
strings can have binary data and not just text.

The write() method does not add a newline character ('\n') to the end of the string-

Syntax
fileObject.write(string);
Here, passed parameter is the content to be written into the opened file.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "w")
fo.write( "Python is a great language.\nYeah its great!!\n")
# Close opend file fo.close()
The above method would create foo.txt file and would write given content in that file and
finally it would close that file. If you would open this file, it would have the following
content-

Python is a great language. Yeah its great!!

The read() Method
The read() method reads a string from an open file. It is important to note that Python
strings can have binary data apart from the text data.

Syntax
fileObject.read([count]);
Here, passed parameter is the number of bytes to be read from the opened file. This
method starts reading from the beginning of the file and if count is missing, then it tries to
read as much as possible, maybe until the end of file.

Example
Let us take a file foo.txt, which we created above.

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
str = fo.read(10)
print ("Read String is : ", str) # Close opened file
fo.close()
This produces the following result-

Read String is : Python is

File Positions
The tell() method tells you the current position within the file; in other words, the next read
or write will occur at that many bytes from the beginning of the file.
The seek(offset[, from]) method changes the current file position. The offset argument
indicates the number of bytes to be moved. The from argument specifies the reference
position from where the bytes are to be moved.

If from is set to 0, the beginning of the file is used as the reference position. If it is set to 1,
the current position is used as the reference position. If it is set to 2 then the end of the file
would be taken as the reference position.

Example
Let us take a file foo.txt, which we created above.

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
str = fo.read(10)
print ("Read String is : ", str)
# Check current position
position = fo.tell()
print ("Current file position : ", position)
# Reposition pointer at the beginning once again
position = fo.seek(0, 0)
str = fo.read(10)
print ("Again read String is : ", str) # Close opened file
fo.close()
This produces the following result-

Read String is : Python is

Current file position : 10
Again read String is : Python is
Renaming and Deleting Files
Python os module provides methods that help you perform file-processing operations, such
as renaming and deleting files.

To use this module, you need to import it first and then you can call any related functions.

The rename() Method

The rename() method takes two arguments, the current filename and the new filename.

Syntax
os.rename(current_file_name, new_file_name)
Example
Following is an example to rename an existing file test1.txt-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import os
# Rename a file from test1.txt to test2.txt
os.rename( "test1.txt", "test2.txt" )
The remove() Method
You can use the remove() method to delete files by supplying the name of the file to be
deleted as the argument.
Syntax
os.remove(file_name)
Example
Following is an example to delete an existing file test2.txt-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import os
# Delete file test2.txt
os.remove("text2.txt")
Directories in Python
All files are contained within various directories, and Python has no problem handling these
too. The os module has several methods that help you create, remove, and change
directories.

The mkdir() Method

You can use the mkdir() method of the os module to create directories in the current
directory. You need to supply an argument to this method, which contains the name of the
directory to be created.

Syntax
os.mkdir("newdir")
Example
Following is an example to create a directory test in the current directory-

#!/usr/bin/python3
Import os
# Create a directory "test"
os.mkdir("test")
The chdir() Method
You can use the chdir() method to change the current directory. The chdir() method takes
an argument, which is the name of the directory that you want to make the current
directory.

Syntax
os.chdir("newdir")
Example
Following is an example to go into "/home/newdir" directory-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import os
# Changing a directory to "/home/newdir"
os.chdir("/home/newdir")
The getcwd() Method
The getcwd() method displays the current working directory.
Syntax
os.getcwd()
Example
Following is an example to give current directory-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import os
# This would give location of the current directory
os.getcwd()
The rmdir() Method
The rmdir() method deletes the directory, which is passed as an argument in the method.
Before removing a directory, all the contents in it should be removed.

Syntax
os.rmdir('dirname')
Example
Following is an example to remove the "/tmp/test" directory. It is required to give fully
qualified name of the directory, otherwise it would search for that directory in the current
directory.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import os
# This would remove "/tmp/test" directory.
os.rmdir( "/tmp/test" )
File & Directory Related Methods
There are three important sources, which provide a wide range of utility methods to handle
and manipulate files & directories on Windows and Unix operating systems. They are as
follows-

• File Object Methods: The file object provides functions to manipulate files.
• OS Object Methods: This provides methods to process files as well as directories.

File Methods
A file object is created using open function and here is a list of functions which can be called
on this object.

S.No.
Methods with Description
file.close()
1
Close the file. A closed file cannot be read or written any more.
file.flush()
2 Flush the internal buffer, like stdio's fflush. This may be a no-op on some file-like
objects.
file.fileno()
3 Returns the integer file descriptor that is used by the underlying implementation
to request I/O operations from the operating system.
 file.isatty()
4
Returns True if the file is connected to a tty(-like) device, else False.
next(file)
5
Returns the next line from the file each time it is being called.
file.read([size])
6 Reads at most size bytes from the file (less if the read hits EOF before obtaining
size bytes).
file.readline([size])
7 Reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline character is kept in the
string.
file.readlines([sizehint])
Reads until EOF using readline() and return a list containing the lines. If the
8 optional sizehint argument is present, instead of reading up to EOF, whole lines
totalling approximately sizehint bytes (possibly after rounding up to an internal
buffer size) are read.
file.seek(offset[, whence])
9
Sets the file's current position
file.tell()
10
Returns the file's current position
file.truncate([size])
11 Truncates the file's size. If the optional size argument is present, the file is
truncated to (at most) that size.
file.write(str)
12
Writes a string to the file. There is no return value.
file.writelines(sequence)
13 Writes a sequence of strings to the file. The sequence can be any iterable object
producing strings, typically a list of strings.
Let us go through the above mentions methods briefly.

File close() Method

Description
The method close() closes the opened file. A closed file cannot be read or written any more.
Any operation, which requires that the file be opened will raise a ValueError after the file
has been closed. Calling close() more than once is allowed.

Python automatically closes a file when the reference object of a file is reassigned to
another file. It is a good practice to use the close() method to close a file.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for close() method-

fileObject.close()
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of close() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
# Close opened file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

File fileno() Method
Description
The method fileno() returns the integer file descriptor that is used by the underlying
implementation to request I/O operations from the operating system.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for fileno() method-

fileObject.fileno()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the integer file descriptor.

Example
The following example shows the usage of fileno() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
fid = fo.fileno()
print ("File Descriptor: ", fid)
# Close opend file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt File Descriptor: 3

File isatty() Method
Description
The method isatty() returns True if the file is connected (is associated with a terminal
device) to a tty(-like) device, else False.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isatty() method-

fileObject.isatty()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if the file is connected (is associated with a terminal device) to a
tty(-like) device, else false.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isatty() method-

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
ret = fo.isatty()
print ("Return value : ", ret)
# Close opend file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Return value : False
File next() Method
Description
File object in Python 3 does not support next() method. Python 3 has a built-in function
next() which retrieves the next item from the iterator by calling its next () method. If
default is given, it is returned if the iterator is exhausted, otherwise StopIteration is raised.
This method can be used to read the next input line, from the file object.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for next() method-

next(iterator[,default])
Parameters
• iterator : file object from which lines are to be read
• default : returned if iterator exhausted. If not given, StopIteration is raised
Return Value
This method returns the next input line.

Example
The following example shows the usage of next() method-

Assuming that 'foo.txt' contains following lines

C++
Java
Python
Perl
PHP

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
for index in range(5):
line = next(fo)
print ("Line No %d - %s" % (index, line))
# Close opened file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Line No 0 - C++
Line No 1 - Java
Line No 2 - Python
Line No 3 - Perl
Line No 4 – PHP
File read() Method
Description
The method read() reads at most size bytes from the file. If the read hits EOF before
obtaining size bytes, then it reads only available bytes.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for read() method-

fileObject.read( size );
Parameters
size - This is the number of bytes to be read from the file.

Return Value
This method returns the bytes read in string.
Example
The following example shows the usage of read() method.

Assuming that 'foo.txt' file contains the following text:

This is 1st line
This is 2nd line
This is 3rd line
This is 4th line
This is 5th line

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
line = fo.read(10)
print ("Read Line: %s" % (line))
# Close opened file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: This is 1s
File readline() Method
Description
The method readline()reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline character is kept
in the string. If the size argument is present and non-negative, it is a maximum byte count
including the trailing newline and an incomplete line may be returned.

An empty string is returned only when EOF is encountered immediately.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for readline() method-

fileObject.readline( size );
Parameters
size - This is the number of bytes to be read from the file.

Return Value
This method returns the line read from the file.

Example
The following example shows the usage of readline() method.

Assuming that 'foo.txt' file contains following text-

This is 1st line
This is 2nd line
This is 3rd line
This is 4th line
This is 5th line
 #!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
line = fo.readline()
print ("Read Line: %s" % (line))
line = fo.readline(5)

When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: This is 1st line Read Line: This
File readlines() Method
Description
The method readlines() reads until EOF using readline() and returns a list containing the
lines. If the optional sizehint argument is present, instead of reading up to EOF, whole lines
totalling approximately sizehint bytes (possibly after rounding up to an internal buffer size)
are read.

An empty string is returned only when EOF is encountered immediately.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for readlines() method-

fileObject.readlines( sizehint );
Parameters
sizehint - This is the number of bytes to be read from the file.

Return Value
This method returns a list containing the lines.

Example
The following example shows the usage of readlines() method.

Assuming that 'foo.txt' file contains following text:

This is 1st line
This is 2nd line
This is 3rd line
This is 4th line
This is 5th line

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
line = fo.readlines()
print ("Read Line: %s" % (line))
line = fo.readlines(2)
 print ("Read Line: %s" % (line))
# Close opened file
fo.close()
When we run above program, it produces following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: ['This is 1st line\n', 'This is 2nd line\n', 'This is 3rd line\n', 'This is 4th line\n',
'This is 5th line\n']
Read Line:
File seek() Method
Description
The method seek() sets the file's current position at the offset. The whence argument is
optional and defaults to 0, which means absolute file positioning, other values are 1 which
means seek relative to the current position and 2 means seek relative to the file's end.

There is no return value. Note that if the file is opened for appending using either 'a' or 'a+',
any seek() operations will be undone at the next write.

If the file is only opened for writing in append mode using 'a', this method is essentially a
no-op, but it remains useful for files opened in append mode with reading enabled (mode
'a+').

If the file is opened in text mode using 't', only offsets returned by tell() are legal. Use of
other offsets causes undefined behavior.

Note that not all file objects are seekable.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for seek() method-

fileObject.seek(offset[, whence])
Parameters
• offset- This is the position of the read/write pointer within the file.
• whence- This is optional and defaults to 0 which means absolute file positioning,
other values are 1 which means seek relative to the current position and 2 means
seek relative to the file's end.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of seek() method.

Assuming that 'foo.txt' file contains following text:

This is 1st line
This is 2nd line
This is 3rd line
This is 4th line
This is 5th line
 #!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
line = fo.readlines()
print ("Read Line: %s" % (line))
# Again set the pointer to the beginning
fo.seek(0, 0)
line = fo.readline()
print ("Read Line: %s" % (line))
# Close opened file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: ['This is 1st line\n', 'This is 2nd line\n', 'This is 3rd line\n', 'This is 4th line\n',
'This is 5th line']
Read Line: This is 1st line
File tell() Method
Description
The method tell() returns the current position of the file read/write pointer within the file.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for tell() method-

fileObject.tell()
Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the current position of the file read/write pointer within the file.

Example
The following example shows the usage of tell() method-

Assuming that 'foo.txt' file contains following text:

This is 1st line
This is 2nd line
This is 3rd line
This is 4th line
This is 5th line

#!/usr/bin/python3
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
line = fo.readline()
print ("Read Line: %s" % (line))
pos=fo.tell()
print ("current position : ",pos)
 # Close opened file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: This is 1st line
Current Position: 18
File truncate() Method
Description
The method truncate() truncates the file's size. If the optional size argument is present, the
file is truncated to (at most) that size.

The size defaults to the current position. The current file position is not changed. Note that
if a specified size exceeds the file's current size, the result is platform-dependent.

Note: This method will not work in case the file is opened in read-only mode.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for truncate() method-

fileObject.truncate( [ size ])
Parameters
size - If this optional argument is present, the file is truncated to (at most) that size.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of truncate() method.

Assuming that 'foo.txt' file contains following text:

This is 1st line
This is 2nd line
This is 3rd line
This is 4th line
This is 5th line

#!/usr/bin/python3
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
line = fo.readline()
print ("Read Line: %s" % (line))
fo.truncate()
line = fo.readlines()
print ("Read Line: %s" % (line))
# Close opened file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-
 Name of the file: foo.txt
Read Line: This is 1s
Read Line: []
File write() Method
Description
The method write() writes a string str to the file. There is no return value. Due to buffering,
the string may not actually show up in the file until the flush() or close() method is called.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for write() method-

fileObject.write( str )
Parameters
str - This is the String to be written in the file.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of write() method.

Assuming that 'foo.txt' file contains following text:

This is 1st line
This is 2nd line
This is 3rd line
This is 4th line
This is 5th line

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file in read/write mode
fo = open("abc.txt", "r+")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
str = "This is 6th line"
# Write a line at the end of the file.
fo.seek(0, 2)
line = fo.write( str )
# Now read complete file from beginning.
fo.seek(0,0)
for index in range(6):
line = next(fo)
print ("Line No %d - %s" % (index, line))
# Close opened file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Line No 0 - This is 1st line
Line No 1 - This is 2nd line
Line No 2 - This is 3rd line
 Line No 3 - This is 4th line
Line No 4 - This is 5th line
Line No 5 - This is 6th line
File writelines() Method
Description
The method writelines() writes a sequence of strings to the file. The sequence can be any
iterable object producing strings, typically a list of strings. There is no return value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for writelines() method −

fileObject.writelines( sequence )
Parameters
sequence - This is the Sequence of the strings.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of writelines() method.

Assuming that 'foo.txt' file contains following text:

This is 1st line
This is 2nd line
This is 3rd line
This is 4th line
This is 5th line

#!/usr/bin/python3
# Open a file in read/write mode
fo = open("abc.txt", "r+")
print ("Name of the file: ", fo.name)
seq = ["This is 6th line\n", "This is 7th line"]
#Writesequence of lines at the end of the file.
fo.seek(0, 2)
line = fo.writelines( seq )
# Now read complete file from beginning.
fo.seek(0,0)
for index in range(7):
line = next(fo)
print ("Line No %d - %s" % (index, line))
# Close opened file
fo.close()
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Name of the file: foo.txt

Line No 0 - This is 1st line
Line No 1 - This is 2nd line
Line No 2 - This is 3rd line
 Line No 3 - This is 4th line
Line No 4 - This is 5th line
Line No 5 - This is 6th line
Line No 6 - This is 7th line
OS File/Directory Methods
The os module provides a big range of useful methods to manipulate files and directories.
Most of the useful methods are listed here:

os.chdir() Method
Description
The method chdir() changes the current working directory to the given path.It returns None
in all the cases.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for chdir() method-

os.chdir(path)
Parameters
path - This is complete path of the directory to be changed to a new location.

Return Value
This method does not return any value. It throws FileNotFoundError if the specified path is
not found.

Example
The following example shows the usage of chdir() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import os
path = "d:\\python3" #change path for linux # Now change the directory
os.chdir( path )
# Check current working directory.
retval = os.getcwd()
print ("Directory changed successfully %s" % retval)
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Directory changed successfully d:\python3

os.getcwd() Method
Description
The method getcwd() returns current working directory of a process.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for getcwd() method-

os.getcwd(path)
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns the current working directory of a process.

Example
The following example shows the usage of getcwd() method-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import os, sys
# First go to the "/var/www/html" directory
os.chdir("/var/www/html" )
# Print current working directory
print ("Current working dir : %s" % os.getcwd())
# Now open a directory "/tmp"
fd = os.open( "/tmp", os.O_RDONLY )
# Use os.fchdir() method to change the dir
os.fchdir(fd)
# Print current working directory
print ("Current working dir : %s" % os.getcwd())
# Close opened directory.
os.close( fd )
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Current working dir : /var/www/html

Current working dir : /tmp
os.mkdir() Method
Description
The method mkdir() create a directory named path with numeric mode mode. The default
mode is 0777 (octal). On some systems, mode is ignored. Where it is used, the current
umask value is first masked out.

Following is the syntax for mkdir() method-

os.mkdir(path[, mode])
Parameters
• path - This is the path, which needs to be created.
• mode - This is the mode of the directories to be given.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of mkdir() method.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import os, sys
# Path to be created
path = "/tmp/home/monthly/daily/hourly"
os.mkdir( path, 0755 );
print(“Path is created")
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Path is created
os.remove() Method
Description
The method remove() removes the file path. If the path is a directory, OSError is raised.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for remove() method-

os.remove(path)
Parameters
path - This is the path, which is to be removed.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of remove() method.

# !/usr/bin/python3
import os, sys
os.chdir("d:\\tmp")
# listing directories
print ("The dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()))
# removing
os.remove("test.java")
# listing directories after removing path
print ("The dir after removal of path : %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()))
When we run above program, it produces following result-

The dir is: ['Applicationdocs.docx', 'book.zip', 'foo.txt', 'home', 'Java Multiple

Inheritance.htm', 'Java Multiple Inheritance_files', 'java.ppt', 'ParallelPortViewer',
'test.java']
The dir after removal of path : ['Applicationdocs.docx', 'book.zip', 'foo.txt', 'home', 'Java
Multiple Inheritance.htm', 'Java Multiple Inheritance_files', 'java.ppt', 'ParallelPortViewer']
os.rename() Method
Description
The method rename() renames the file or directory src to dst. If dst is a file or
directory(already present), OSError will be raised.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rename() method-

os.rename(src, dst)
Parameters
• src - This is the actual name of the file or directory.
 • dst - This is the new name of the file or directory.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of rename() method.

#!/user/bin/python3
import os, sys
os.chdir("d:\\tmp")
# listing directories
print ("The dir is: %s"%os.listdir(os.getcwd()))
# renaming directory
os.rename("python3","python2")
print ("Successfully renamed.")
# listing directories after renaming "python3"
print ("the dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

The dir is: ['Applicationdocs.docx', 'book.zip', 'foo.txt', 'Java Multiple Inheritance.htm',

'Java Multiple Inheritance_files', 'java.ppt', 'Python3']
Successfully renamed.
the dir is: ['Applicationdocs.docx', 'book.zip', 'foo.txt', 'Java Multiple Inheritance.htm',
'Java Multiple Inheritance_files', 'java.ppt', 'python2']
os.rmdir() Method
Description
The method rmdir() removes the directory path. It works only when the directory is empty,
else OSError is raised.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rmdir() method-

os.rmdir(path)
Parameters
path - This is the path of the directory, which needs to be removed.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of rmdir() method.

# !/usr/bin/python3
import os, sys
os.chdir("d:\\tmp")
# listing directories
print ("the dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()))
# removing path
 os.rmdir("newdir")
# listing directories after removing directory path
print ("the dir is:" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()))
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

the dir is: ['Applicationdocs.docx', 'book.zip', 'Java Multiple Inheritance.htm', 'Java

Multiple Inheritance_files', 'java.ppt', 'newdir', 'python2']
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 8, in os.rmdir("newdir")
OSError: [WinError 145] The directory is not empty: 'newdir'
The error is coming as 'newdir' directory is not empty. If 'newdir' is an empty directory,
then this would produce following result:
18. Python 3 – Exceptions Handling
Python provides two very important features to handle any unexpected error in your Python
programs and to add debugging capabilities in them-

• Exception Handling.
• Assertions.

Standard Exceptions

EXCEPTION NAME DESCRIPTION

Exception Base class for all exceptions

Raised when the next() method of an iterator does not point toany
StopIteration
object.

SystemExit Raised by the sys.exit() function.

Base class for all built-in exceptions except StopIteration and

StandardError
SystemExit.

ArithmeticError Base class for all errors that occur for numeric calculation.

OverflowError Raised when a calculation exceeds maximum limit for a numeric type.

FloatingPointError Raised when a floating point calculation fails.

Raised when division or modulo by zero takes place for all

ZeroDivisonError
numeric types.

AssertionError Raised in case of failure of the Assert statement.

AttributeError Raised in case of failure of attribute reference or assignment.

Raised when there is no input from either the raw_input() or

EOFError
input() function and the end of file is reached.

ImportError Raised when an import statement fails.

Raised when the user interrupts program execution, usually by

KeyboardInterrupt
pressing Ctrl+c.

LookupError Base class for all lookup errors.

IndexError Raised when an index is not found in a sequence.

KeyError Raised when the specified key is not found in the dictionary.

Raised when an identifier is not found in the local or global

NameError
namespace.
Raised when trying to access a local variable in a function or
UnboundLocalError
method but no value has been assigned to it.
Base class for all exceptions that occur outside the Python
EnvironmentError
environment.
 Raised when an input/ output operation fails, such as the print
IOError statement or the open() function when trying to open a file thatdoes
not exist.

OSError Raised for operating system-related errors.

SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in Python syntax.

IndentationError Raised when indentation is not specified properly.

Raised when the interpreter finds an internal problem, but whenthis

SystemError
error is encountered the Python interpreter does not exit.
Raised when Python interpreter is quit by using the sys.exit()
SystemExit
function. If not handled in the code, causes the interpreter to exit.
Raised when an operation or function is attempted that is
TypeError
invalid for the specified data type.
Raised when the built-in function for a data type has the valid type
ValueError
of arguments, but the arguments have invalid values specified.

RuntimeError Raised when a generated error does not fall into any category.

Raised when an abstract method that needs to be implemented in an

NotImplementedError
inherited class is not actually implemented.
Here is a list of Standard Exceptions available in Python.

Assertions in Python
An assertion is a sanity-check that you can turn on or turn off when you are done with your
testing of the program.

• The easiest way to think of an assertion is to liken it to a raise-if statement (or to be

more accurate, a raise-if-not statement). An expression is tested, and if the result
comes up false, an exception is raised.
• Assertions are carried out by the assert statement, the newest keyword to Python,
introduced in version 1.5.
• Programmers often place assertions at the start of a function to check for valid input,
and after a function call to check for valid output.

The assert Statement

When it encounters an assert statement, Python evaluates the accompanying expression,
which is hopefully true. If the expression is false, Python raises an AssertionError exception.

The syntax for assert is −

assert Expression[, Arguments]

If the assertion fails, Python uses ArgumentExpression as the argument for the
AssertionError. AssertionError exceptions can be caught and handled like any other
exception, using the try-except statement. If they are not handled, they will terminate the
program and produce a traceback.
Example
Here is a function that converts a given temperature from degrees Kelvin to degrees
Fahrenheit. Since 0° K is as cold as it gets, the function bails out if it sees a negative
temperature −

#!/usr/bin/python3
def KelvinToFahrenheit(Temperature):
assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!"
return ((Temperature-273)*1.8)+32
print (KelvinToFahrenheit(273))
print (int(KelvinToFahrenheit(505.78)))
print (KelvinToFahrenheit(-5))
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

32.0
451
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 9, in print KelvinToFahrenheit(-5)
File "test.py", line 4, in KelvinToFahrenheit
assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!" AssertionError: Colder than
absolute zero!
What is Exception?
An exception is an event, which occurs during the execution of a program that disrupts the
normal flow of the program's instructions. In general, when a Python script encounters a
situation that it cannot cope with, it raises an exception. An exception is a Python object
that represents an error.

When a Python script raises an exception, it must either handle the exception immediately
otherwise it terminates and quits.

Handling an Exception
If you have some suspicious code that may raise an exception, you can defend your
program by placing the suspicious code in a try: block. After the try: block, include an
except: statement, followed by a block of code which handles the problem as elegantly as
possible.

Syntax
Here is simple syntax of try....except...else blocks-

try:
You do your operations here
......................
except ExceptionI:
If there is ExceptionI, then execute this block. except ExceptionII:
If there is ExceptionII, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.
Here are few important points about the above-mentioned syntax-
• A single try statement can have multiple except statements. This is useful when the
try block contains statements that may throw different types of exceptions.
• You can also provide a generic except clause, which handles any exception.
• After the except clause(s), you can include an else-clause. The code in the else-
block executes if the code in the try: block does not raise an exception.
• The else-block is a good place for code that does not need the try: block's protection.

Example
This example opens a file, writes content in the file and comes out gracefully because there
is no problem at all.

#!/usr/bin/python3
try:
fh = open("testfile", "w")
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
except IOError:
print ("Error: can\'t find file or read data")
else:
print ("Written content in the file successfully")
fh.close()
This produces the following result-

Written content in the file successfully

Example
This example tries to open a file where you do not have the write permission, so it raises an
exception-

#!/usr/bin/python3
try:
fh = open("testfile", "r")
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
except IOError:
print ("Error: can\'t find file or read data")
else:
print ("Written content in the file successfully")
This produces the following result-

Error: can't find file or read data

The except Clause with No Exceptions
You can also use the except statement with no exceptions defined as follows-

try:
You do your operations here
......................
except:
If there is any exception, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.
This kind of a try-except statement catches all the exceptions that occur. Using this kind of
try-except statement is not considered a good programming practice though, because it
catches all exceptions but does not make the programmer identify the root cause of the
problem that may occur.

The except Clause with Multiple Exceptions

You can also use the same except statement to handle multiple exceptions as follows-

try:
You do your operations here
......................
except(Exception1[, Exception2[,...ExceptionN]]]):
If there is any exception from the given exception list, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.
The try-finally Clause
You can use a finally: block along with a try: block. The finally: block is a place to put any
code that must execute, whether the try-block raised an exception or not. The syntax of the
try-finally statement is this-

try:
You do your operations here;
......................
Due to any exception, this may be skipped.
finally:
This would always be executed.
......................
Note: You can provide except clause(s), or a finally clause, but not both. You cannot use
else clause as well along with a finally clause.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
try:
fh = open("testfile", "w")
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
finally:
print ("Error: can\'t find file or read data")
fh.close()
If you do not have permission to open the file in writing mode, then this will produce the
following result-

Error: can't find file or read data

Same example can be written more cleanly as follows-

#!/usr/bin/python3
try:
fh = open("testfile", "w")
try:
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
finally:
print ("Going to close the file")
 fh.close()
except IOError:
print ("Error: can\'t find file or read data")
When an exception is thrown in the try block, the execution immediately passes to the
finally block. After all the statements in the finally block are executed, the exception is
raised again and is handled in the except statements if present in the next higher layer of
the try-except statement.

Raising an Exception
You can raise exceptions in several ways by using the raise statement. The general syntax
for the raise statement is as follows-

Syntax
raise [Exception [, args [, traceback]]]
Here, Exception is the type of exception (for example, NameError) and argument is a value
for the exception argument. The argument is optional; if not supplied, the exception
argument is None.

The final argument, traceback, is also optional (and rarely used in practice), and if present,
is the traceback object used for the exception.

Example
An exception can be a string, a class or an object. Most of the exceptions that the Python
core raises are classes, with an argument that is an instance of the class. Defining new
exceptions is quite easy and can be done as follows-

def functionName( level ):

if level <1:
raise Exception(level)
# The code below to this would not be executed
# if we raise the exception
return level
Note: In order to catch an exception, an "except" clause must refer to the same exception
thrown either as a class object or a simple string. For example, to capture the above
exception, we must write the except clause as follows-

try:
Business Logic here...
except Exception as e:
Exception handling here using e.args...
else:
Rest of the code here...
The following example illustrates the use of raising an exception-

#!/usr/bin/python3
def functionName( level ):
if level <1:
raise Exception(level)
# The code below to this would not be executed
# if we raise the exception
return level
try:
 l=functionName(-10)
print ("level=",l)
except Exception as e:
print ("error in level argument",e.args[0])
This will produce the following result-

error in level argument -10

User-Defined Exceptions
Python also allows you to create your own exceptions by deriving classes from the standard
built-in exceptions.

Here is an example related to RuntimeError. Here, a class is created that is subclassed from
RuntimeError. This is useful when you need to display more specific information when an
exception is caught.

In the try block, the user-defined exception is raised and caught in the except block. The
variable e is used to create an instance of the class Networkerror.

class Networkerror(RuntimeError):
def init (self, arg):
self.args = arg
So once you have defined the above class, you can raise the exception as follows-

try:
raise Networkerror("Bad hostname")
except Networkerror,e:
print(e.args)
Python 3 – Advanced Tutorial
19. Python 3 – Object Oriented
Python has been an object-oriented language since the time it existed. Due to this, creating
and using classes and objects are downright easy. This chapter helps you become an expert
in using Python's object-oriented programming support.

If you do not have any previous experience with object-oriented (OO) programming, you
may want to consult an introductory course on it or at least a tutorial of some sort so that
you have a grasp of the basic concepts.

However, here is a small introduction of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) to help you.

Overview of OOP Terminology

• Class: A user-defined prototype for an object that defines a set of attributes that
characterize any object of the class. The attributes are data members (class
variables and instance variables) and methods, accessed via dot notation.
• Class variable: A variable that is shared by all instances of a class. Class variables
are defined within a class but outside any of the class's methods. Class variables are
not used as frequently as instance variables are.
• Data member: A class variable or instance variable that holds data associated with
a class and its objects.
• Function overloading: The assignment of more than one behavior to a particular
function. The operation performed varies by the types of objects or arguments
involved.
• Instance variable: A variable that is defined inside a method and belongs only to
the current instance of a class.
• Inheritance: The transfer of the characteristics of a class to other classes that are
derived from it.
• Instance: An individual object of a certain class. An object obj that belongs to a
class Circle, for example, is an instance of the class Circle.
• Instantiation: The creation of an instance of a class.
• Method: A special kind of function that is defined in a class definition.
• Object: A unique instance of a data structure that is defined by its class. An object
comprises both data members (class variables and instance variables) and methods.
• Operator overloading: The assignment of more than one function to a particular
operator.

Creating Classes
The class statement creates a new class definition. The name of the class immediately
follows the keyword class followed by a colon as follows-

class ClassName:
'Optional class documentation string'
class_suite
• The class has a documentation string, which can be accessed via
ClassName.__doc__.
• The class_suite consists of all the component statements defining class members,
data attributes and functions.

Example
Following is an example of a simple Python class-

class Employee:
'Common base class for all employees'
empCount = 0
def init (self, name, salary):
self.name = name
self.salary = salary
Employee.empCount += 1
def displayCount(self):
print ("Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount)
def displayEmployee(self):
print ("Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary)
• The variable empCount is a class variable whose value is shared among all the
instances of a in this class. This can be accessed as Employee.empCount from inside
the class or outside the class.
• The first method __init__() is a special method, which is called class constructor or
initialization method that Python calls when you create a new instance of this class.
• You declare other class methods like normal functions with the exception that the
first argument to each method is self. Python adds the self argument to the list for
you; you do not need to include it when you call the methods.

Creating Instance Objects

To create instances of a class, you call the class using class name and pass in whatever
arguments its __init__ method accepts.

This would create first object of Employee class

emp1 = Employee("Zara", 2000)
This would create second object of Employee class
emp2 = Employee("Manni", 5000)
Accessing Attributes
You access the object's attributes using the dot operator with object. Class variable would
be accessed using class name as follows-

emp1.displayEmployee()
emp2.displayEmployee()
print ("Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount)
Now, putting all the concepts together-

#!/usr/bin/python3
class Employee:
'Common base class for all employees'
empCount = 0
def init (self, name, salary):
self.name = name
self.salary = salary
Employee.empCount += 1
def displayCount(self):
print ("Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount)
def displayEmployee(self):
print ("Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary)
#This would create first object of Employee class"
emp1 = Employee("Zara", 2000)
 #This would create second object of Employee class"
emp2 = Employee("Manni", 5000)
emp1.displayEmployee()
emp2.displayEmployee()
print ("Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Name : Zara ,Salary: 2000

Name : Manni ,Salary: 5000
Total Employee 2
You can add, remove, or modify attributes of classes and objects at any time-

emp1.salary = 7000 # Add an 'salary' attribute.

emp1.name = 'xyz' # Modify 'age' attribute.
del emp1.salary # Delete 'age' attribute.
Instead of using the normal statements to access attributes, you can use the following
functions-

• The getattr(obj, name[, default]): to access the attribute of object.

• The hasattr(obj,name): to check if an attribute exists or not.
• The setattr(obj,name,value): to set an attribute. If attribute does not exist, then
it would be created.
• The delattr(obj, name): to delete an attribute.

hasattr(emp1, 'salary') # Returns true if 'salary' attribute exists

getattr(emp1, 'salary') # Returns value of 'salary' attribute
setattr(emp1, 'salary', 7000) # Set attribute 'age' at 8
delattr(emp1, 'salary') # Delete attribute 'age'

Built-In Class Attributes

Every Python class keeps the following built-in attributes and they can be accessed using
dot operator like any other attribute −

• __dict__ : Dictionary containing the class's namespace.

• __Doc__ : Class documentation string or none, if undefined.
• __name__ : Class name.
• __module__ : Module name in which the class is defined. This attribute is
"__main__" in interactive mode.
• __bases__: A possibly empty tuple containing the base classes, in the order of their
occurrence in the base class list.
For the above class let us try to access all these attributes-

#!/usr/bin/python3
class Employee:
'Common base class for all employees'
empCount = 0
def init (self, name, salary):
self.name = name
self.salary = salary
Employee.empCount += 1
def displayCount(self):
print ("Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount)
def displayEmployee(self):
print ("Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary)
emp1 = Employee("Zara", 2000)
emp2 = Employee("Manni", 5000)
print ("Employee. doc :", Employee. doc )
print ("Employee. name :", Employee. name )
print ("Employee. module :", Employee. module )
print ("Employee. bases :", Employee. bases )
print ("Employee. dict :", Employee. dict )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Employee.__doc__: Common base class for all employees

Employee.__name__: Employee
Employee.__module__: main Employee. bases : (,)
Employee.__dict__: {'displayCount': , ' module ': ' main ', '__doc ': 'Common base class
for all employees', 'empCount': 2, ' init ': , 'displayEmployee': , ' weakref ': , ' dict ': }

Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection)

Python deletes unneeded objects (built-in types or class instances) automatically to free the
memory space. The process by which Python periodically reclaims blocks of memory that no
longer are in use is termed as Garbage Collection.

Python's garbage collector runs during program execution and is triggered when an object's
reference count reaches zero. An object's reference count changes as the number of aliases
that point to it changes.

An object's reference count increases when it is assigned a new name or placed in a

container (list, tuple, or dictionary). The object's reference count decreases when it is
deleted with del, its reference is reassigned, or its reference goes out of scope. When an
object's reference count reaches zero, Python collects it automatically.

a = 40 # Create object <40>

b = a # Increase ref. count of <40>
c = [b] # Increase ref. count of <40>

del a # Decrease ref. count of <40>

b = 100 # Decrease ref. count of <40>
c[0] = -1 # Decrease ref. count of <40>
You normally will not notice when the garbage collector destroys an orphaned instance and
reclaims its space. However, a class can implement the special method del (), called a
destructor, that is invoked when the instance is about to be destroyed. This method might
be used to clean up any non-memory resources used by an instance.

Example
This del __()__ destructor prints the class name of an instance that is about to be
destroyed.

#!/usr/bin/python3
class Point:
def init( self, x=0, y=0):
self.x = x
self.y = y
def del (self):
class_name = self. class . name
print (class_name, "destroyed")
pt1 = Point()
pt2 = pt1
pt3 = pt1
print (id(pt1), id(pt2), id(pt3) # prints the ids of the obejcts)
del pt1
del pt2
del pt3
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

3083401324 3083401324 3083401324

Point destroyed
Note: Ideally, you should define your classes in a separate file, then you should import
them in your main program file using import statement.

In the above example, assuming definition of a Point class is contained in point.py and there
is no other executable code in it.

#!/usr/bin/python3
import point
p1=point.Point()

Class Inheritance
Instead of starting from a scratch, you can create a class by deriving it from a pre-existing
class by listing the parent class in parentheses after the new class name.

The child class inherits the attributes of its parent class, and you can use those attributes as
if they were defined in the child class. A child class can also override data members and
methods from the parent.

Syntax
Derived classes are declared much like their parent class; however, a list of base classes to
inherit from is given after the class name −

class SubClassName (ParentClass1[, ParentClass2, ...]):

'Optional class documentation string'
class_suite
Example
 #!/usr/bin/python3
class Parent: # define parent class
parentAttr = 100
def init (self):
print ("Calling parent constructor")
def parentMethod(self):
print ('Calling parent method')
def setAttr(self, attr):
Parent.parentAttr = attr
def getAttr(self):
print ("Parent attribute :", Parent.parentAttr)
class Child(Parent): # define child class
def init (self):
print ("Calling child constructor")
def childMethod(self):
print ('Calling child method')
c = Child() # instance of child
c.childMethod() # child calls its method
c.parentMethod() # calls parent's method
c.setAttr(200) # again call parent's method
c.getAttr() # again call parent's method
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Calling child constructor

Calling child method
Calling parent method
Parent attribute : 200
In a similar way, you can drive a class from multiple parent classes as follows-

class A: # define your class A

.....
class B: # define your calss B
.....
class C(A, B): # subclass of A and B
.....
You can use issubclass() or isinstance() functions to check a relationship of two classes and
instances.

• The issubclass(sub, sup) boolean function returns True, if the

given subclass sub is indeed a subclass of the superclass sup.
• The isinstance(obj, Class) boolean function returns True, if obj is an instance of class
Class or is an instance of a subclass of Class.

Overriding Methods
You can always override your parent class methods. One reason for overriding parent's
methods is that you may want special or different functionality in your subclass.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
class Parent: # define parent class
def myMethod(self):
print ('Calling parent method')
class Child(Parent): # define child class
def myMethod(self):
print ('Calling child method')
c = Child() # instance of child
c.myMethod() # child calls overridden method
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Calling child method

Base Overloading Methods
The following table lists some generic functionality that you can override in your own
classes-

SN Method, Description & Sample Call

__init__( self [,args...] )
1 Constructor (with any optional arguments)
Sample Call : obj = className(args)
__Del__( self )
2
Destructor, deletes an objectSample Call : del obj
__repr__( self )
3 Evaluatable string representationSample Call : repr(obj)

__str__( self )
4 Printable string representationSample Call : str(obj)

5 __cmp__ ( self, x ) Object comparison Sample Call : cmp(obj, x)

Overloading Operators
Suppose you have created a Vector class to represent two-dimensional vectors. What
happens when you use the plus operator to add them? Most likely Python will yell at you.

You could, however, define the add method in your class to perform vector addition and
then the plus operator would behave as per expectation −

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
class Vector:
def init (self, a, b):
self.a = a
self.b = b
def str (self):
return 'Vector (%d, %d)' % (self.a, self.b)
 def add (self,other):
return Vector(self.a + other.a, self.b + other.b)
v1 = Vector(2,10)
v2 = Vector(5,-2)
print (v1 + v2)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-
Vector(7,8)
Data Hiding
An object's attributes may or may not be visible outside the class definition. You need to
name attributes with a double underscore prefix, and those attributes then will not be
directly visible to outsiders.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
class JustCounter:
secretCount = 0
def count(self):
self. secretCount += 1
print (self. secretCount)
counter = JustCounter()
counter.count()
counter.count()
print (counter. secretCount)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

1
2
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 12, in <module> print counter. secretCount
AttributeError: JustCounter instance has no attribute ' secretCount'
Python protects those members by internally changing the name to include the class name.
You can access such attributes as object._className attrName. If you would replace your
last line as following, then it works for you-

.........................
print (counter._JustCounter secretCount)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-
1
2
2
20. Python 3 – Regular Expressions
A regular expression is a special sequence of characters that helps you match or find other
strings or sets of strings, using a specialized syntax held in a pattern. Regular expressions
are widely used in UNIX world.

The module re provides full support for Perl-like regular expressions in Python. The re
module raises the exception re.error if an error occurs while compiling or using a regular
expression.

We would cover two important functions, which would be used to handle regular
expressions. Nevertheless, a small thing first: There are various characters, which would
have special meaning when they are used in regular expression. To avoid any confusion
while dealing with regular expressions, we would use Raw Strings asr'expression'.

Basic patterns that match single chars

• a, X, 9, < -- ordinary characters just match themselves exactly.
• . (a period) -- matches any single character except newline '\n'
• \w -- matches a "word" character: a letter or digit or underbar [a-zA-Z0-9_].
• \W -- matches any non-word character.
• \b -- boundary between word and non-word
• \s -- matches a single whitespace character -- space, newline, return, tab
• \S -- matches any non-whitespace character.
• \t, \n, \r -- tab, newline, return
• \d -- decimal digit [0-9]
• ^ = matches start of the string
• $ = match the end of the string
• \ -- inhibit the "specialness" of a character.

Compilation flags
Compilation flags let you modify some aspects of how regular expressions work. Flags are
available in the re module under two names, a long name such as IGNORECASE and a
short, one-letter form such as I.

Flag Meaning
Makes several escapes like \w, \b, \s and \d match only on ASCII
ASCII, A
characters with the respective property.

DOTALL, S Make, match any character, including newlines

IGNORECASE, I Do case-insensitive matches

LOCALE, L Do a locale-aware match

MULTILINE, M Multi-line matching, affecting ^ and $

VERBOSE, X (for Enable verbose REs, which can be organized more cleanly and
‘extended’) understandably
The match Function
This function attempts to match RE pattern to string with optional flags. Here is the syntax
for this function-

re.match(pattern, string, flags=0)

Here is the description of the parameters-

Parameter Description
pattern This is the regular expression to be matched.

This is the string, which would be searched to match thepattern at

string
the beginning of string.
You can specify different flags using bitwise OR (|). These aremodifiers,
flags
which are listed in the table below.
The re.match function returns a match object on success, None on failure. We use
group(num) or groups() function of match object to get matched expression.

Match Object
Description
Methods

group(num=0) This method returns entire match (or specific subgroup num)

groups() This method returns all matching subgroups in a tuple (empty if

there weren't any)

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
line = "Cats are smarter than dogs"
matchObj = re.match( r'(.*) are (.*?) .*', line, re.M|re.I)
if matchObj:
print ("matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group())
print ("matchObj.group(1) : ", matchObj.group(1))
print ("matchObj.group(2) : ", matchObj.group(2))
else:
print ("No match!!")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

matchObj.group() : Cats are smarter than dogs

matchObj.group(1) : Cats
matchObj.group(2) : smarter
The search Function
This function searches for first occurrence of RE pattern within the string, with optional
flags.

Here is the syntax for this function-

re.search(pattern, string, flags=0)

Here is the description of the parameters-

Parameter Description
pattern This is the regular expression to be matched.

string This is the string, which would be searched to match the

pattern anywhere in the string.
flags You can specify different flags using bitwise OR (|). These are
modifiers, which are listed in the table below.
The re.search function returns a match object on success, none on failure. We use
group(num) or groups() function of match object to get the matched expression.

Match Object Description

Methods
group(num=0) This method returns entire match (or specific subgroup num)

groups() This method returns all matching subgroups in a tuple (empty

if there weren't any)
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
line = "Cats are smarter than dogs";
searchObj = re.search( r'(.*) are (.*?) .*', line, re.M|re.I)
if searchObj:
print ("searchObj.group() : ", searchObj.group())
print ("searchObj.group(1) : ", searchObj.group(1))
print ("searchObj.group(2) : ", searchObj.group(2))
else:
print ("Nothing found!!")
When the above code is executed, it produces following result-

matchObj.group() : Cats are smarter than dogs

matchObj.group(1) : Cats
matchObj.group(2) : smarter

Matching Versus Searching

Python offers two different primitive operations based on regular expressions :match checks
for a match only at the beginning of the string, while search checks for a match anywhere in
the string (this is what Perl does by default).

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
line = "Cats are smarter than dogs";
matchObj = re.match( r'dogs', line, re.M|re.I)
if matchObj:
print ("match --> matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group())
else:
print ("No match!!")
searchObj = re.search( r'dogs', line, re.M|re.I)
 if searchObj:
print ("search --> searchObj.group() : ", searchObj.group())
else:
print ("Nothing found!!")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

No match!!
search --> matchObj.group() : dogs
Search and Replace
One of the most important re methods that use regular expressions is sub.

Syntax
re.sub(pattern, repl, string, max=0)
This method replaces all occurrences of the RE pattern in string with repl, substituting all
occurrences unless max is provided. This method returns modified string.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import re
phone = "2004-959-559 # This is Phone Number"
# Delete Python-style comments
num = re.sub(r'#.*$', "", phone)
print ("Phone Num : ", num)
# Remove anything other than digits
num = re.sub(r'\D', "", phone)
print ("Phone Num : ", num)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Phone Num : 2004-959-559

Phone Num : 2004959559
Regular Expression Modifiers: Option Flags
Regular expression literals may include an optional modifier to control various aspects of
matching. The modifiers are specified as an optional flag. You can provide multiple modifiers
using exclusive OR (|), as shown previously and may be represented by one of these-

Modifier Description
re.I Performs case-insensitive matching.

re.L Interprets words according to the current locale. This interpretation

affects the alphabetic group (\w and \W), as well as word boundary
behavior (\b and \B).
re.M Makes $ match the end of a line (not just the end of the string) and
makes ^ match the start of any line (not just the start of thestring).
re.S Makes a period (dot) match any character, including a newline.

re.U Interprets letters according to the Unicode character set. This flag
affects the behavior of \w, \W, \b, \B.
re.X Permits "cuter" regular expression syntax. It ignores whitespace
 (except inside a set [] or when escaped by a backslash) and treats
unescaped # as a comment marker.
Regular Expression Patterns
Except for the control characters, (+ ? . * ^ $ ( ) [ ] { } | \), all characters match
themselves. You can escape a control character by preceding it with a backslash.

The following table lists the regular expression syntax that is available in Python-

Pattern Description
^ Matches beginning of line.

$ Matches end of line.

. Matches any single character except newline. Using m option

allows it to match newline as well.
[...] Matches any single character in brackets.

[^...] Matches any single character not in brackets

re* Matches 0 or more occurrences of preceding expression.

re+ Matches 1 or more occurrence of preceding expression.

re? Matches 0 or 1 occurrence of preceding expression.

re{ n} Matches exactly n number of occurrences of preceding expression.

re{ n,} Matches n or more occurrences of preceding expression.

re{ n, m} Matches at least n and at most m occurrences of preceding

expression.
a| b Matches either a or b.

(re) Groups regular expressions and remembers matched text.

(?imx) Temporarily toggles on i, m, or x options within a regularexpression.

If in parentheses, only that area is affected.
(?-imx) Temporarily toggles off i, m, or x options within a regularexpression.
If in parentheses, only that area is affected.
(?: re) Groups regular expressions without remembering matched text.

(?imx: re) Temporarily toggles on i, m, or x options within parentheses.

(?-imx: re) Temporarily toggles off i, m, or x options within parentheses.

(?#...) Comment.

(?= re) Specifies position using a pattern. Does not have a range.

(?! re) Specifies position using pattern negation. Does not have a range.

(?> re) Matches independent pattern without backtracking.

\w Matches word characters.

\W Matches nonword characters.

\s Matches whitespace. Equivalent to [\t\n\r\f].

\S Matches nonwhitespace.

\d Matches digits. Equivalent to [0-9].

\D Matches nondigits.

\A Matches beginning of string.

\Z Matches end of string. If a newline exists, it matches just before

newline.
\z Matches end of string.

\G Matches point where last match finished.

\b Matches word boundaries when outside brackets. Matches

backspace (0x08) when inside brackets.
\B Matches nonword boundaries.

\n, \t, etc. Matches newlines, carriage returns, tabs, etc.

\1...\9 Matches nth grouped subexpression.

\10 Matches nth grouped subexpression if it matched already.Otherwise

refers to the octal representation of a character code.
Regular Expression Examples
Literal characters
Example Description
python Match "python".
Character classes
Example Description
[Pp]ython Match "Python" or "python"

rub[ye] Match "ruby" or "rube"

[aeiou] Match any one lowercase vowel

[0-9] Match any digit; same as [0123456789]

[a-z] Match any lowercase ASCII letter

[A-Z] Match any uppercase ASCII letter

[a-zA-Z0-9] Match any of the above

[^aeiou] Match anything other than a lowercase vowel

[^0-9] Match anything other than a digit
Special Character Classes
Example Description
. Match any character except newline

\d Match a digit: [0-9]

\D Match a nondigit: [^0-9]

\s Match a whitespace character: [ \t\r\n\f]

\S Match nonwhitespace: [^ \t\r\n\f]

\w Match a single word character: [A-Za-z0-9_]

\W Match a nonword character: [^A-Za-z0-9_]

Repetition Cases
Example Description
ruby? Match "rub" or "ruby": the y is optional

ruby* Match "rub" plus 0 or more ys

ruby+ Match "rub" plus 1 or more ys

\d{3} Match exactly 3 digits

\d{3,} Match 3 or more digits

\d{3,5} Match 3, 4, or 5 digits

Nongreedy Repetition
This matches the smallest number of repetitions-

Example Description
<.*> Greedy repetition: matches "<python>perl>"

<.*?> Nongreedy: matches "<python>" in "<python>perl>"

Grouping with Parentheses
Example Description
\D\d+ No group: + repeats \d

(\D\d)+ Grouped: + repeats \D\d pair

([Pp]ython(, )?)+ Match "Python", "Python, python, python", etc.

Backreferences
This matches a previously matched group again-

Example Description
([Pp])ython&\1ails Match python&pails or Python&Pails

(['"])[^\1]*\1 Single or double-quoted string. \1 matches whatever the 1st group

matched. \2 matches whatever the 2nd group matched, etc.
Alternatives
Example Description
python|perl Match "python" or "perl"

rub(y|le)) Match "ruby" or "ruble"

Python(!+|\?) "Python" followed by one or more ! or one ?

Anchors
This needs to specify match position.

Example Description
^Python Match "Python" at the start of a string or internal line

Python$ Match "Python" at the end of a string or line

\APython Match "Python" at the start of a string

Python\Z Match "Python" at the end of a string

\bPython\b Match "Python" at a word boundary

\brub\B \B is nonword boundary: match "rub" in "rube" and "ruby" but not
alone
Python(?=!) Match "Python", if followed by an exclamation point.

Python(?!!) Match "Python", if not followed by an exclamation point.

Special Syntax with Parentheses
Example Description
R(?#comment) Matches "R". All the rest is a comment

R(?i)uby Case-insensitive while matching "uby"

R(?i:uby) Same as above

rub(?:y|le)) Group only without creating \1 backreference

21. Python 3 – MySQL Database
The Python standard for database interfaces is the Python DB-API. Most Python database
interfaces adhere to this standard.

You can choose the right database for your application. Python Database API supports a
wide range of database servers such as −

• GadFly
• mSQL
• MySQL
• PostgreSQL
• Microsoft SQL Server 2000
• Informix
• Interbase
• Oracle
• Sybase
• SQLite

Here is the list of available Python database interfaces: Python Database Interfaces and
APIs. You must download a separate DB API module for each database you need to access.
For example, if you need to access an Oracle database as well as a MySQL database, you
must download both the Oracle and the MySQL database modules.

The DB API provides a minimal standard for working with databases using Python structures
and syntax wherever possible. This API includes the following:

• Importing the API module.

• Acquiring a connection with the database.
• Issuing SQL statements and stored procedures.
• Closing the connection

Python has an in-built support for SQLite. In this section, we would learn all the concepts
using MySQL. MySQLdb module, a popular interface with MySQL is not compatible with
Python 3. Instead, we shall use PyMySQL module.

What is PyMySQL ?
PyMySQL is an interface for connecting to a MySQL database server from Python. It
implements the Python Database API v2.0 and contains a pure-Python MySQL client library.
The goal of PyMySQL is to be a drop-in replacement for MySQLdb .

How do I Install PyMySQL?

Before proceeding further, you make sure you have PyMySQL installed on your machine.
Just type the following in your Python script and execute it-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import PyMySQL
If it produces the following result, then it means MySQLdb module is not installed-

Traceback (most recent call last): File “test.py”, line 3, in <module>

Import PyMySQL
ImportError: No module named PyMySQL
The last stable release is available on PyPI and can be installed with pip:

pip install PyMySQL

Alternatively (e.g. if pip is not available), a tarball can be downloaded from GitHub and
installed with Setuptools as follows-

$ # X.X is the desired PyMySQL version (e.g. 0.5 or 0.6).

$ curl -L https://github.com/PyMySQL/PyMySQL/tarball/pymysql-X.X | tar xz
$ cd PyMySQL*
$ python setup.py install
$ # The folder PyMySQL* can be safely removed now.

Note: Make sure you have root privilege to install the above module.

Database Connection
Before connecting to a MySQL database, make sure of the following points-

• You have created a database TESTDB.

• You have created a table EMPLOYEE in TESTDB.
• This table has fields FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, AGE, SEX and INCOME.
• User ID "testuser" and password "test123" are set to access TESTDB.
• Python module PyMySQL is installed properly on your machine.
• You have gone through MySQL tutorial to understand MySQL Basics.

Example
Following is an example of connecting with MySQL database "TESTDB"-

#!/usr/bin/python3 import PyMySQL

# Open database connection
db = PyMySQL.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )
# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()
# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute("SELECT VERSION()")
# Fetch a single row using fetchone() method.
data = cursor.fetchone()
print ("Database version : %s " % data)
# disconnect from server
db.close()
While running this script, it produces the following result-

Database version : 5.5.20-log

If a connection is established with the datasource, then a Connection Object is returned and
saved into db for further use, otherwise db is set to None. Next, db object is used to create
a cursor object, which in turn is used to execute SQL queries. Finally, before coming out, it
ensures that the database connection is closed and resources are released.

Creating Database Table

Once a database connection is established, we are ready to create tables or records into the
database tables using execute method of the created cursor.
Example
Let us create a Database table EMPLOYEE-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import PyMySQL
# Open database connection
db = PyMySQL.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )
# prepare a cursor object using cursor()
method cursor = db.cursor()
# Drop table if it already exist using execute() method.
cursor.execute("DROP TABLE IF EXISTS EMPLOYEE")
# Create table as per requirement
sql = """CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (
FIRST_NAME CHAR(20) NOT NULL, LAST_NAME CHAR(20),
AGE INT, SEX CHAR(1),
INCOME FLOAT )"""
cursor.execute(sql)
# disconnect from server
db.close()
INSERT Operation
The INSERT Operation is required when you want to create your records into a database
table.

Example
The following example, executes SQL INSERT statement to create a record in the EMPLOYEE
table-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import PyMySQL
# Open database connection
db = PyMySQL.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )
# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()
# Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database.
sql = """INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(FIRST_NAME,
LAST_NAME, AGE, SEX, INCOME)
VALUES ('Mac', 'Mohan', 20, 'M', 2000)"""
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()
# disconnect from server
db.close()
The above example can be written as follows to create SQL queries dynamically-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import PyMySQL
# Open database connection
 db = PyMySQL.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )
# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()
# Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database.
sql = "INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(FIRST_NAME, \
LAST_NAME, AGE, SEX, INCOME) \
VALUES ('%s', '%s', '%d', '%c', '%d' )" % \
('Mac', 'Mohan', 20, 'M', 2000)
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
Example
The following code segment is another form of execution where you can pass parameters
directly-

..................................
user_id = "test123" password = "password"

con.execute('insert into Login values("%s", "%s")' % \ (user_id, password))

..................................
READ Operation
READ Operation on any database means to fetch some useful information from the
database.

Once the database connection is established, you are ready to make a query into this
database. You can use either fetchone() method to fetch a single record or
fetchall() method to fetch multiple values from a database table.

• fetchone(): It fetches the next row of a query result set. A result set is an object that
is returned when a cursor object is used to query a table.
• fetchall(): It fetches all the rows in a result set. If some rows have already been
extracted from the result set, then it retrieves the remaining rows from the result
set.
• rowcount: This is a read-only attribute and returns the number of rows that were
affected by an execute() method.

Example
The following procedure queries all the records from EMPLOYEE table having salary more
than 1000-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import PyMySQL
# Open database connection
db = PyMySQL.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )
# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()
# Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database.
sql = "SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE \
WHERE INCOME > '%d'" % (1000)
 try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Fetch all the rows in a list of lists.
results = cursor.fetchall()
for row in results: fname = row[0] lname = row[1] age = row[2]
sex = row[3] income = row[4]
# Now print fetched result
print ("fname=%s,lname=%s,age=%d,sex=%s,income=%d" % \ (fname, lname, age,
sex, income ))
except:
print ("Error: unable to fecth data")
# disconnect from server
db.close()
This will produce the following result-

fname=Mac, lname=Mohan, age=20, sex=M, income=2000

Update Operation
UPDATE Operation on any database means to update one or more records, which are
already available in the database.

The following procedure updates all the records having SEX as 'M'. Here, we increase the
AGE of all the males by one year.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import PyMySQL
# Open database connection
db = PyMySQL.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )
# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()
# Prepare SQL query to UPDATE required records
sql = "UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET AGE = AGE + 1
WHERE SEX = '%c'" % ('M')
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()
# disconnect from server
db.close()
DELETE Operation
DELETE operation is required when you want to delete some records from your database.
Following is the procedure to delete all the records from EMPLOYEE where AGE is more than
20-

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import PyMySQL
# Open database connection
db = PyMySQL.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )
# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()
# Prepare SQL query to DELETE required records
sql = "DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE > '%d'" % (20)
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()
# disconnect from server
db.close()

Performing Transactions
Transactions are a mechanism that ensure data consistency. Transactions have the
following four properties-

• Atomicity: Either a transaction completes or nothing happens at all.

• Consistency: A transaction must start in a consistent state and leave the system in
a consistent state.
• Isolation: Intermediate results of a transaction are not visible outside the current
transaction.
• Durability: Once a transaction was committed, the effects are persistent, even after
a system failure.

The Python DB API 2.0 provides two methods to either commit or rollback a transaction.

Example
You already know how to implement transactions. Here is a similar example-

# Prepare SQL query to DELETE required records

sql = "DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE > '%d'" % (20)
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()
COMMIT Operation
Commit is an operation, which gives a green signal to the database to finalize the changes,
and after this operation, no change can be reverted back.

Here is a simple example to call the commit method.

db.commit()
ROLLBACK Operation
If you are not satisfied with one or more of the changes and you want to revert back those
changes completely, then use the rollback() method.

Here is a simple example to call the rollback() method.

db.rollback()
Disconnecting Database
To disconnect the Database connection, use the close() method.

db.close()
If the connection to a database is closed by the user with the close() method, any
outstanding transactions are rolled back by the DB. However, instead of depending on any
of the DB lower level implementation details, your application would be better off calling
commit or rollback explicitly.

Handling Errors
There are many sources of errors. A few examples are a syntax error in an executed SQL
statement, a connection failure, or calling the fetch method for an already cancelled or
finished statement handle.

The DB API defines a number of errors that must exist in each database module. The
following table lists these exceptions.

Exception Description
Warning Used for non-fatal issues. Must subclass StandardError.

Error Base class for errors. Must subclass StandardError.

InterfaceError Used for errors in the database module, not the database itself.
Must subclass Error.
DatabaseError Used for errors in the database. Must subclass Error.

DataError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors in the data.

OperationalError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors such as the loss ofa
connection to the database. These errors are generally outside of
the control of the Python scripter.
IntegrityError Subclass of DatabaseError for situations that would damage the
relational integrity, such as uniqueness constraints or foreign keys.
InternalError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors internal to the
database module, such as a cursor no longer being active.
ProgrammingError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors such as a bad table
name and other things that can safely be blamed on you.
NotSupportedError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to trying to call unsupported
functionality.

Your Python scripts should handle these errors, but before using any of the above
exceptions, make sure your MySQLdb has support for that exception. You can get more
information about them by reading the DB API 2.0 specification.
22. Python 3 – MySQL Database (II)
Environment Setup
To build the real-world applications, connecting with the databases is the necessity for the
programming languages. However, python allows us to connect our application to the
databases like MySQL, SQLite, MongoDB, and many others.

In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss Python - MySQL connectivity, and we will
perform the database operations in python. We will also cover the Python connectivity with
the databases like MongoDB and SQLite later in this tutorial.

Install mysql.connector
To connect the python application with the MySQL database, we must import the
mysql.connector module in the program.

The mysql.connector is not a built-in module that comes with the python installation. We
need to install it to get it working.

Execute the following command to install it using pip installer.

> python -m pip install mysql-connector

Database Connection
In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss the steps to connect the python application to
the database.

There are the following steps to connect a python application to our database.

1. Import mysql.connector module

2. Create the connection object.
3. Create the cursor object
4. Execute the query

Creating the connection

To create a connection between the MySQL database and the python application, the
connect() method of mysql.connector module is used.

Pass the database details like HostName, username, and the database password in the
method call. The method returns the connection object.

The syntax to use the connect() is given below.

Connection-Object= mysql.connector.connect(host = <host-name> , user = <username>

, passwd = <password> )
Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd = "google")
#printing the connection object
print(myconn)
Output:
<mysql.connector.connection.MySQLConnection object at 0x7fb142edd78
Creating a cursor object
The cursor object can be defined as an abstraction specified in the Python DB-API 2.0. It
facilitates us to have multiple separate working environments through the same connection
to the database. We can create the cursor object by calling the 'cursor' function of the
connection object. The cursor object is an important aspect of executing queries to the
databases.

The syntax to create the cursor object is given below.

<my_cur> = conn.cursor()
Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd = "google",
database = "mydb")
#printing the connection object
print(myconn)
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
print(cur)
Output:
<mysql.connector.connection.MySQLConnection object at 0x7faa17a15748>
MySQLCursor: (Nothing executed yet)
Creating new databases
In this section of the tutorial, we will create the new database PythonDB.

Getting the list of existing databases

We can get the list of all the databases by using the following MySQL query.

> show databases;

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd = "google")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
dbs = cur.execute("show databases")
except:
myconn.rollback()
for x in cur:
print(x)
myconn.close()
Output:
('EmployeeDB',)
('Test',)
('TestDB',)
('information_schema',)
('javatpoint',)
('javatpoint1',)
('mydb',)
('mysql',)
('performance_schema',)
('testDB',)
Creating the new database
The new database can be created by using the following SQL query.

> create database <database-name>

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd = "google")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#creating a new database
cur.execute("create database PythonDB2")
#getting the list of all the databases which will now include the new database
PythonDB
dbs = cur.execute("show databases")
except:
myconn.rollback()
for x in cur:
print(x)
myconn.close()
Output:
('EmployeeDB',)
('PythonDB',)
('Test',)
('TestDB',)
('anshika',)
('information_schema',)
('javatpoint',)
('javatpoint1',)
('mydb',)
('mydb1',)
('mysql',)
('performance_schema',)
('testDB',)
Creating the table
In this section of the tutorial, we will create the new table Employee. We have to mention
the database name while establishing the connection object.

We can create the new table by using the CREATE TABLE statement of SQL. In our database
PythonDB, the table Employee will have the four columns, i.e., name, id, salary, and
department_id initially.

The following query is used to create the new table Employee.

> create table Employee (name varchar(20) not null, id int primary key, salary float not
null, Dept_Id int not null)
Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Creating a table with name Employee having four columns i.e., name, id, salary, and
department id
dbs = cur.execute("create table Employee(name varchar(20) not null, id int(20) not
null primary key, salary float not null, Dept_id int not null)")
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Alter Table
Sometimes, we may forget to create some columns, or we may need to update the table
schema. The alter statement used to alter the table schema if required. Here, we will add
the column branch_name to the table Employee. The following SQL query is used for this
purpose.

alter table Employee add branch_name varchar(20) not null

Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#adding a column branch name to the table Employee
cur.execute("alter table Employee add branch_name varchar(20) not null")
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Insert Operation
Adding a record to the table
The INSERT INTO statement is used to add a record to the table. In python, we can mention
the format specifier (%s) in place of values.

We provide the actual values in the form of tuple in the execute() method of the cursor.

Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
sql = "insert into Employee(name, id, salary, dept_id, branch_name) values (%s, %s,
%s, %s, %s)"
#The row values are provided in the form of tuple
val = ("John", 110, 25000.00, 201, "Newyork")
try:
#inserting the values into the table
cur.execute(sql,val)
#commit the transaction
myconn.commit()
except:
myconn.rollback()
print(cur.rowcount,"record inserted!")
myconn.close()
Output:
1 record inserted!
Insert multiple rows
We can also insert multiple rows at once using the python script. The multiple rows are
mentioned as the list of various tuples.

Each element of the list is treated as one particular row, whereas each element of the tuple
is treated as one particular column value (attribute).

Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
sql = "insert into Employee(name, id, salary, dept_id, branch_name) values (%s, %s,
%s, %s, %s)"
val = [("John", 102, 25000.00, 201, "Newyork"),("David",103,25000.00,202,"Port of
spain"),("Nick",104,90000.00,201,"Newyork")]
 try:
#inserting the values into the table
cur.executemany(sql,val)
#commit the transaction
myconn.commit()
print(cur.rowcount,"records inserted!")
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
3 records inserted!
Row ID
In SQL, a particular row is represented by an insertion id which is known as row id. We can
get the last inserted row id by using the attribute lastrowid of the cursor object.

Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
sql = "insert into Employee(name, id, salary, dept_id, branch_name) values (%s, %s,
%s, %s, %s)"
val = ("Mike",105,28000,202,"Guyana")
try:
#inserting the values into the table
cur.execute(sql,val)
#commit the transaction
myconn.commit()
#getting rowid
print(cur.rowcount,"record inserted! id:",cur.lastrowid)
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
1 record inserted! Id: 0
Read Operation
The SELECT statement is used to read the values from the databases. We can restrict the
output of a select query by using various clause in SQL like where, limit, etc.

Python provides the fetchall() method returns the data stored inside the table in the form of
rows. We can iterate the result to get the individual rows.

In this section of the tutorial, we will extract the data from the database by using the
python script. We will also format the output to print it on the console.
Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Reading the Employee data
cur.execute("select * from Employee")
#fetching the rows from the cursor object
result = cur.fetchall()
#printing the result
for x in result:
print(x);
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
('John', 101, 25000.0, 201, 'Newyork')
('John', 102, 25000.0, 201, 'Newyork')
('David', 103, 25000.0, 202, 'Port of spain')
('Nick', 104, 90000.0, 201, 'Newyork')
('Mike', 105, 28000.0, 202, 'Guyana')
Reading specific columns
We can read the specific columns by mentioning their names instead of using star (*).

In the following example, we will read the name, id, and salary from the Employee table
and print it on the console.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Reading the Employee data
cur.execute("select name, id, salary from Employee")
#fetching the rows from the cursor object
result = cur.fetchall()
#printing the result
for x in result:
print(x);
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
('John', 101, 25000.0)
('John', 102, 25000.0)
('David', 103, 25000.0)
('Nick', 104, 90000.0)
('Mike', 105, 28000.0)
The fetchone() method
The fetchone() method is used to fetch only one row from the table. The fetchone() method
returns the next row of the result-set.

Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Reading the Employee data
cur.execute("select name, id, salary from Employee")
#fetching the first row from the cursor object
result = cur.fetchone()
#printing the result
print(result)
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
('John', 101, 25000.0)
Formatting the result
We can format the result by iterating over the result produced by the fetchall() or
fetchone() method of cursor object since the result exists as the tuple object which is not
readable. Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Reading the Employee data
cur.execute("select name, id, salary from Employee")
#fetching the rows from the cursor object
result = cur.fetchall()
print("Name id Salary");
 for row in result:
print("%s %d %d"%(row[0],row[1],row[2]))
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
Name id Salary
John 101 25000
John 102 25000
David 103 25000
Nick 104 90000
Mike 105 28000
Using where clause
We can restrict the result produced by the select statement by using the where clause. This
will extract only those columns which satisfy the where condition.

Consider the following example.

Example:
printing the names that start with j

import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Reading the Employee data
cur.execute("select name, id, salary from Employee where name like 'J%'")
#fetching the rows from the cursor object
result = cur.fetchall()
print("Name id Salary");
for row in result:
print("%s %d %d"%(row[0],row[1],row[2]))
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
Name id Salary
John 101 25000
John 102 25000
Example:
printing the names with id = 101, 102, and 103

import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
 #creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Reading the Employee data
cur.execute("select name, id, salary from Employee where id in (101,102,103)")
#fetching the rows from the cursor object
result = cur.fetchall()
print("Name id Salary");
for row in result:
print("%s %d %d"%(row[0],row[1],row[2]))
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
Name id Salary
John 101 25000
John 102 25000
David 103 2500
Ordering the result
The ORDER BY clause is used to order the result. Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Reading the Employee data
cur.execute("select name, id, salary from Employee order by name")
#fetching the rows from the cursor object
result = cur.fetchall()
print("Name id Salary");
for row in result:
print("%s %d %d"%(row[0],row[1],row[2]))
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
Name id Salary
David 103 25000
John 101 25000
John 102 25000
Mike 105 28000
Nick 104 90000
Order by DESC
This orders the result in the decreasing order of a particular column.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Reading the Employee data
cur.execute("select name, id, salary from Employee order by name desc")
#fetching the rows from the cursor object
result = cur.fetchall()
#printing the result
print("Name id Salary");
for row in result:
print("%s %d %d"%(row[0],row[1],row[2]))
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
Name id Salary
Nick 104 90000
Mike 105 28000
John 101 25000
John 102 25000
David 103 25000
Update Operation
The UPDATE-SET statement is used to update any column inside the table. The following
SQL query is used to update a column.

> update Employee set name = 'alex' where id = 110

Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#updating the name of the employee whose id is 110
cur.execute("update Employee set name = 'alex' where id = 110")
myconn.commit()
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Delete Operation
The DELETE FROM statement is used to delete a specific record from the table. Here, we
must impose a condition using WHERE clause otherwise all the records from the table will be
removed.

The following SQL query is used to delete the employee detail whose id is 110 from the
table.

> delete from Employee where id = 110

Consider the following example.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#Deleting the employee details whose id is 110
cur.execute("delete from Employee where id = 110")
myconn.commit()
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Join Operation
We can combine the columns from two or more tables by using some common column
among them by using the join statement.

We have only one table in our database, let's create one more table Departments with two
columns department_id and department_name.

create table Departments (Dept_id int(20) primary key not null, Dept_Name varchar(20)
not null);
As we have created a new table Departments as shown in the above image. However, we
haven't yet inserted any value inside it.

Let's insert some Departments ids and departments names so that we can map this to our
Employee table.

insert into Departments values (201, "CS");

insert into Departments values (202, "IT");
Let's look at the values inserted in each of the tables. Consider the following image.

Now, let's create a python script that joins the two tables on the common column, i.e.,
dept_id.

Example
import mysql.connector
#Create the connection object
myconn = mysql.connector.connect(host = "localhost", user = "root",passwd =
"google",database = "PythonDB")
#creating the cursor object
cur = myconn.cursor()
try:
#joining the two tables on departments_id
cur.execute("select Employee.id, Employee.name, Employee.salary,
Departments.Dept_id, Departments.Dept_Name from Departments join Employee on
Departments.Dept_id = Employee.Dept_id")
print("ID Name Salary Dept_Id Dept_Name")
for row in cur:
print("%d %s %d %d %s"%(row[0], row[1],row[2],row[3],row[4]))
except:
myconn.rollback()
myconn.close()
Output:
ID Name Salary Dept_Id Dept_Name
101 John 25000 201 CS
102 John 25000 201 CS
103 David 25000 202 IT
104 Nick 90000 201 CS
105 Mike 28000 202 IT
23. Python 3 – Sending Mail (SMTP)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a protocol, which handles sending an e-mail and
routing e-mail between mail servers.

Python provides smtplib module, which defines an SMTP client session object that can be
used to send mails to any Internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP listener daemon.

Here is a simple syntax to create one SMTP object, which can later be used to send an e-
mail-

import smtplib
smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP( [host [, port [, local_hostname]]] )
Here is the detail of the parameters-

• host: This is the host running your SMTP server. You can specifiy IP address of the
host or a domain name like tutorialspoint.com. This is an optional argument.
• port: If you are providing host argument, then you need to specify a port, where
SMTP server is listening. Usually this port would be 25.
• local_hostname: If your SMTP server is running on your local machine, then you can
specify just localhost as the option.

An SMTP object has an instance method called sendmail, which is typically, used to do the
work of mailing a message. It takes three parameters-

• The sender - A string with the address of the sender.

• The receivers - A list of strings, one for each recipient.
• The message - A message as a string formatted as specified in the various RFCs.

Example
Here is a simple way to send one e-mail using Python script. Try it once-

#!/usr/bin/python3
import smtplib
sender='from@fromdomain.com'
receivers =['to@todomain.com']

message ="""From: From Person <from@fromdomain.com>

To: To Person <to@todomain.com>

Subject: SMTP e-mail test

This is a test e-mail message. """
try:
smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP('localhost') smtpObj.sendmail(sender, receivers, message)
print ("Successfully sent email") except smtplib.SMTPException:
print ("Error: unable to send email")

Here, you have placed a basic e-mail in message, using a triple quote, taking care to format
the headers correctly. An e-mail requires a From, To, and a Subject header, separated from
the body of the e-mail with a blank line.
To send the mail you use smtpObj to connect to the SMTP server on the local machine.
Then use the sendmail method along with the message, the from address, and the
destination address as parameters (even though the from and to addresses are within the
e-mail itself, these are not always used to route the mail).

If you are not running an SMTP server on your local machine, you can the usesmtplib client
to communicate with a remote SMTP server. Unless you are using a webmail service (such
as gmail or Yahoo! Mail), your e-mail provider must have provided you with the outgoing
mail server details that you can supply them, as follows-

mail=smtplib.SMTP('smtp.gmail.com', 587)
Sending an HTML e-mail using Python
When you send a text message using Python, then all the content is treated as simple text.
Even if you include HTML tags in a text message, it is displayed as simple text and HTML
tags will not be formatted according to the HTML syntax. However, Python provides an
option to send an HTML message as actual HTML message.

While sending an e-mail message, you can specify a Mime version, content type and the
character set to send an HTML e-mail.

Example
Following is an example to send the HTML content as an e-mail. Try it once-

import smtplib
sender_mail = 'Senders Mail'
receivers_mail = ‘Receivers Mail’
message = """From: Sender %s
To: Receiver %s
Subject: Sending SMTP e-mail
This is a test e-mail message."""%(sender_mail,receivers_mail)
try:
password = input('Enter the password');
smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP('smtp.gmail.com',587)
smtpObj.starttls()
smtpObj.login(sender_mail,password)
smtpObj.sendmail(sender_mail, receivers_mail, message)
print("Successfully sent email")
except Exception:
print("Error: unable to send email")
24. Python 3 – Multithreaded Programming
Running several threads is similar to running several different programs concurrently, but
with the following benefits-

• Multiple threads within a process share the same data space with the main thread
and can therefore share information or communicate with each other more easily
than if they were separate processes.
• Threads are sometimes called light-weight processes and they do not require much
memory overhead; they are cheaper than processes.

A thread has a beginning, an execution sequence, and a conclusion. It has an instruction

pointer that keeps track of where within its context is it currently running.

• It can be pre-empted (interrupted).

• It can temporarily be put on hold (also known as sleeping) while other threads are
running - this is called yielding.

There are two different kind of threads-

• kernel thread
• user thread

Kernel Threads are a part of the operating system, while the User-space threads are not
implemented in the kernel.

There are two modules, which support the usage of threads in Python3-

• _thread
• threading

The thread module has been "deprecated" for quite a long time. Users are encouraged to
use the threading module instead. Hence, in Python 3, the module "thread" is not available
anymore. However, it has been renamed to "_thread" for backward compatibilities in
Python3.

Starting a New Thread

To spawn another thread, you need to call the following method available in the thread

module-

_thread.start_new_thread ( function, args[, kwargs] )

This method call enables a fast and efficient way to create new threads in both Linux and
Windows.

The method call returns immediately and the child thread starts and calls function with the
passed list of agrs. When the function returns, the thread terminates.

Here, args is a tuple of arguments; use an empty tuple to call function without passing any
arguments. kwargs is an optional dictionary of keyword arguments.
Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import _thread
import time
# Define a function for the thread
def print_time( threadName, delay):
count = 0
while count < 5:
time.sleep(delay)
count += 1
print ("%s: %s" % ( threadName, time.ctime(time.time()) ))
# Create two threads as follows
try:
_thread.start_new_thread( print_time, ("Thread-1", 2, ) )
_thread.start_new_thread( print_time, ("Thread-2", 4, ) )
except:
print ("Error: unable to start thread")
while 1:
pass
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 09:41:39 2016

Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 09:41:41 2016
Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 09:41:41 2016
Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 09:41:43 2016
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 09:41:45 2016
Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 09:41:45 2016
Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 09:41:47 2016
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 09:41:49 2016
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 09:41:53 2016
Program goes in an infinite loop. You will have to press ctrl-c to stop.

Although it is very effective for low-level threading, the thread module is very limited
compared to the newer threading module.

The Threading Module

The newer threading module included with Python 2.4 provides much more powerful, high-
level support for threads than the thread module discussed in the previous section.

The threading module exposes all the methods of the thread module and provides some
additional methods:

• threading.activeCount(): Returns the number of thread objects that are active.

• threading.currentThread(): Returns the number of thread objects in the caller's
thread control.
• threading.enumerate(): Returns a list of all the thread objects that are currently
active.

In addition to the methods, the threading module has the Thread class that implements
threading. The methods provided by the Thread class are as follows:

• run(): The run() method is the entry point for a thread.

• start(): The start() method starts a thread by calling the run method.
 • join([time]): The join() waits for threads to terminate.
• isAlive(): The isAlive() method checks whether a thread is still executing.
• getName(): The getName() method returns the name of a thread.
• setName(): The setName() method sets the name of a thread.

Creating Thread Using Threading Module

To implement a new thread using the threading module, you have to do the following −

• Define a new subclass of the Thread class.

• Override the init (self [,args]) method to add additional arguments.
• Then, override the run(self [,args]) method to implement what the thread should do
when started.

Once you have created the new Thread subclass, you can create an instance of it and then
start a new thread by invoking the start(), which in turn calls the run()method.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import threading
import time
exitFlag = 0
class myThread (threading.Thread):
def __init__ (self, threadID, name, counter):
threading.Thread.__init__(self)
self.threadID = threadID
self.name = name
self.counter = counter
def run(self):
print ("Starting " + self.name)
print_time(self.name, self.counter, 5)
print ("Exiting " + self.name)
def print_time(threadName, delay, counter):
while counter:
if exitFlag:
threadName.exit()
time.sleep(delay)
print ("%s: %s" % (threadName, time.ctime(time.time())))
counter -= 1
# Create new threads
thread1 = myThread(1, "Thread-1", 1)
thread2 = myThread(2, "Thread-2", 2)
# Start new Threads
thread1.start()
thread2.start()
thread1.join()
thread2.join()
print ("Exiting Main Thread")
When we run the above program, it produces the following result-

Starting Thread-1
Starting Thread-2
Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 10:00:23 2016
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 10:00:24 2016
 Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 10:00:24 2016
Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 10:00:25 2016
Exiting Thread-1
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 10:00:26 2016
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 10:00:28 2016
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 10:00:30 2016
Exiting Thread-2
Exiting Main Thread
Synchronizing Threads
The threading module provided with Python includes a simple-to-implement locking
mechanism that allows you to synchronize threads. A new lock is created by calling the
Lock() method, which returns the new lock.

The acquire(blocking) method of the new lock object is used to force the threads to run
synchronously. The optional blocking parameter enables you to control whether the thread
waits to acquire the lock.

If blocking is set to 0, the thread returns immediately with a 0 value if the lock cannot be
acquired and with a 1 if the lock was acquired. If blocking is set to 1, the thread blocks and
wait for the lock to be released.

The release() method of the new lock object is used to release the lock when it is no longer
required.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import threading
import time
class myThread (threading.Thread):
def __init__(self, threadID, name, counter):
threading.Thread.__init__ (self)
self.threadID = threadID
self.name = name
self.counter = counter
def run(self):
print ("Starting " + self.name)
# Get lock to synchronize threads
threadLock.acquire()
print_time(self.name, self.counter, 3)
# Free lock to release next thread
threadLock.release()
def print_time(threadName, delay, counter):
while counter:
time.sleep(delay)
print ("%s: %s" % (threadName, time.ctime(time.time())))
counter -= 1
threadLock = threading.Lock()
threads = []
# Create new threads
thread1 = myThread(1, "Thread-1", 1)
thread2 = myThread(2, "Thread-2", 2)
# Start new Threads
 thread1.start()
thread2.start()
# Add threads to thread list
threads.append(thread1)
threads.append(thread2)
# Wait for all threads to complete
for t in threads:
t.join()
print ("Exiting Main Thread")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Starting Thread-1
Starting Thread-2
Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 10:04:14 2016
Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 10:04:15 2016
Thread-1: Fri Feb 19 10:04:16 2016
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 10:04:18 2016
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 10:04:20 2016
Thread-2: Fri Feb 19 10:04:22 2016
Exiting Main Thread
Multithreaded Priority Queue
The Queue module allows you to create a new queue object that can hold a specific number
of items. There are following methods to control the Queue −

• get(): The get() removes and returns an item from the queue.
• put(): The put adds item to a queue.
• qsize() : The qsize() returns the number of items that are currently in the queue.
• empty(): The empty( ) returns True if queue is empty; otherwise, False.
• full(): the full() returns True if queue is full; otherwise, False.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import queue
import threading
import time
exitFlag = 0
class myThread (threading.Thread):
def __init__(self, threadID, name, q):
threading.Thread.__init__(self)
self.threadID = threadID
self.name = name
self.q = q
def run(self):
print ("Starting " + self.name)
process_data(self.name, self.q)
print ("Exiting " + self.name)
def process_data(threadName, q):
while not exitFlag:
queueLock.acquire()
if not workQueue.empty():
data = q.get()
queueLock.release()
 print ("%s processing %s" % (threadName, data))
else:
queueLock.release()
time.sleep(1)
threadList = ["Thread-1", "Thread-2", "Thread-3"]
nameList = ["One", "Two", "Three", "Four", "Five"]
queueLock = threading.Lock()
workQueue = queue.Queue(10)
threads = []
threadID = 1
# Create new threads
for tName in threadList:
thread = myThread(threadID, tName, workQueue)
thread.start()
threads.append(thread)
threadID += 1
# Fill the queue
queueLock.acquire()
for word in nameList:
workQueue.put(word)
queueLock.release()

# Wait for queue to empty

while not workQueue.empty():
pass
# Notify threads it's time to exit
exitFlag = 1
# Wait for all threads to complete
for t in threads:
t.join()
print ("Exiting Main Thread")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Starting Thread-1
Starting Thread-2
Starting Thread-3
 25. Python 3 – GUI Programming (Tkinter)
Python provides various options for developing graphical user interfaces (GUIs). The most
important features are listed below.

• Tkinter: Tkinter is the Python interface to the Tk GUI toolkit shipped with Python. We
would look at this option in this chapter.
• wxPython: This is an open-source Python interface for wxWidgets GUI toolkit. You
can find a complete tutorial on WxPython here.
• PyQt:This is also a Python interface for a popular cross-platform Qt GUI library.
TutorialsPoint has a very good tutorial on PyQt here.
• JPython: JPython is a Python port for Java, which gives Python scripts seamless
access to the Java class libraries on the local machinehttp://www.jython.org.

There are many other interfaces available, which you can find them on the net.

Tkinter Programming
Tkinter is the standard GUI library for Python. Python when combined with Tkinter provides
a fast and easy way to create GUI applications. Tkinter provides a powerful object-oriented
interface to the Tk GUI toolkit.

Creating a GUI application using Tkinter is an easy task. All you need to do is perform the
following steps −

• Import the Tkinter module.

• Create the GUI application main window.
• Add one or more of the above-mentioned widgets to the GUI application.
• Enter the main event loop to take action against each event triggered by the user.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3
import tkinter # note that module name has changed from Tkinter in Python 2 to tkinter
in Python 3
top = tkinter.Tk()
# Code to add widgets will go here...
top.mainloop()
This would create a following window-
Geometry Management
All Tkinter widgets have access to the specific geometry management methods, which have
the purpose of organizing widgets throughout the parent widget area. Tkinter exposes the
following geometry manager classes: pack, grid, and place.

• The pack() Method - This geometry manager organizes widgets in blocks before
placing them in the parent widget.
• The grid() Method - This geometry manager organizes widgets in a table-like
structure in the parent widget.
• The place() Method -This geometry manager organizes widgets by placing them in a
specific position in the parent widget.

Let us study the geometry management methods briefly –

Tkinter pack() Method

This geometry manager organizes widgets in blocks before placing them in the parent
widget.

Syntax
widget.pack( pack_options )
Here is the list of possible options-

• expand: When set to true, widget expands to fill any space not otherwise used in
widget's parent.
• fill: Determines whether widget fills any extra space allocated to it by the packer, or
keeps its own minimal dimensions: NONE (default), X (fill only horizontally), Y (fill
only vertically), or BOTH (fill both horizontally and vertically).
• side: Determines which side of the parent widget packs against: TOP (default),
BOTTOM, LEFT, or RIGHT.

Example
Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
root = Tk()
frame = Frame(root)
frame.pack()
bottomframe = Frame(root)
bottomframe.pack( side = BOTTOM )
redbutton = Button(frame, text="Red", fg="red")
redbutton.pack( side = LEFT)
greenbutton = Button(frame, text="Brown", fg="brown")
greenbutton.pack( side = LEFT )
bluebutton = Button(frame, text="Blue", fg="blue")
bluebutton.pack( side = LEFT )
blackbutton = Button(bottomframe, text="Black", fg="black")
blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM)
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter grid() Method

This geometry manager organizes widgets in a table-like structure in the parent widget.

Syntax
widget.grid( grid_options )
Here is the list of possible options-

• column : The column to put widget in; default 0 (leftmost column).

• columnspan: How many columns widgetoccupies; default 1.
• ipadx, ipady :How many pixels to pad widget, horizontally and vertically, inside
widget's borders.
• padx, pady : How many pixels to pad widget, horizontally and vertically, outside v's
borders.
• row: The row to put widget in; default the first row that is still empty.
• rowspan : How many rowswidget occupies; default 1.
• sticky : What to do if the cell is larger than widget. By default, with sticky='', widget
is centered in its cell. sticky may be the string concatenation of zero or more of N, E,
S, W, NE, NW, SE, and SW, compass directions indicating the sides and corners of
the cell to which widget sticks.

Example
Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
root = Tk( )
b=0
for r in range(6):
for c in range(6):
b=b+1
Button(root, text=str(b), borderwidth=1 ).grid(row=r,column=c)
root.mainloop()
This would produce the following result displaying 12 labels arrayed in a 3 x 4 grid-
Tkinter place() Method
This geometry manager organizes widgets by placing them in a specific position in the
parent widget.

Syntax
widget.place( place_options )
Here is the list of possible options-

• anchor : The exact spot of widget other options refer to: may be N, E, S, W, NE, NW,
SE, or SW, compass directions indicating the corners and sides of widget; default is
NW (the upper left corner of widget)
• bordermode : INSIDE (the default) to indicate that other options refer to the parent's
inside (ignoring the parent's border); OUTSIDE otherwise.
• height, width : Height and width in pixels.
• relheight, relwidth : Height and width as a float between 0.0 and 1.0, as a fraction of
the height and width of the parent widget.
• relx, rely : Horizontal and vertical offset as a float between 0.0 and 1.0, as a fraction
of the height and width of the parent widget.
• x, y : Horizontal and vertical offset in pixels.

Example
Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
top = Tk()
L1 = Label(top, text="Physics")
L1.place(x=10,y=10)
E1 = Entry(top, bd =5)
E1.place(x=60,y=10)
L2=Label(top,text="Maths")
L2.place(x=10,y=50)
E2=Entry(top,bd=5)
E2.place(x=60,y=50)
L3=Label(top,text="Total")
L3.place(x=10,y=150)
E3=Entry(top,bd=5)
E3.place(x=60,y=150)
B = Button(top, text ="Add")
B.place(x=100, y=100)
top.geometry("250x250+10+10")
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Widgets
Tkinter provides various controls, such as buttons, labels and text boxes used in a GUI
application. These controls are commonly called widgets.

There are currently 15 types of widgets in Tkinter. We present these widgets as well as a
brief description in the following table-

Operator Description
The Button widget is used to display the buttons in your
Button
application.
The Canvas widget is used to draw shapes, such as lines,
Canvas
ovals, polygons and rectangles, in your application.
The Checkbutton widget is used to display a number of
Checkbutton options as checkboxes. The user can select multiple
options at a time.
The Entry widget is used to display a single-line text field
Entry
for accepting values from a user.
The Frame widget is used as a container widget to
Frame
organize other widgets.
The Label widget is used to provide a single-line caption
Label
for other widgets. It can also contain images.
The Listbox widget is used to provide a list of options toa
Listbox
user.
The Menubutton widget is used to display menus in your
Menubutton
application.
The Menu widget is used to provide various commands to
Menu a user. These commands are contained inside
Menubutton.
The Message widget is used to display multiline text fields
Message
for accepting values from a user.

Radiobutton The Radiobutton widget is used to display a number of

 options as radio buttons. The user can select only one
option at a time.

Scale The Scale widget is used to provide a slider widget.

The Scrollbar widget is used to add scrolling capability to

Scrollbar
various widgets, such as list boxes.

Text The Text widget is used to display text in multiple lines.

The Toplevel widget is used to provide a separate window

Toplevel
container.
The Spinbox widget is a variant of the standard Tkinter
Spinbox Entry widget, which can be used to select from a fixed
number of values.
A PanedWindow is a container widget that may contain
PanedWindow
any number of panes, arranged horizontally or vertically.
A labelframe is a simple container widget. Its primary
LabelFrame purpose is to act as a spacer or container for complex
window layouts.
This module is used to display the message boxes in your
tkMessageBox
applications.
Let us study these widgets in detail.

Tkinter Button
The Button widget is used to add buttons in a Python application. These buttons can display
text or images that convey the purpose of the buttons. You can attach a function or a
method to a button which is called automatically when you click the button.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Button ( master, option=value, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description
activebackground Background color when the button is under the cursor.

activeforeground Foreground color when the button is under the cursor.

bd Border width in pixels. Default is 2.

bg Normal background color.

command Function or method to be called when the button is clicked.

fg Normal foreground (text) color.

 font Text font to be used for the button's label.

Height of the button in text lines (for textual buttons) or pixels

height
(for images).

highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the widget has focus.

image Image to be displayed on the button (instead of text).

How to show multiple text lines: LEFT to left-justify each line;

justify
CENTER to center them; or RIGHT to right-justify.

padx Additional padding left and right of the text.

pady Additional padding above and below the text.

Relief specifies the type of the border. Some of the values are
relief
SUNKEN, RAISED, GROOVE, and RIDGE.
Set this option to DISABLED to gray out the button and make it
state unresponsive. Has the value ACTIVE when the mouse is over it.
Default is NORMAL.
Default is -1, meaning that no character of the text on the button
underline will be underlined. If nonnegative, the corresponding text
character will be underlined.
Width of the button in letters (if displaying text) or pixels (if
width
displaying an image).
If this value is set to a positive number, the text lines will be
wraplength
wrapped to fit within this length.
Methods
Following are commonly used methods for this widget-

Method Description
Causes the button to flash several times between active and normal
flash() colors. Leaves the button in the state it was in originally. Ignored if the
button is disabled.
Calls the button's callback, and returns what that function returns. Hasno
invoke()
effect if the button is disabled or there is no callback.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
from tkinter import messagebox
top = Tk()
top.geometry("100x100")
def helloCallBack():
msg=messagebox.showinfo( "Hello Python", "Hello World")
B = Button(top, text ="Hello", command = helloCallBack)
B.place(x=50,y=50)
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Canvas
The Canvas is a rectangular area intended for drawing pictures or other complex layouts.
You can place graphics, text, widgets or frames on a Canvas.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Canvas ( master, option=value, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description
bd Border width in pixels. Default is 2.

bg Normal background color.

If true (the default), the canvas cannot be scrolled outside of the

confine
scrollregion.

cursor Cursor used in the canvas like arrow, circle, dot etc.

height Size of the canvas in the Y dimension.

highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight.

Relief specifies the type of the border. Some of the values are
relief
SUNKEN, RAISED, GROOVE, and RIDGE.
A tuple (w, n, e, s) that defines over how large an area the canvas
scrollregion can be scrolled, where w is the left side, n the top, e the right side,
and s the bottom.

width Size of the canvas in the X dimension.

If you set this option to some positive dimension, the canvas can be
xscrollincrement positioned only on multiples of that distance, and the value will be
used for scrolling by scrolling units, such as when the user clicks on
 the arrows at the ends of a scrollbar.

If the canvas is scrollable, this attribute should be the .set() methodof

xscrollcommand
the horizontal scrollbar.

yscrollincrement Works like xscrollincrement, but governs vertical movement.

If the canvas is scrollable, this attribute should be the .set() methodof

yscrollcommand
the vertical scrollbar.
The Canvas widget can support the following standard items-

arc . Creates an arc item, which can be a chord, a pieslice or a simple arc.

coord = 10, 50, 240, 210

arc = canvas.create_arc(coord, start=0, extent=150, fill="blue")
image . Creates an image item, which can be an instance of either the BitmapImage or the
PhotoImage classes.

filename = PhotoImage(file = "sunshine.gif")

image = canvas.create_image(50, 50, anchor=NE, image=filename)
line . Creates a line item.

line = canvas.create_line(x0, y0, x1, y1, ..., xn, yn, options)

oval . Creates a circle or an ellipse at the given coordinates. It takes two pairs of
coordinates; the top left and bottom right corners of the bounding rectangle for the oval.

oval = canvas.create_oval(x0, y0, x1, y1, options)

polygon . Creates a polygon item that must have at least three vertices.

oval = canvas.create_polygon(x0, y0, x1, y1,...xn, yn, options)

Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
from tkinter import messagebox
top = Tk()
C = Canvas(top, bg="blue", height=250, width=300)
coord = 10, 50, 240, 210
arc = C.create_arc(coord, start=0, extent=150, fill="red") line =
C.create_line(10,10,200,200,fill='white')
C.pack()
Top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Checkbutton
The Checkbutton widget is used to display a number of options to a user as toggle buttons.
The user can then select one or more options by clicking the button corresponding to each
option.

You can also display images in place of text.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Checkbutton ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description
activebackground Background color when the checkbutton is under the cursor.

activeforeground Foreground color when the checkbutton is under the cursor.

The normal background color displayed behind the label and

bg
indicator.

bitmap To display a monochrome image on a button.

bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.

A procedure to be called every time the user changes the state of

command
this checkbutton.
If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the
cursor mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the
checkbutton.

disabledforeground The foreground color used to render the text of a disabled

 checkbutton. The default is a stippled version of the default
foreground color.

font The font used for the text.

fg The color used to render the text.

height The number of lines of text on the checkbutton. Default is 1.

The color of the focus highlight when the checkbutton has the
highlightcolor
focus.

image To display a graphic image on the button.

If the text contains multiple lines, this option controls how the
justify
text is justified: CENTER, LEFT, or RIGHT.
Normally, a checkbutton's associated control variable will be set to
offvalue 0 when it is cleared (off). You can supply an alternate value forthe
off state by setting offvalue to that value.
Normally, a checkbutton's associated control variable will be set to
onvalue 1 when it is set (on). You can supply an alternate value for theon
state by setting onvalue to that value.
How much space to leave to the left and right of the checkbutton
padx
and text. Default is 1 pixel.
How much space to leave above and below the checkbutton and
pady
text. Default is 1 pixel.
With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does not
relief stand out from its background. You may set this option to any of
the other styles
The color of the checkbutton when it is set. Default is
selectcolor
selectcolor="red".
If you set this option to an image, that image will appear in the
selectimage
checkbutton when it is set.
The default is state=NORMAL, but you can use state=DISABLED to
state gray out the control and make it unresponsive. If the cursor is
currently over the checkbutton, the state is ACTIVE.
The label displayed next to the checkbutton. Use newlines ("\n")to
text
display multiple lines of text.
With the default value of -1, none of the characters of the text
underline label are underlined. Set this option to the index of a character in
the text (counting from zero) to underline that character.
The control variable that tracks the current state of the
checkbutton. Normally this variable is an IntVar, and 0 means
variable
cleared and 1 means set, but see the offvalue and onvalue options
above.
The default width of a checkbutton is determined by the size of the
displayed image or text. You can set this option to a number of
width
characters and the checkbutton will always have room for that
many characters.
 Normally, lines are not wrapped. You can set this option to a
wraplength number of characters and all lines will be broken into pieces no
longer than that number.
Methods
Following are commonly used methods for this widget-

Method Description
deselect() Clears (turns off) the checkbutton.

Flashes the checkbutton a few times between its active and normal
flash()
colors, but leaves it the way it started.
You can call this method to get the same actions that would occur if
invoke()
the user clicked on the checkbutton to change its state.

select() Sets (turns on) the checkbutton.

toggle() Clears the checkbutton if set, sets it if cleared.

Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
import tkinter
top = Tk()
CheckVar1 = IntVar()
CheckVar2 = IntVar()
C1 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Music", variable = CheckVar1, onvalue = 1, offvalue = 0,
height=5, width = 20, )
C2 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Video", variable = CheckVar2, onvalue = 1, offvalue = 0,
height=5, width = 20)
C1.pack()
C2.pack()
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result –

Tkinter Entry
The Entry widget is used to accept single-line text strings from a user.

• If you want to display multiple lines of text that can be edited, then you should use
the Text widget.
 • If you want to display one or more lines of text that cannot be modified by the user,
then you should use the Label widget.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Entry( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description
bg The normal background color displayed behind the label andindicator.

bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.

command A procedure to be called every time the user changes the state ofthis
checkbutton.
cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse
cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton.
font The font used for the text.

exportselection By default, if you select text within an Entry widget, it is

automatically exported to the clipboard. To avoid this exportation, use
exportselection=0.
fg The color used to render the text.

highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the checkbutton has the
focus.
justify If the text contains multiple lines, this option controls how the textis
justified: CENTER, LEFT, or RIGHT.
relief With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does not stand
out from its background. You may set this option to any of the other
styles
selectbackground The background color to use displaying selected text.

selectborderwidth The width of the border to use around selected text. The default isone
pixel.
selectforeground The foreground (text) color of selected text.

show Normally, the characters that the user types appear in the entry. To
make a .password. entry that echoes each character as an asterisk,
set show="*".
state The default is state=NORMAL, but you can use state=DISABLED to
 gray out the control and make it unresponsive. If the cursor is
currently over the checkbutton, the state is ACTIVE.
textvariable In order to be able to retrieve the current text from your entry
widget, you must set this option to an instance of the StringVar class.
width The default width of a checkbutton is determined by the size of the
displayed image or text. You can set this option to a number of
characters and the checkbutton will always have room for that many
characters.
xscrollcommand If you expect that users will often enter more text than the onscreen
size of the widget, you can link your entry widget to a scrollbar.
Methods
Following are commonly used methods for this widget-

Method Description

delete ( first, last=None ) Deletes characters from the widget, starting withthe
one at index first, up to but not including the
character at position last. If the second argument is
omitted, only the single character at position first is
deleted.
get() Returns the entry's current text as a string.

icursor ( index ) Set the insertion cursor just before the characterat
the given index.
index ( index ) Shift the contents of the entry so that the character
at the given index is the leftmost visiblecharacter.
Has no effect if the text fits entirely within the entry.
insert ( index, s ) Inserts string s before the character at the given
index.
select_adjust ( index ) This method is used to make sure that the selection
includes the character at the specifiedindex.
select_clear() Clears the selection. If there isn't currently a
selection, has no effect.
select_from ( index ) Sets the ANCHOR index position to the
characterselected by index, and selects that
character.
select_present() If there is a selection, returns true, else returns
false.
select_range ( start, end ) Sets the selection under program control.
Selects the text starting at the start index, up
to but not including the character at the end
index. The startposition must be before the end
position.
select_to ( index ) Selects all the text from the ANCHOR position
upto but not including the character at the
given index.
xview ( index ) This method is useful in linking the Entry widget
toa horizontal scrollbar.
xview_scroll ( number, what ) Used to scroll the entry horizontally. The what
argument must be either UNITS, to scroll by
character widths, or PAGES, to scroll by chunks
the size of the entry widget. The number is
positive to scroll left to right, negative to scroll
right to left.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
top = Tk()
L1 = Label(top, text="User Name")
L1.pack( side = LEFT)
E1 = Entry(top, bd =5)
E1.pack(side = RIGHT)
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Frame
The Frame widget is very important for the process of grouping and organizing other
widgets in a somehow friendly way. It works like a container, which is responsible for
arranging the position of other widgets.

It uses rectangular areas in the screen to organize the layout and to provide padding of
these widgets. A frame can also be used as a foundation class to implement complex
widgets.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Frame ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description

bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and

indicator.
bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.

cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse
cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton.
height The vertical dimension of the new frame.

highlightbackground Color of the focus highlight when the frame does not have focus.

highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight when the frame has the focus.

highlightthickness Thickness of the focus highlight.

Relief With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does not stand
out from its background. You may set this option to any of the
other styles
Width The default width of a checkbutton is determined by the size of the
displayed image or text. You can set this option to a numberof
characters and the checkbutton will always have room for that
many characters.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
root = Tk()
frame = Frame(root)
frame.pack()
bottomframe = Frame(root)
bottomframe.pack( side = BOTTOM )
redbutton = Button(frame, text="Red", fg="red")
redbutton.pack( side = LEFT)
greenbutton = Button(frame, text="Brown", fg="brown")
greenbutton.pack( side = LEFT )
bluebutton = Button(frame, text="Blue", fg="blue")
bluebutton.pack( side = LEFT )
blackbutton = Button(bottomframe, text="Black", fg="black")
blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM)
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Label
This widget implements a display box where you can place text or images. The text
displayed by this widget can be updated at any time you want.

It is also possible to underline part of the text (like to identify a keyboard shortcut) and
span the text across multiple lines.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Label ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.
 Options Description
This options controls where the text is positioned if the widget has more
anchor space than the text needs. The default is anchor=CENTER, whichcenters the
text in the available space.

bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator.

Set this option equal to a bitmap or image object and the label will
bitmap
display that graphic.

bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.

If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse
cursor
cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton.

If you are displaying text in this label (with the text or textvariable
font
option, the font option specifies in what font that text will be displayed.

If you are displaying text or a bitmap in this label, this option specifiesthe
fg color of the text. If you are displaying a bitmap, this is the color that will
appear at the position of the 1-bits in the bitmap.

height The vertical dimension of the new frame.

To display a static image in the label widget, set this option to an

image
image object.

Specifies how multiple lines of text will be aligned with respect to each
justify other: LEFT for flush left, CENTER for centered (the default), or RIGHTfor
right-justified.

Extra space added to the left and right of the text within the widget.
padx
Default is 1.

pady Extra space added above and below the text within the widget. Defaultis 1.

Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the label. The

relief
default is FLAT; for other values.

To display one or more lines of text in a label widget, set this option to a
text
string containing the text. Internal newlines ("\n") will force a linebreak.

To slave the text displayed in a label widget to a control variable ofclass

textvariable
StringVar, set this option to that variable.

You can display an underline (_) below the nth letter of the text, counting
underline from 0, by setting this option to n. The default is underline=-1, which
means no underlining.

Width of the label in characters (not pixels!). If this option is not set,the
width
label will be sized to fit its contents.

You can limit the number of characters in each line by setting this option
wraplength to the desired number. The default value, 0, means that lines will be
broken only at newlines.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
root = Tk()
var = StringVar()
label = Label( root, textvariable=var, relief=RAISED )
var.set("Hey!? How are you doing?")
label.pack()
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Listbox
The Listbox widget is used to display a list of items from which a user can select a number
of items

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Listbox ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description
The normal background color displayed behind the label and
bg
indicator.

The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2

bd
pixels.

cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the listbox.

font The font used for the text in the listbox.

fg The color used for the text in the listbox.

height Number of lines (not pixels!) shown in the listbox. Default is10.

Color shown in the focus highlight when the widget has the
highlightcolor
focus.

highlightthickness Thickness of the focus highlight.

Selects three-dimensional border shading effects. The defaultis

relief
SUNKEN.
 selectbackground The background color to use displaying selected text.

Determines how many items can be selected, and how mouse

drags affect the selection:
• BROWSE: Normally, you can only select one line out of a
listbox. If you click on an item and then drag to adifferent
line, the selection will follow the mouse. Thisis the default.
• SINGLE: You can only select one line, and you can't drag
selectmode the mouse.wherever you click button 1, that line is
selected.
• MULTIPLE: You can select any number of lines at once.
Clicking on any line toggles whether or not it is selected.
• EXTENDED: You can select any adjacent group of lines at
once by clicking on the first line and dragging to the last
line.

width The width of the widget in characters. The default is 20.

If you want to allow the user to scroll the listbox horizontally,you

xscrollcommand
can link your listbox widget to a horizontal scrollbar.

If you want to allow the user to scroll the listbox vertically,you

yscrollcommand
can link your listbox widget to a vertical scrollbar.
Methods
Methods on listbox objects include-

Options Description
activate ( index ) Selects the line specifies by the given index.
curselection() Returns a tuple containing the line numbers of the selected
element or elements, counting from 0. Ifnothing is selected,
returns an empty tuple.
delete ( first, last=None ) Deletes the lines whose indices are in the range [first, last].
If the second argument is omitted, the single linewith index
first is deleted.
get ( first, last=None ) Returns a tuple containing the text of the lines with indices
from first to last, inclusive. If the second argument is
omitted, returns the text of the line closestto first.
index ( i ) If possible, positions the visible part of the listbox so that
the line containing index i is at the top of the widget.
insert ( index, *elements ) Insert one or more new lines into the listbox before theline
specified by index. Use END as the first argument if you
want to add new lines to the end of the listbox.
nearest ( y ) Return the index of the visible line closest to the y-
coordinate y relative to the listbox widget.
see ( index ) Adjust the position of the listbox so that the linereferred to
by index is visible.
size() Returns the number of lines in the listbox.
xview() To make the listbox horizontally scrollable, set the
command option of the associated horizontal scrollbar to
this method.
xview_moveto ( fraction ) Scroll the listbox so that the leftmost fraction of the width
of its longest line is outside the left side of the listbox.
Fraction is in the range [0,1].
xview_scroll ( number, what ) Scrolls the listbox horizontally. For the what argument,use
either UNITS to scroll by characters, or PAGES to scroll by
pages, that is, by the width of the listbox. Thenumber
argument tells how many to scroll.
yview() To make the listbox vertically scrollable, set the command
option of the associated vertical scrollbar to this method.
yview_moveto ( fraction ) Scroll the listbox so that the top fraction of the width ofits
longest line is outside the left side of the listbox. Fraction is
in the range [0,1].
yview_scroll ( number, what ) Scrolls the listbox vertically. For the what argument, use
either UNITS to scroll by lines, or PAGES to scroll by pages,
that is, by the height of the listbox. The number argument
tells how many to scroll.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
import tkinter
top = Tk()
Lb1 = Listbox(top)
Lb1.insert(1, "Python")
Lb1.insert(2, "Perl")
Lb1.insert(3, "C")
Lb1.insert(4, "PHP")
Lb1.insert(5, "JSP")
Lb1.insert(6, "Ruby")
Lb1.pack()
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-
Tkinter Menubutton
A menubutton is the part of a drop-down menu that stays on the screen all the time. Every
menubutton is associated with a Menu widget that can display the choices for that
menubutton when the user clicks on it.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Menubutton ( master, option, ... )

Parameters

• master: This represents the parent window.

• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description
activebackground The background color when the mouse is over the menubutton.
activeforeground The foreground color when the mouse is over the menubutton.
This options controls where the text is positioned if the widget has
anchor more space than the text needs. The default is anchor=CENTER,
which centers the text.
The normal background color displayed behind the label and
bg
indicator.
To display a bitmap on the menubutton, set this option to a
bitmap
bitmap name.
bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.
cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over this menubutton.
Set direction=LEFT to display the menu to the left of the button; use
direction direction=RIGHT to display the menu to the right of the button; or
use direction='above' to place the menu above the button.
disabledforeground The foreground color shown on this menubutton when it isdisabled.
The foreground color when the mouse is not over the
fg
menubutton.
The height of the menubutton in lines of text (not pixels!). The
height
default is to fit the menubutton's size to its contents.
highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight when the widget has the focus.
image To display an image on this menubutton,
This option controls where the text is located when the text doesn't
fill the menubutton: use justify=LEFT to left-justify the text (this is
justify
the default); use justify=CENTER to center it, or justify=RIGHT to
right-justify.

menu To associate the menubutton with a set of choices, set this optionto
the Menu object containing those choices. That menu object must
 have been created by passing the associated menubutton to the
constructor as its first argument.
How much space to leave to the left and right of the text of the
padx
menubutton. Default is 1.
How much space to leave above and below the text of the
pady
menubutton. Default is 1.
Selects three-dimensional border shading effects. The default is
relief
RAISED.
Normally, menubuttons respond to the mouse. Set state=DISABLED
state
to gray out the menubutton and make it unresponsive.
To display text on the menubutton, set this option to the string
text containing the desired text. Newlines ("\n") within the string will
cause line breaks.
You can associate a control variable of class StringVar with this
textvariable menubutton. Setting that control variable will change the displayed
text.
Normally, no underline appears under the text on themenubutton. To
underline underline one of the characters, set this option to the index of that
character.
width The width of the widget in characters. The default is 20.
Normally, lines are not wrapped. You can set this option to a number
wraplength of characters and all lines will be broken into pieces no longer than
that number.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
From tkinter import *
import tkinter
top = Tk()
mb= Menubutton ( top, text="condiments", relief=RAISED )
mb.grid()
mb.menu = Menu ( mb, tearoff = 0 )
mb["menu"] = mb.menu
mayoVar = IntVar() ketchVar = IntVar()
mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label="mayo", variable=mayoVar )
mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label="ketchup", variable=ketchVar )
mb.pack()
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-
Tkinter Menu
The goal of this widget is to allow us to create all kinds of menus that can be used by our
applications. The core functionality provides ways to create three menu types: pop-up,
toplevel and pull-down.

It is also possible to use other extended widgets to implement new types of menus, such as
the OptionMenu widget, which implements a special type that generates a pop-up list of
items within a selection.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Menu ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description
The background color that will appear on a choice when it is underthe
activebackground
mouse.
Specifies the width of a border drawn around a choice when it isunder
activeborderwidth
the mouse. Default is 1 pixel.
The foreground color that will appear on a choice when it is underthe
activeforeground
mouse.
bg The background color for choices not under the mouse.
bd The width of the border around all the choices. Default is 1.
The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the choices, butonly
cursor
when the menu has been torn off.
disabledforeground The color of the text for items whose state is DISABLED.
font The default font for textual choices.
fg The foreground color used for choices not under the mouse.
You can set this option to a procedure, and that procedure will becalled
postcommand
every time someone brings up this menu.
relief The default 3-D effect for menus is relief=RAISED.
image To display an image on this menubutton.
Specifies the color displayed in checkbuttons and radiobuttonswhen
selectcolor
they are selected.
Normally, a menu can be torn off, the first position (position 0) inthe
list of choices is occupied by the tear-off element, and the additional
tearoff choices are added starting at position 1. If you set tearoff=0, the
menu will not have a tear-off feature, and choiceswill be added starting
at position 0.
 Normally, the title of a tear-off menu window will be the same as the
title text of the menubutton or cascade that lead to this menu. If you want
to change the title of that window, set the title option tothat string.
Methods
These methods are available on Menu objects-

Option Description
add_command (options) Adds a menu item to the menu.
add_radiobutton( options ) Creates a radio button menu item.
add_checkbutton( options ) Creates a check button menu item.
Creates a new hierarchical menu by associating a
add_cascade(options)
given menu to a parent menu
add_separator() Adds a separator line to the menu.
add( type, options ) Adds a specific type of menu item to the menu.
Deletes the menu items ranging from startindex to
delete( startindex [, endindex ])
endindex.
Allows you to modify a menu item, which is identifiedby
entryconfig( index, options )
the index, and change its options.
Returns the index number of the given menu item
index(item)
label.
Insert a new separator at the position specified by
insert_separator ( index )
index.
Calls the command callback associated with the choice
at position index. If a checkbutton, its state istoggled
invoke ( index )
between set and cleared; if a radiobutton, that choice is
set.
Returns the type of the choice specified by index: either
type ( index ) "cascade", "checkbutton", "command", "radiobutton",
"separator", or "tearoff".
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
def donothing():
filewin = Toplevel(root)
button = Button(filewin, text="Do nothing button")
button.pack()
root = Tk()
menubar = Menu(root)
filemenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
filemenu.add_command(label="New", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Open", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Save", command=donothing)
 filemenu.add_command(label="Save as...", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Close", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_separator()
filemenu.add_command(label="Exit", command=root.quit)
menubar.add_cascade(label="File", menu=filemenu)
editmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
editmenu.add_command(label="Undo", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_separator()
editmenu.add_command(label="Cut", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Copy", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Paste", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Delete", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Select All", command=donothing)
menubar.add_cascade(label="Edit", menu=editmenu)
helpmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
helpmenu.add_command(label="Help Index", command=donothing)
helpmenu.add_command(label="About...", command=donothing)
menubar.add_cascade(label="Help", menu=helpmenu)
root.config(menu=menubar)
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Message
This widget provides a multiline and noneditable object that displays texts, automatically
breaking lines and justifying their contents.

Its functionality is very similar to the one provided by the Label widget, except that it can
also automatically wrap the text, maintaining a given width or aspect ratio.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Message ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.
Options Description
This options controls where the text is positioned if the widget has more
anchor space than the text needs. The default is anchor=CENTER, whichcenters the
text in the available space.
bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator.
Set this option equal to a bitmap or image object and the label will
bitmap
display that graphic.
bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.
If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse
cursor
cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton.
If you are displaying text in this label (with the text or textvariable
font
option, the font option specifies in what font that text will be displayed.
If you are displaying text or a bitmap in this label, this option specifiesthe
fg color of the text. If you are displaying a bitmap, this is the color that will
appear at the position of the 1-bits in the bitmap.
height The vertical dimension of the new frame.
To display a static image in the label widget, set this option to an
image
image object.
Specifies how multiple lines of text will be aligned with respect to each
justify other: LEFT for flush left, CENTER for centered (the default), or RIGHTfor
right-justified.
Extra space added to the left and right of the text within the widget.
padx
Default is 1.
pady Extra space added above and below the text within the widget. Defaultis 1.
Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the label. The
relief
default is FLAT; for other values.
To display one or more lines of text in a label widget, set this option to a
text
string containing the text. Internal newlines ("\n") will force a linebreak.
To slave the text displayed in a label widget to a control variable ofclass
textvariable
StringVar, set this option to that variable.
You can display an underline (_) below the nth letter of the text, counting
underline from 0, by setting this option to n. The default is underline=- 1, which
means no underlining.
Width of the label in characters (not pixels!). If this option is not set,the
width
label will be sized to fit its contents.
You can limit the number of characters in each line by setting this option
wraplength to the desired number. The default value, 0, means that lines will be
broken only at newlines.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
root = Tk()
var = StringVar()
label = Message( root, textvariable=var, relief=RAISED )
var.set("Hey!? How are you doing?")
label.pack()
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Radiobutton
This widget implements a multiple-choice button, which is a way to offer many possible
selections to the user and lets user choose only one of them.

In order to implement this functionality, each group of radiobuttons must be associated to

the same variable and each one of the buttons must symbolize a single value. You can use
the Tab key to switch from one radionbutton to another.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Radiobutton ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description
activebackground The background color when the mouse is over the radiobutton.
activeforeground The foreground color when the mouse is over the radiobutton.
If the widget inhabits a space larger than it needs, this option
anchor specifies where the radiobutton will sit in that space. The defaultis
anchor=CENTER.
bg The normal background color behind the indicator and label.
To display a monochrome image on a radiobutton, set this
bitmap
option to a bitmap.
The size of the border around the indicator part itself. Default is2
borderwidth
pixels.
 A procedure to be called every time the user changes the stateof
command
this radiobutton.
If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse
cursor
cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the radiobutton.
font The font used for the text.
fg The color used to render the text.
The number of lines (not pixels) of text on the radiobutton.
height
Default is 1.
The color of the focus highlight when the radiobutton does nothave
highlightbackground
focus.
The color of the focus highlight when the radiobutton has the
highlightcolor
focus.
To display a graphic image instead of text for this radiobutton,set
image
this option to an image object.
If the text contains multiple lines, this option controls how thetext
justify
is justified: CENTER (the default), LEFT, or RIGHT.
How much space to leave to the left and right of the radiobuttonand
padx
text. Default is 1.
How much space to leave above and below the radiobutton andtext.
pady
Default is 1.
Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around thelabel.
relief
The default is FLAT; for other values.
selectcolor The color of the radiobutton when it is set. Default is red.
If you are using the image option to display a graphic instead oftext
when the radiobutton is cleared, you can set the selectimage option
selectimage
to a different image that will be displayed when the radiobutton is
set.
The default is state=NORMAL, but you can set state=DISABLEDto
state gray out the control and make it unresponsive. If the cursor is
currently over the radiobutton, the state is ACTIVE.
The label displayed next to the radiobutton. Use newlines ("\n")to
text
display multiple lines of text.
To slave the text displayed in a label widget to a control variableof
textvariable
class StringVar, set this option to that variable.
You can display an underline (_) below the nth letter of the text,
underline counting from 0, by setting this option to n. The default is
underline=-1, which means no underlining.
When a radiobutton is turned on by the user, its control variableis
set to its current value option. If the control variable isan
value IntVar, give each radiobutton in the group a different integervalue
option. If the control variable is aStringVar, give each radiobutton a
different string value option.
variable The control variable that this radiobutton shares with the other
 radiobuttons in the group. This can be either an IntVar or a
StringVar.
Width of the label in characters (not pixels!). If this option is notset,
width
the label will be sized to fit its contents.
You can limit the number of characters in each line by setting this
wraplength option to the desired number. The default value, 0, means that lines
will be broken only at newlines.
Methods
These methods are available.

Methods Description
deselect() Clears (turns off) the radiobutton.
Flashes the radiobutton a few times between its active and normal
flash()
colors, but leaves it the way it started.
You can call this method to get the same actions that would occur ifthe
invoke()
user clicked on the radiobutton to change its state.
select() Sets (turns on) the radiobutton.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
def sel():
selection = "You selected the option " + str(var.get())
label.config(text = selection)
root = Tk()
var = IntVar()
R1 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 1", variable=var, value=1, command=sel)
R1.pack( anchor = W )
R2 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 2", variable=var, value=2, command=sel)
R2.pack( anchor = W )
R3 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 3", variable=var, value=3, command=sel)
R3.pack( anchor = W)
label = Label(root)
label.pack()
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Scale
The Scale widget provides a graphical slider object that allows you to select values from a
specific scale.
Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Scale ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description
activebackground The background color when the mouse is over the scale.
The background color of the parts of the widget that are outsidethe
bg
trough.
Width of the 3-d border around the trough and slider. Default is2
bd
pixels.
A procedure to be called every time the slider is moved. This
procedure will be passed one argument, the new scale value. Ifthe
command
slider is moved rapidly, you may not get a callback for everypossible
position, but you'll certainly get a callback when it settles.
If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse
cursor
cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the scale.
The way your program reads the current value shown in a scale
widget is through a control variable. The control variable for a scale
digits can be an IntVar, a DoubleVar (float), or a StringVar. If itis a string
variable, the digits option controls how many digits to use when
the numeric scale value is converted to a string.
font The font used for the label and annotations.
fg The color of the text used for the label and annotations.
from_ A float or integer value that defines one end of the scale's range.
The color of the focus highlight when the scale does not have
highlightbackground
focus.
highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the scale has the focus.
You can display a label within the scale widget by setting this option
to the label's text. The label appears in the top left cornerif the scale
label
is horizontal, or the top right corner if vertical. The default is no
label.
The length of the scale widget. This is the x dimension if the scale
length
is horizontal, or the y dimension if vertical. The default is 100 pixels.
Set orient=HORIZONTAL if you want the scale to run along the x
orient dimension, or orient=VERTICAL to run parallel to the y-axis.
Default is horizontal.
Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the
relief
label. The default is FLAT; for other values.
 This option controls how long button 1 has to be held down in the
repeatdelay trough before the slider starts moving in that direction repeatedly.
Default is repeatdelay=300, and the units are milliseconds.
Normally, the user will only be able to change the scale in whole
units. Set this option to some other value to change the smallest
resolution increment of the scale's value. For example, if from_=-1.0 and
to=1.0, and you set resolution=0.5, the scale will have 5 possible
values: -1.0, -0.5, 0.0, +0.5, and +1.0.
Normally, the current value of the scale is displayed in text formby
showvalue the slider (above it for horizontal scales, to the left for vertical scales).
Set this option to 0 to suppress that label.
Normally the slider is 30 pixels along the length of the scale. You
sliderlength can change that length by setting the sliderlength option to your
desired length.
Normally, scale widgets respond to mouse events, and when they
state have the focus, also keyboard events. Set state=DISABLEDto make
the widget unresponsive.
Normally, the focus will cycle through scale widgets. Set this
takefocus
option to 0 if you don't want this behavior.
To display periodic scale values, set this option to a number, and
ticks will be displayed on multiples of that value. For example, if
from_=0.0, to=1.0, and tickinterval=0.25, labels will be displayed
tickinterval
along the scale at values 0.0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1.00. These
labels appear below the scale if horizontal, to its left if vertical.
Default is 0, which suppresses display of ticks.
A float or integer value that defines one end of the scale's range;the
other end is defined by the from_ option, discussed above. The to
to value can be either greater than or less than the from_ value. For
vertical scales, the to value defines the bottom of the scale; for
horizontal scales, the right end.
troughcolor The color of the trough.
The control variable for this scale, if any. Control variables maybe
variable from class IntVar, DoubleVar (float), or StringVar. In the latter
case, the numerical value will be converted to a string.
The width of the trough part of the widget. This is the x dimension
width for vertical scales and the y dimension if the scale has
orient=HORIZONTAL. Default is 15 pixels.
Methods
Scale objects have these methods-

Methods Description

This method returns the current value of the scale.

get()

Sets the scale's value.

set ( value )
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
def sel():
selection = "Value = " + str(var.get())
label.config(text = selection)
root = Tk()
var = DoubleVar()
scale = Scale( root, variable = var )
scale.pack(anchor=CENTER)
button = Button(root, text="Get Scale Value", command=sel)
button.pack(anchor=CENTER)
label = Label(root)
label.pack()
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Scrollbar
This widget provides a slide controller that is used to implement vertical scrolled widgets,
such as Listbox, Text and Canvas. Note that you can also create horizontal scrollbars on
Entry widgets.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Scrollbar ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description
The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is over
activebackground
them.
The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is notover
bg
them.
 The width of the 3-d borders around the entire perimeter of the
trough, and also the width of the 3-d effects on the arrowheadsand
bd
slider. Default is no border around the trough, and a 2-pixelborder
around the arrowheads and slider.
command A procedure to be called whenever the scrollbar is moved.
cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the scrollbar.
The width of the borders around the arrowheads and slider. The
elementborderwidth default is elementborderwidth=-1, which means to use the value of
the borderwidth option.
The color of the focus highlight when the scrollbar does not have
highlightbackground
focus.
highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the scrollbar has the focus.
The thickness of the focus highlight. Default is 1. Set to 0 to
highlightthickness
suppress display of the focus highlight.
This option controls what happens when a user drags the slider.
Normally (jump=0), every small drag of the slider causes the
jump
command callback to be called. If you set this option to 1, the
callback isn't called until the user releases the mouse button.
Set orient=HORIZONTAL for a horizontal scrollbar,orient=VERTICAL
orient
for a vertical one.
This option controls how long button 1 has to be held down in the
repeatdelay trough before the slider starts moving in that direction repeatedly.
Default is repeatdelay=300, and the units are milliseconds.
repeatinterval Repeat interval
Normally, you can tab the focus through a scrollbar widget. Set
takefocus
takefocus=0 if you don't want this behavior.
troughcolor The color of the trough.
Width of the scrollbar (its y dimension if horizontal, and its x
width
dimension if vertical). Default is 16.
Methods
Scrollbar objects have these methods-

Methods Description
Returns two numbers (a, b) describing the current position of the slider.
The a value gives the position of the left or top edge of the slider, for
get()
horizontal and vertical scrollbars respectively; the b value gives the
position of the right or bottom edge.
To connect a scrollbar to another widget w, set w's xscrollcommand or
set ( first, last ) yscrollcommand to the scrollbar's set() method. The arguments have the
same meaning as the values returned by the get() method.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
root = Tk()
scrollbar = Scrollbar(root)
scrollbar.pack( side = RIGHT, fill=Y )
mylist = Listbox(root, yscrollcommand = scrollbar.set )
for line in range(100):
mylist.insert(END, "This is line number " + str(line))
mylist.pack( side = LEFT, fill = BOTH )
scrollbar.config( command = mylist.yview )
mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Text
Text widgets provide advanced capabilities that allow you to edit a multiline text and format
the way it has to be displayed, such as changing its color and font.

You can also use elegant structures like tabs and marks to locate specific sections of the
text, and apply changes to those areas. Moreover, you can embed windows and images in
the text because this widget was designed to handle both plain and formatted text.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Text ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description
bg The default background color of the text widget.
bd The width of the border around the text widget. Default is 2
pixels.
cursor The cursor that will appear when the mouse is over the text
widget.
exportselection Normally, text selected within a text widget is exported to be the
selection in the window manager. Set exportselection=0 if you don't
want that behavior.
font The default font for text inserted into the widget.
fg The color used for text (and bitmaps) within the widget. You can
change the color for tagged regions; this option is just the default.
height The height of the widget in lines (not pixels!), measuredaccording
to the current font size.
highlightbackground The color of the focus highlight when the text widget does nothave
focus.
highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the text widget has the
focus.
highlightthickness The thickness of the focus highlight. Default is 1. Set
highlightthickness=0 to suppress display of the focus highlight.
insertbackground The color of the insertion cursor. Default is black.
insertborderwidth Size of the 3-D border around the insertion cursor. Default is 0.
insertofftime The number of milliseconds the insertion cursor is off during its blink
cycle. Set this option to zero to suppress blinking. Default is 300.
insertontime The number of milliseconds the insertion cursor is on during itsblink
cycle. Default is 600.
insertwidth Width of the insertion cursor (its height is determined by the
tallest item in its line). Default is 2 pixels.
padx The size of the internal padding added to the left and right ofthe
text area. Default is one pixel.
pady The size of the internal padding added above and below the textarea.
Default is one pixel.
relief The 3-D appearance of the text widget. Default isrelief=SUNKEN.
selectbackground The background color to use displaying selected text.
selectborderwidth The width of the border to use around selected text.
spacing1 This option specifies how much extra vertical space is put above each
line of text. If a line wraps, this space is added only beforethe first
line it occupies on the display. Default is 0.
spacing2 This option specifies how much extra vertical space to add between
displayed lines of text when a logical line wraps. Default is 0.
spacing3 This option specifies how much extra vertical space is added below
each line of text. If a line wraps, this space is added onlyafter the
last line it occupies on the display. Default is 0.
state Normally, text widgets respond to keyboard and mouse events;set
state=NORMAL to get this behavior. If you set state=DISABLED,
the text widget will not respond, and you won't be able to modify its
 contents programmatically either.
tabs This option controls how tab characters position text.
width The width of the widget in characters (not pixels!), measured
according to the current font size.
wrap This option controls the display of lines that are too wide. Set
wrap=WORD and it will break the line after the last word that will
fit. With the default behavior, wrap=CHAR, any line that gets too
long will be broken at any character.
xscrollcommand To make the text widget horizontally scrollable, set this optionto
the set() method of the horizontal scrollbar.
yscrollcommand To make the text widget vertically scrollable, set this option tothe
set() method of the vertical scrollbar.
Methods
Text objects have these methods-

Methods & Description

delete(startindex [,endindex])
This method deletes a specific character or a range of text.
get(startindex [,endindex])
This method returns a specific character or a range of text.
index(index)
Returns the absolute value of an index based on the given index.
insert(index [,string]...)
This method inserts strings at the specified index location.
see(index)
This method returns true if the text located at the index position is visible.
Text widgets support three distinct helper structures: Marks, Tabs, and Indexes-

Marks are used to bookmark positions between two characters within a given text. We have
the following methods available when handling marks:

Methods & Description

index(mark)
Returns the line and column location of a specific mark.
mark_gravity(mark [,gravity])
Returns the gravity of the given mark. If the second argument is provided, the
gravity is set for the given mark.
mark_names()
Returns all marks from the Text widget.
mark_set(mark, index)
Informs a new position to the given mark.
 mark_unset(mark)
Removes the given mark from the Text widget.
Tags are used to associate names to regions of text which makes easy the task of modifying
the display settings of specific text areas. Tags are also used to bind event callbacks to
specific ranges of text.

Following are the available methods for handling tabs-

Methods & Description

tag_add(tagname, startindex[,endindex] ...)
This method tags either the position defined by startindex, or a range delimited by
thepositions startindex and endindex.
tag_config
You can use this method to configure the tag properties, which include, justify(center,
left, or right), tabs(this property has the same functionality of the Text widget tabs's
property), and underline(used to underline the tagged text).
tag_delete(tagname)
This method is used to delete and remove a given tag.
tag_remove(tagname [,startindex[.endindex]] ...)
After applying this method, the given tag is removed from the provided area without
deleting the actual tag definition.

Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
root = Tk()
text = Text(root)
text.insert(INSERT, "Hello. ")
text.insert(END, "Bye Bye. ")
text.pack()
text.tag_add("here", "1.0", "1.4")
text.tag_add("start", "1.8", "1.13")
text.tag_config("here", background="yellow", foreground="blue")
text.tag_config("start", background="black", foreground="green")
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-
Tkinter Toplevel
Toplevel widgets work as windows that are directly managed by the window manager. They
do not necessarily have a parent widget on top of them.

Your application can use any number of top-level windows.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Toplevel ( option, ... )

Parameters
options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can
be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description
bg The background color of the window.
bd Border width in pixels; default is 0.
cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is in this window.
Normally, text selected within a text widget is exported to be the
class_ selection in the window manager. Set exportselection=0 if you don't want
that behavior.
font The default font for text inserted into the widget.
The color used for text (and bitmaps) within the widget. You can
fg
change the color for tagged regions; this option is just the default.
height Window height.
Normally, a top-level window will have no 3-d borders around it. To get
relief a shaded border, set the bd option larger that its default value of zero,
and set the relief option to one of the constants.
width The desired width of the window.
Methods

Methods and Description

deiconify()
Displays the window, after using either the iconify or the withdraw methods.
frame()
Returns a system-specific window identifier.
group(window)
Adds the window to the window group administered by the given window.
iconify()
Turns the window into an icon, without destroying it.
protocol(name, function)
 Registers a function as a callback which will be called for the given protocol.
state()
Returns the current state of the window. Possible values are normal, iconic, withdrawn and
icon.
transient([master])
Turns the window into a temporary(transient) window for the given master or to the
window's parent, when no argument is given.
withdraw()
Removes the window from the screen, without destroying it.
maxsize(width, height)
Defines the maximum size for this window.
minsize(width, height)
Defines the minimum size for this window.
positionfrom(who)
Defines the position controller.
resizable(width, height)
Defines the resize flags, which control whether the window can be resized.
sizefrom(who)
Defines the size controller.
title(string)
Defines the window title.
Toplevel objects have these methods-

Example
Try following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
root = Tk()
root.title("hello")
top = Toplevel()
top.title("Python")
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-
Tkinter Spinbox
The Spinbox widget is a variant of the standard Tkinter Entry widget, which can be used to
select from a fixed number of values.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = Spinbox( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Options Description
The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is over
activebackground
them.
The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is not
Bg
over them.
The width of the 3-d borders around the entire perimeter of the
trough, and also the width of the 3-d effects on the arrowheads
Bd
and slider. Default is no border around the trough, and a 2-pixel
border around the arrowheads and slider.
command A procedure to be called whenever the scrollbar is moved.
cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the scrollbar.
disabledbackground The background color to use when the widget is disabled.
disabledforeground The text color to use when the widget is disabled.
fg Text color.
font The font to use in this widget.
format Format string. No default value.
The minimum value. Used together with to to limit the spinbox
from_
range.
justify Default is LEFT
relief Default is SUNKEN.
Together with repeatinterval, this option controls button auto-
repeatdelay
repeat. Both values are given in milliseconds.
repeatinterval See repeatdelay.
state One of NORMAL, DISABLED, or "readonly". Default is NORMAL.
textvariable No default value.
to See from.
 validate Validation mode. Default is NONE.
validatecommand Validation callback. No default value.
A tuple containing valid values for this widget. Overrides
values
from/to/increment.
vcmd Same as validatecommand.
width Widget width, in character units. Default is 20.
wrap If true, the up and down buttons will wrap around.
Used to connect a spinbox field to a horizontal scrollbar. This option
xscrollcommand
should be set to the set method of the corresponding scrollbar.
Methods
Spinbox objects have these methods-

Methods and Description

delete(startindex [,endindex])

This method deletes a specific character or a range of text.

get(startindex [,endindex])
This method returns a specific character or a range of text.
identify(x, y)
Identifies the widget element at the given location.
index(index)
Returns the absolute value of an index based on the given index.
insert(index [,string]...)
This method inserts strings at the specified index location.
invoke(element)
Invokes a spinbox button.
Example
Try the following example yourself-

from Tkinter import *

master = Tk()
w = Spinbox(master, from_=0, to=10)
w.pack()
mainloop()
When the above code is execduted, it produces the following result-
Tkinter PanedWindow
A PanedWindow is a container widget that may contain any number of panes, arranged
horizontally or vertically.

Each pane contains one widget and each pair of panes is separated by a moveable (via
mouse movements) sash. Moving a sash causes the widgets on either side of the sash to be
resized.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = PanedWindow( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description
The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is not over
bg
them.
The width of the 3-d borders around the entire perimeter of the trough, and
also the width of the 3-d effects on the arrowheads and slider. Default is
bd
no border around the trough, and a 2-pixel border around the arrowheads
and slider.
borderwidth Default is 2.
cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the window.
handlepad Default is 8.
handlesize Default is 8.
height No default value.
orient Default is HORIZONTAL.
relief Default is FLAT.
sashcursor No default value.
sashrelief Default is RAISED.
sashwidth Default is 2.
showhandle No default value
width No default value.
Methods
PanedWindow objects have these methods-

Methods & Description

add(child, options)
Adds a child window to the paned window.
 get(startindex [,endindex])
This method returns a specific character or a range of text.
config(options)
Modifies one or more widget options. If no options are given, the method returns a
dictionary containing all current option values.
Example
Try the following example yourself. Here is how to create a 3-pane widget-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
m1 = PanedWindow()
m1.pack(fill=BOTH, expand=1)
left = Entry(m1, bd=5)
m1.add(left)
m2 = PanedWindow(m1, orient=VERTICAL)
m1.add(m2)
top = Scale( m2, orient=HORIZONTAL)
m2.add(top)
bottom = Button(m2, text="OK")
m2.add(bottom)
mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter LabelFrame
A labelframe is a simple container widget. Its primary purpose is to act as a spacer or
container for complex window layouts.

This widget has the features of a frame plus the ability to display a label.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

w = LabelFrame( master, option, ... )

Parameters
• master: This represents the parent window.
• options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description
The normal background color displayed behind the label and
bg
indicator.
bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.
 If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse
cursor
cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton.
font The vertical dimension of the new frame.
height The vertical dimension of the new frame.
labelAnchor Specifies where to place the label.
highlightbackground Color of the focus highlight when the frame does not have focus.
highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight when the frame has the focus.
highlightthickness Thickness of the focus highlight.
With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does not
relief stand out from its background. You may set this option to any of
the other styles
text Specifies a string to be displayed inside the widget.
width Specifies the desired width for the window.
Example
Try the following example yourself. Here is how to create a labelframe widget-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
root = Tk()
labelframe = LabelFrame(root, text="This is a LabelFrame")
labelframe.pack(fill="both", expand="yes")
left = Label(labelframe, text="Inside the LabelFrame")
left.pack()
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter tkMessageBox
The tkMessageBox module is used to display message boxes in your applications. This
module provides a number of functions that you can use to display an appropriate message.

Some of these functions are showinfo, showwarning, showerror, askquestion, askokcancel,

askyesno, and askretryignore.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget-

tkMessageBox.FunctionName(title, message [, options])

Parameters
• FunctionName: This is the name of the appropriate message box function.
• title: This is the text to be displayed in the title bar of a message box.
• message: This is the text to be displayed as a message.
• options: options are alternative choices that you may use to tailor a standard
message box. Some of the options that you can use are default and parent. The
default option is used to specify the default button, such as ABORT, RETRY, or
IGNORE in the message box. The parent option is used to specify the window on top
of which the message box is to be displayed.

You could use one of the following functions with dialogue box-

• showinfo()
• showwarning()
• showerror ()
• askquestion()
• askokcancel()
• askyesno ()
• askretrycancel ()

Example
Try the following example yourself-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
from tkinter import messagebox
top = Tk()
top.geometry("100x100")
def hello():
messagebox.showinfo("Say Hello", "Hello World")
B1 = Button(top, text = "Say Hello", command = hello)
B1.place(x=35,y=50)
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Standard Attributes
Let us look at how some of the common attributes, such as sizes, colors and fonts are
specified.
 • Dimensions
• Colors
• Fonts
• Anchors
• Relief styles
• Bitmaps
• Cursors

Let us study them briefly-

Tkinter Dimensions
Various lengths, widths, and other dimensions of widgets can be described in many different
units.

• If you set a dimension to an integer, it is assumed to be in pixels.

• You can specify units by setting a dimension to a string containing a number followed
by.

Character Description
c Centimeters
i Inches
m Millimeters
p Printer's points (about 1/72")
Length options
Tkinter expresses a length as an integer number of pixels. Here is the list of common length
options-

• borderwidth: Width of the border which gives a three-dimensional look to the widget.
• highlightthickness: Width of the highlight rectangle when the widget has focus .
• padX padY: Extra space the widget requests from its layout manager beyond the
minimum the widget needs to display its contents in the x and y directions.
• selectborderwidth: Width of the three-dimentional border around selected items of
the widget.
• wraplength: Maximum line length for widgets that perform word wrapping.
• height: Desired height of the widget; must be greater than or equal to 1.
• underline: Index of the character to underline in the widget's text (0 is the first
character, 1 the second one, and so on).
• width: Desired width of the widget.

Tkinter Colors
Tkinter represents colors with strings. There are two general ways to specify colors in
Tkinter-

• You can use a string specifying the proportion of red, green and blue in hexadecimal
digits. For example, "#fff" is white, "#000000" is black, "#000fff000" is pure green,
and "#00ffff" is pure cyan (green plus blue).
• You can also use any locally defined standard color name. The colors "white",
"black", "red", "green", "blue", "cyan", "yellow", and "magenta" will always be
available.
Color options
The common color options are-

• activebackground: Background color for the widget when the widget is active.
• activeforeground: Foreground color for the widget when the widget is active.
• background: Background color for the widget. This can also be represented as bg.
• disabledforeground: Foreground color for the widget when the widget is disabled.
• foreground: Foreground color for the widget. This can also be represented as fg.
• highlightbackground: Background color of the highlight region when the widget has
focus.
• highlightcolor: Foreground color of the highlight region when the widget has focus.
• selectbackground: Background color for the selected items of the widget.
• selectforeground: Foreground color for the selected items of the widget.

Tkinter Fonts
There may be up to three ways to specify type style.

Simple Tuple Fonts

As a tuple whose first element is the font family, followed by a size in points, optionally
followed by a string containing one or more of the style modifiers bold, italic, underline and
overstrike.

Example
• ("Helvetica", "16") for a 16-point Helvetica regular.
• ("Times", "24", "bold italic") for a 24-point Times bold italic.

Font object Fonts

You can create a "font object" by importing the tkFont module and using its Font class
constructor −

import tkFont
font = tkFont.Font ( option, ... )
Here is the list of options-

• family: The font family name as a string.

• size: The font height as an integer in points. To get a font n pixels high, use -n.
• weight: "bold" for boldface, "normal" for regular weight.
• slant: "italic" for italic, "roman" for unslanted.
• underline: 1 for underlined text, 0 for normal.
• overstrike: 1 for overstruck text, 0 for normal.

Example
helv36 = tkFont.Font(family="Helvetica",size=36,weight="bold")
X Window Fonts
If you are running under the X Window System, you can use any of the X font names.

For example, the font named "-*-lucidatypewriter-medium-r-*-*-*-140-*-*-*-*-*-*" is the

author's favorite fixed-width font for onscreen use. Use thexfontsel program to help you
select pleasing fonts.
Tkinter Anchors
Anchors are used to define where text is positioned relative to a reference point. Here is list
of possible constants, which can be used for Anchor attribute.

• NW
• N
• NE
• W
• CENTER
• E
• SW
• S
• SE

For example, if you use CENTER as a text anchor, the text will be centered horizontally and
vertically around the reference point.

Anchor NW will position the text so that the reference point coincides with the northwest
(top left) corner of the box containing the text.

Anchor W will center the text vertically around the reference point, with the left edge of the
text box passing through that point, and so on.

If you create a small widget inside a large frame and use the anchor=SE option, the widget
will be placed in the bottom right corner of the frame. If you used anchor=N instead, the
widget would be centered along the top edge.

Example
The anchor constants are shown in this diagram-

Tkinter Relief styles

The relief style of a widget refers to certain simulated 3-D effects around the outside of the
widget. Here is a screenshot of a row of buttons exhibiting all the possible relief styles-

Here is list of possible constants which can be used for relief attribute-

• FLAT
• RAISED
• SUNKEN
• GROOVE
• RIDGE
Example
# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
import tkinter
top = Tk()
B1 = Button(top, text ="FLAT", relief=FLAT )
B2 = Button(top, text ="RAISED", relief=RAISED )
B3 = Button(top, text ="SUNKEN", relief=SUNKEN )
B4 = Button(top, text ="GROOVE", relief=GROOVE )
B5 = Button(top, text ="RIDGE", relief=RIDGE )
B1.pack()
B2.pack()
B3.pack()
B4.pack()
B5.pack()
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Bitmaps
This attribute to displays a bitmap. There are following type of bitmaps available-

• "error"
• "gray75"
• "gray50"
• "gray25"
• "gray12"
• "hourglass"
• "info"
• "questhead"
• "question"
• "warning"

Example
# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
import tkinter
top = Tk()
B1 = Button(top, text ="error", relief=RAISED,\ bitmap="error")
B2 = Button(top, text ="hourglass", relief=RAISED,\ bitmap="hourglass")
B3 = Button(top, text ="info", relief=RAISED,\ bitmap="info")
B4 = Button(top, text ="question", relief=RAISED,\ bitmap="question")
B5 = Button(top, text ="warning", relief=RAISED,\ bitmap="warning")
 B1.pack()
B2.pack()
B3.pack()
B4.pack()
B5.pack()
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result-

Tkinter Cursors
Python Tkinter supports quite a number of different mouse cursors available. The exact
graphic may vary according to your operating system.

Here is the list of interesting ones-

• "arrow"
• "circle"
• "clock"
• "cross"
• "dotbox"
• "exchange"
• "fleur"
• "heart"
• "heart"
• "man"
• "mouse"
• "pirate"
• "plus"
• "shuttle"
• "sizing"
• "spider"
• "spraycan"
• "star"
• "target"
• "tcross"
• "trek"
• "watch"
Example
Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons-

# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
import tkinter
top = Tk()
B1 = Button(top, text ="circle", relief=RAISED,\ cursor="circle")
B2 = Button(top, text ="plus", relief=RAISED,\ cursor="plus")
B1.pack()
B2.pack()
top.mainloop()