POLLAND COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Main Content
Definition of terms in Research.
Research:

To research is to carry out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given phenomenon. It

implies exhaustive study, investigation or experimentation following some logical sequence.
Research also involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories with regard to newly
discovered facts. This is very necessary in an ever changing world with advances in technology
continually creating new possibilities. (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003).

Research therefore, means a continued search for new knowledge and understanding of the world
around us. Kerlinger, (2004) has defined scientific research as a systematic, controlled, empirical
and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis about the
presumed relations among such phenomena

Population
Population refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having a common observable
characteristic. Population is the aggregate of all that conforms to a given specification. Examples
of population in research might be;

• All students taking in social work in the country; All patients suffering from diabetes in
the province:
• All indigenous trees in national forest : and
• All micro, small and medium entrepreneurs (MSMEs) in urban areas of
Kenya. A researcher first defines the population to which s/he wants to generalize the
results.

Sample
Dealing with all the members even of the smaller accessible population would still involve a
tremendous amount of time and resources. Researchers therefore further select a given number of
members or cases from the accessible population. This sub group is carefully selected so as to be
representative of the whole population with the relevant characteristics. A sample therefore is a
smaller group obtained from the accessible population.. each member or case in the sample referred
to as a subject. Sometimes the term “respondent” or interviewee is used.

Example of samples:
5
  Two hundred students taking Masters in social work from
a particular county;
 One hundred diabetic patients from Nairobi clinics; and
 500 MSMEs in Kisumu town.

Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected represent the larger group which they were selected. The individuals selected
form the sample and the larger group which they were selected is the population.

Variable
A variable is measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the subjects. It is
therefore a logical way of expressing a particular attribute in a subject. Some variables are
attributes that are expressed quantitatively. E.g., Age is expressed in years, height is expressed in
meters, area is expressed in square meters and weight is expressed kilograms. Other variables are
expressed in categories, e.g. Occupation may be expressed as farmer, teacher, nurse, etc. Gender is
expressed as male or female; and color may be expressed as green, yellow, white, etc. There are
different types of variables which we shall cover in the subsequent units.
Data
Data refers to all the information a researcher gathers for his or her study. Researcher recognizes
two types of data: primary data and secondary data. Primary data refers to the information a
researcher obtains from the field i.e. from the subjects in the sample. These data may be in form of
values usually presented in the form of frequency distributions. Secondary data refers to the
information a researcher obtains from research articles, books, casual interviews, etc. Data may
also be classified as quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (words, phrases).

Statistics
Statistics is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing quantitative data. The term
statistics is also used to refer to indices which are derived from data through statistical procedure.
Examples of such indices include: means, standard deviation, correlation coefficient etc.
6
 Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a researcher’s anticipated explanation or opinion regarding the result of the study.
For example, in a study on productivity of labor within manufacturing industries, a researcher may
hypothesis that more monetary incentives would lead to increase in productivity of labor or that
provision of recreational facilities would raise productivity.

4.0. Purpose of research.

1. New knowledge: This involves the discovery of new facts, their correct interpretation and
practical application. Though there are other sources of knowledge, research remains the
most efficient and reliable source of knowledge. Since research seeks demonstrable truth, it
is also the most accurate system of securing useful knowledge.
2. Describe phenomenon: accurate identification of any event involves thorough description,
for example of size, shape, age, weight, color, height, change over time, etc. description
then provides knowledge that is the basis for the other purposes of research stated below.
3. Enable prediction: Prediction is the ability to estimate phenomenon A, given phenomenon
B. for example our knowledge about the relative movement of the moon, earth and
sun helps us predict with amazing accuracy the occurrence of lunar eclipses. We sometimes
use a set of variable to predict a given variable.
4. Enable control: In scientific research, control is concerned with the ability to regulate the
phenomenon under study. Many scientific experiments are designed to achieve this
objective. Usually one phenomenon is manipulated in order to exert control over another.
For example, in a laboratory experiment, a drug that suppresses body growth is
administered to a group of rats to investigate its effect on weight gain in rats. Another group
of rats is fed on normal diet without the drug. All other conditions are controlled or held
constant for both the groups of rats. After sometime, the average weight of each group of
rats is calculated. If the average weight of the rats receiving drug is significantly less than
the average weight of the group of rats, which did not receive the drug, then one can
confidently say that the drug controls weight gains in rats.

7
 5. Enable explanation: Involves accurate observation and measurement of a given
phenomenon. In order to explain a phenomenon one should be able to describe it, predict its
occurrence and observe factors that cause its occurrence with certainty and accuracy.
6. Enable Theory development: which involves formulating concepts, laws and
generalization about a given phenomenon. Research is also conducted in an attempt to
confirm or validate existing theories. This sometimes referred to as “falsification of theory
by Karl popper.
5.0. Review of the unit.
1. State the meaning and purpose of research.
2. Describe the commonly used concepts in Research.
3. Give an overview of research as an important factor of development in a country.
References

Kerlinger, F.N. (2004). Research Design: Purpose and Principles. In foundation of behavioral
research. Forth worthy TX: Harcourt.

Mugenda, O. & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches. Nairobi: ACTS Press.
UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION SECTION

Duration: 3Hrs

1.0 Introduction

This unit will introduce the sections of research proposal/ projects at a length. 2.0

Objectives

By the end of this unit leaners should be able to:

a) Describe the introduction section of research proposal/project.

b) Write titles appropriate for research.

Main Content

3.0 Introduction section of research proposal or project.

8
The research process starts by formulating a research problem that can be investigated through
research procedures. In this unit we shall discuss the process of identifying a problem, the
characteristics of a good research problem and stating the purpose, objective(s) and hypothesis of a
research study.

3.1. Identifying a research problem.

A research problem is a ‘perceived difficulty’, ‘a feeling of discomfort with the way things are’. It
is an intellectual stimulus calling for a response in the form of scientific inquiry. According to
Ogula (2005), a research problem is an intellectual challenge or a question of interest which can be
answered through collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

There is no way researcher can miss to find an appropriate research problem. Therefore it is
important to bear in mind that there are no limits to the number of good research problems that can
be identified and studied. The reason being that knowledge in any field is infinite and we do process
only a portion of it.
The first step in selecting a research problem is by examining your personal interests and goals. In
the process you should ask yourself:
a) Has the research been conducted previously? If so what was found out?
b) Is there a gap that my study is addressing?
c) What more can I contribute to what is already known?

Steps in Selecting a Research Problem

• Identify the broad area of study that you are interested in e.g. HIV and AIDs, Management of
Educational institutions, Gender disparities etc. This area should be related to professional area,
interests and the goals of research
• Narrow down the broad area to a specific problem. This forms the basis of the research study
e.g. “Factors that limit women access to higher education in developing countries: The case of
the public Universities in Kenya”, “Gender sensitivity in classroom teaching and learning in

9
 mixed secondary schools in Kajiado District”, Challenges facing women managers in tertiary
institutions in Kenya” etc. When selecting a research problem, key factors need to be considered:
 The research problem should be quite significant
 The research findings should have wide spread implications in a particular area
 The research should challenge the theory of truism
 It should review the inadequacies of existing laws/ policies/ views etc
 It should cover a reasonable scope i.e. not too narrow and not too wide.

Certain factors determine the scope of a research study. These include:

 The time available to carry it out.
 The money available to carry it out.
 The availability of equipment if needed to carry it out.
 The availability of subjects or the units of study.
3.2. Sources of Research Problem:
There are several ways of identifying a research problem:
Existing Literature
Journals and articles on the broad area give a researcher a good background of basic information
and an insight into various issues that can be studied.

Previous Research Studies

Previous research studies in the field of interest usually indicate area of further research. A review
of such studies provides the researcher with researchable areas that would, when carried out, add to
the knowledge that has built up by other researchers.

Replication
Replicating a study involves carrying out a research project that has been done previously. In this
case, the problem and the procedures of the research are identical to a study that has previously
been done. Replication is usually done to find out whether findings hold over time and across
regions.

10
 Existing Theories and Principles
A theory is a widely accepted explanation that has been observed over time e.g. Girls perform well
in languages. It consists of generalizations and hypothesized principles which can be scientifically
tested. Such tests can be done through the research process and this leads to validation of existing
generalizations and principles.

Personal Experiences
First hand observations and reflections on intriguing experiences could also be a source of research
problems. Such personal experiences usually lead to a clear understanding of the problem under
investigation
The Media
Issues which are frequently reported in the print and electronic media can form a basis of a research
problem.

Discussions with Experts

Discussions on general units either in class, meetings, seminars, conference proceedings etc. are a
source of current problems that could be researched.

Characteristics of a Good Research Problem

The following are some characteristics of a good research problem:
• In addition to being empirically grounded, research problems have to be clearly and specifically
articulated. A lack of clarity and specificity may lead to ambiguous findings that can be
interpreted in contradictory ways.
• It must be researchable. It must be a problem whose data can easily be collected and within
your means in terms of resources and time.
• A research problem should have theoretical and practical significance. The results of the study
should contribute to addressing gaps in the area of study
• It must be out to solve an existing problem or an issue that will result to new theories and
principles, which can be a base for further research

11
• It must express a relationship between two or more variables
• It must be an area of interest to the researcher and an area that the researcher has some experience.

Stating a Problem
After gathering background information about the problem area that the researcher is interested in,
s/he defines the issues of concern more clearly. The researcher at this point describes factors that
make the stated problem a critical issue to warrant the study. The researcher must demonstrate why
the study is worth the time, effort, and expense. Statement of the problem is usually a declarative
statement of what is wrong, doubted and unsettling. A good statement of the problem should
contain the following three key information;
• The statement of social need – the researcher should show that there is a social need that the
study intends to address which requires research
• The statement of knowledge gap – this shows that among the literature that the researcher
reviewed, nothing seems to provide sufficient answer to the problem being investigated
• The statement of researcher’s intuition – the researcher should state the problem using
‘therefore’…

When stating a problem, a researcher usually starts with a brief introductory section where s/he
briefly introduces the general area of study. The researcher then narrows down to the specific
problem to be studied. Many scholars recommend stating the problem in the form of a question for
example, ‘To what extent has lack of follow up led to collapse of government projects?’ A good
problem statement has the following characteristics:
• It indicates a relation between two or more variables e.g in the above example government
projects is the dependent variable while lack of follow up is the independent variable.
• It should be brief and precise capture the readers’ interest.
• The specific problem identified in the problem statement is objectively researchable

After stating the research problem, the researcher should break down the general problem into a set
of concrete research questions, objectives and hypotheses.

12
Objectives of the Study
Objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that the researcher wants
to focus upon in the study. They indicate what is to be achieved. Objectives are crucial in any
research study because:
• They help the researcher to keep to the scope of the study by defining the area of knowledge
that the researcher is focusing on
• They guide in the development of relevant research questions
• They determine the data collection and analysis procedures to be used in the investigation

Research objectives should be stated clearly, unambiguously and briefly. In other words they
should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time bound). The following
are words that are used to express objectives: determine, compare, investigate, differentiate,
explore, find out, examine, inquire, establish. Words such as show, prove, confirm, verify, check,
demonstrate, indicate, validate, explain, illustrate are not measurable
For example: To identify the factors influencing sustainability of government projects To
determine the attitude project managers towards technology

Research Questions
These are investigative questions the researcher would like answered by the research. These
questions are investigative in nature. The difference between research questions and objectives is
that a research question is stated in a question form while an objective is a statement. In order to
include both objectives and research questions in a research proposal, the objectives should be
broader and the research questions more specific.
For example: To what extent does funding influence sustainability of government projects?
What s the attitude of project managers towards technology?

Hypotheses
Nachmias and Nachmias (1992) define a hypothesis as a tentative answer to a research problem,
expressed in the form of a clearly stated relation between the independent and the dependent

13
variables. In simple terms it is ‘an educated/ intellectual guess’ which specifies the predicted
outcome of a study. Using the above examples, one would state hypotheses as:
• There is no significant relationship between funding and sustainability of government projects

• Project managers have a positive attitude towards technology

A hypothesis states the research expectations concerning the relationships between the variables in
the research problem and also tests the significance of the results obtained. Testing hypotheses
enables the researcher to generalize his/ her results to the population.
Types of Hypotheses
There are two types of Hypotheses.

Null Hypotheses/ Statistical

This states that NO real relationship or difference exists between the independent and the
dependent variables. Any relationship between the two variables is merely due to chance or
error. A researcher tests null hypothesis. Null hypothesis is denoted as H o. Mathematically, it is
represented as: H0: µ1=µ2
There is no relationship between funding and sustainability of government funding

Alternative Hypotheses/ Experimental (H1)

This is the opposite of null hypotheses; they tell us that a relationship exists between the
independent and the dependent variables. It is a prediction that an experimental manipulation will
have some effect or that certain variables will relate to each other. They are also called the research
hypotheses because they are the ones the researcher sets. Mathematically, it is represented as; H 1:
µ1≠µ2 (non directional) or µ1>µ2 (directional) or µ1<µ2 (directional)

An example of an alternative hypotheses would be: There is a relationship between funding and
sustainability of government funding

14
Alternative hypotheses can either be directional or non directional. Directional hypothesis shows
the direction of the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables e.g.
• The higher the funding, the higher the sustainability of government projects
• There is a positive relationship between the level of education of individuals and income.
The non directional does not specify the direction e.g. examination anxiety affects performance.
The word ‘affects’ shows that the relationship between the examination and anxiety could be either
positive or negative
Characteristics of Research Hypotheses:
• Hypotheses must be clear: In order to test a hypothesis empirically, one has to define all the
variables in the hypothesis. Conceptual and operational definitions help clarify hypotheses
• Hypotheses are specific: The investigator has to point out the expected relations among
variables in terms of direction (positive or negative).
• Hypotheses should be testable: This implies that variables in the hypotheses must be such that
they are measurable and testable within a reasonable period of time
• Good hypotheses must relate to the problem under investigation and must be based on a sound
rationale derived from theory, previous research or professional experience. Only reasonable
intelligent and informed guess can qualify to be regarded as hypotheses
• Scientific hypotheses are value – free: In principle, the researcher’s own values, biases and
subjective preferences have no place in the scientific approach.
• Variables stated in the hypotheses must be consistent with the purpose statement, objectives
and the operationalized variables in the method section.

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of stating hypothesis over research questions:
Advantages
• A hypothesis forces us to think more deeply and specifically about the possible outcomes of
a study. It enables us to understand what the question implies and exactly what variables are
involved.

15
• If one is attempting to build a body of knowledge in addition to answering a specific
question, then stating hypothesis is a good strategy because it enables one to make specific
predictions based on prior evidence or theoretical argument.
• Hypothesis stating helps us to see if we are or are not investigating a relationship.

Disadvantages
• Stating a hypothesis may lead to a bias, either consciously or unconsciously, on the part of the
researcher. This is because the researcher may be tempted to arrange the procedures or
manipulate the data in such a way as to bring about a desired outcome. This depends on the
honesty of the researchers.

• Stating hypothesis may sometimes be unnecessary, or even inappropriate, in certain research

projects of certain types e.g. in an ethnographic studies.
• Stating hypothesis may prevent researchers from noticing other phenomena that might be
important to study.

4.0. Definition of Terms

In research, it is prudent to communicate to your audience through defining terms that are used in
the study that:
• Ensures that the research question is sharply focused
• Individuals outside the field of study may not understand
• Have multiple meanings
• Are essential to understanding what the study is about
• Provides precision in specifications for instruments to be developed or located

There are essentially two ways to clarify important terms in a research question: a)
Conceptual / Constitutive Definition / Dictionary Approach

This is where researchers use other words to say more clearly what is meant. This definition describes
concepts by using other concepts. For example a ‘humanistic classroom’ might be defined as on in

16
which (a) the needs and interests of students have the highest priority; (b) students work on their
own for a considerable amount of time in each class period; and (c) the teacher acts as a guide and
a resource person rather than an informant.

b) Operational Definition

This is a set of procedures that describes a set of procedures a researcher can follow in order to
establish the existence of the phenomenon described by a concept (Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996).
This assigns meaning to a construct or a variable by specifying the activities or ‘operations’
necessary to measure it. It is a sort of manual of instructions to the investigator. For example:
operational definition of the term ‘humanistic classroom may be any classroom judged (by an
observer spending at least one day per week for four to five weeks) to possess all the following
characteristics:
• Not more than three children working with the same materials at the same time
• The teacher never spending more than twenty minutes per day addressing the class as a group
• At least half of every class period open for students to do their own study

• At least more than three reference books available for every student in class to use

Nontraditional seating- students sit in circle, small groupings of seats or even on the floor
Classroom ‘barazas’ are encouraged every Friday e.t.c.

There are in general two kinds of operational definitions (a) Measured (b) Experimental
A measured operational describes how a variable will be measured. For example, achievement may
be defined by a standardized achievement test, by a teacher-made achievement test, or by grades.
An experimental operational definition spells out the details (operations) of the investigator’s
manipulations of a variable. For example: reinforcement can be operationally defined by giving
details of how subjects are to be reinforced (rewarded) and not reinforced (not rewarded) for
specified behaviors e.g. praise, blame, ignore etc

Conceptual Framework
Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) defines conceptual framework as a hypothesized model identifying
the concepts under study and their relationship. It is a framework usually developed by the
researcher 17
 to demonstrate the inter relationships between variables of the study. This relationship is usually
presented graphically or diagrammatically and is usually supported by an explanation. The purpose
of a conceptual model is to help the reader to quickly see the proposed relationships. A conceptual
framework can be adopted (acknowledge the author) or a researcher comes up with a completely
different one.
Theoretical Framework
In many fields and especially in education, there are always theories about concepts and relationships
e.g. behavioral theory, cognitive theory etc. In such fields the researcher may be interested in
testing a particular theory. Theories help researchers to explain and predict phenomena of interest
and, in consequence, to make intelligent practical decisions. A theoretical framework provides an
explanation of the research design used and describe the concepts, variables and theories
underlying the study and the relationship among various variables (Ogula, 1998). Such theoretical
framework should be explained clearly in the proposal and it should show how the study is related
to the theoretical background. In some studies, the researcher is only interested in testing a
particular relationship in a theory. Other researchers may want to deal with a few selected concepts
from a particular theory. The theory must be well described and show how the particular study fits
into it.

5.0. Review questions

1. Describe characteristics of a good research problem.
2. Differentiate between null hypotheses and Alternative hypotheses.
3. Analysis the concept of conceptual framework and theoretical framework.
UNIT 3. THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE SECTION
1.0 Introduction:
The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of documents
containing information related to the research problem being investigated. Literature review should
be extensive and thorough because it is aimed at obtaining detailed knowledge of the unit being
studied.

2.0 Objectives
By the end of these unit learners should be able to:
18
 1. Identify sources of literature for the areas of study.
2. Describe steps in carrying out literature review
3. Reference within text while writing literature.

Main Content
3.0 The purpose of literature review.
1. The main purpose of literature review is to determine what has been done already related to
the research problem being studied.
2. A review of the literature will reveal what strategies, procedures and measuring instruments have been
found useful investigating the problem question. This information helps the researcher to avoid
mistakes that have previously been made by other researchers.
3. Literature review will suggest other procedure and approaches. The information is useful because
a researcher could try it out and improve the research study.
4. Literature review makes the researcher familiarize with previous researches done and thus
facilitates interpretation of the results of the study. For example the results can be discussed
in terms of whether they support or contrast previous findings.
5. The review of literature will give the researcher the knowledge needed to convert a
tentative research problem into a detailed and concise plan of work.
6. It helps determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The researcher may also
be alerted to research possibilities which have been overlooked in the past.
7. Approaches that have proved to be futile will be revealed through literature review. This
helps in the research because there is no point in repeating a certain approach in a study if that
approach has been found to be consistently unproductive or unreliable.
8. Literature review pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an area. A review
analyzes and synthesizes different results revealing gaps in information and areas where major
questions still remain.

a. Types of Information to Seek for a Research Review

Findings from prior studies are the most important type of information for a research review. If you
are writing a literature review for a new study, you should rely mostly on primary source research
19
reports, which are descriptions of studies written by the researchers who conducted them.
Secondary source research documents are descriptions of studies prepared by someone other than
the original researcher. Literature reviews, then, are secondary sources. Existing reviews, if they
are recent, are often a good place to start because they provide a quick overview of the literature.
i. Examples of sources of information:

1. Scholarly journals
These are crucial research documents, found in the libraries either in hand booklets or e-library.
Some these you will find them in the web. Properly referenced journal articles will have the
author’s name, year of publication, title of the journal and volume number to enable one to locate it
easily.
2. Theses and Dissertations
All graduate students who wish to receive a Masters or Doctor of philosophy (PhD) undertake
original work which they write up as a thesis or dissertation. Such manuscripts could prove of great
value to the researcher for your literature review.
3. Government documents
This includes policy papers and research reports owned by governments, some of which are
normally sponsored by international agencies.
4. Papers presented at conferences
Research papers presented at conferences are also good sources of literature. Eventually such
papers get published in conferences proceedings or referred journals.
5. Books.
Subject bibliographies are available in most libraries. These give a list of books in general. If one is
interested in a particular book, then the online catalogue which is alphabetically arranged by
author, subject and title can be checked.
6. The internet
The wide spread access to internet, it is very easy to browse the web and get literature from the
latest journal articles, conference papers and policy documents from various organizations
b. Preparing a literature review.
Writing literature reviews can be challenging, especially when voluminous information and
analyses must be condensed into a small number20
of pages. The skill improves over time.
Organizing the Review
Organization is vital in preparing a written review. When literature on a unit is broad, it is useful to
summarize information in a table. The table could include columns with headings such as Author,
Sample Characteristics, Design, Data Collection Approach, and Key Findings. Such a table
provides a quick overview that allows you to make sense of a mass of information. The important
point is to have a plan before starting to write so that the review has a meaningful and
understandable flow.

The goal is to structure the review in such a way that the presentation is logical, demonstrates
meaningful thematic integration, and leads to a conclusion about the state of evidence on the unit.
After an organizing structure has been decided, you should review your notes or protocols. This
helps refresh your memory about material read earlier and lays the groundwork for decisions about
where a particular reference fits in the outline. Remember that the number of references is less
important than their relevance and the overall organization of the review. So far we have our
materials for the literature review; we then need to know how to put it in to writing.
c. Writing a Literature Review 1. Content of the Written Literature Review
A written research review should provide readers with an objective, well-organized synthesis of the
current state of evidence on a unit. A literature review should be neither a series of quotes nor a
series of abstracts.
The central tasks are to summarize and critically evaluate the overall evidence so as to reveal the
current state of knowledge on a unit with regard to themes deemed to be important—not simply to
describe what researchers have done.
Although key studies may be described in detail, it is not necessary to provide particulars for every
reference. Studies with comparable findings often can be summarized together.
The literature should be summarized in your own words.
The review should demonstrate that consideration has been given to the cumulative worth of the
body of research. Stringing together quotes from various documents fails to show that previous
research has been assimilated and understood.

21
 2. Style of a Research Review
The fact that hypotheses cannot be ultimately proved or disproved does not; mean that we must
disregard research evidence especially if findings have been replicated. They are to be supported by
research findings.
3. Length of a Research Review
There are no formulas for how long a review should be. The length depends on several factors,
including the complexity of the question, the extent of prior research, and the purpose for which the
review is being prepared. Your supervisor might likely suggest page length as a guideline.
i. Critiquing a literature review.
In assessing a literature review, the overarching question is whether it summarizes the current state
of research evidence. If the review is written as part of an original research report, an equally
important question is whether the review lays a solid foundation for the new study.
Guidelines for Critiquing Literature Reviews
1. Does the review seem thorough—does it include all or most of the major studies on the unit?
2. Does it include recent research? Are studies from other related disciplines included, if
appropriate?
3. Does the review rely on appropriate materials (e.g., mainly on research reports, using primary
sources)?
4. Is the review merely a summary of existing work, or does it critically appraises and compares
key studies? Does the review identify important gaps in the literature?
5. Is the review well organized? Is the development of ideas clear?
6. Does the review use appropriate language, suggesting the tentativeness of prior findings? Is the
review objective? Does the author paraphrase, or is there an over-reliance on quotes from
original sources?
7. If the review is part of a research report for a new study, does the review support the need for
the study?
8. If it is a review designed to summarize evidence for clinical practice, does the review draw
appropriate conclusions about practice implications?

ii. Tips on good reviewing of literature

22
1. Do not conduct a hurried review for fear of overlooking important studies.
2. Do not rely too heavily on secondary sources.
3. Many people concentrate only on findings from journals when reviewing literature. One should
also read about the methodology used and the measurement of variables.
4. It is also important to check daily newspapers as they contain very educative and current information.
5. It extremely important to copy references correctly in the first place so as to avoid the frustration
of trying to retrace a reference later.

d. Referencing within text

This refers to accrediting a statement or findings to another author, to show that the statement or
findings quoted is by the author. The statement may be paraphrased and therefore need not be in
quotation marks. A commonly used method for referencing in text:
The authors’ last name and year of the document publication are put after a paraphrased statement in a
text. The name and year are put in bracket.

Example 1.
Among the economic factors that affect satisfaction with quality of life , income has been found to be
positively related to satisfaction with quality of life. (Berry and Williams, 1987).
In the above statement, Berry and Williams are the authors, and the work from which the statement came
was published in 1987.
In another case, sometimes the authors’ name may come at the beginning of a sentence, and only the year of
publication is put into brackets.

Example 2.
Berry and Williams (1987) found a positive relationship between income and satisfaction with quality of
life.

4.0. Learners’ Activity.

Visit the website and read the latest version of APA format on writing references. (MUST READ)

5.0. Review of the unit

1. Discuss the importance of literature review.

23
 2. Explain how one can draw tentative hypotheses from a review of literature.
3. Choose a unit of interest and write a three page literature review.
4. List four indicators of a good review of literature.

References
Orodho, A.J. (2004). Essentials of Education and Social Sciences Research Methods.
Nairobi: Majola Publishers.

Mugenda, O. & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches. Nairobi: ACTS Press.
UNIT 4.0. THE METHOD SECTION
1.0. Introduction:
This section of research study describes the procedures that have been followed in conducting the
study. At this stage, techniques of obtaining data are developed and data is actually collected to test
hypotheses or gather information on research question. The steps involved in conducting the study
should be described in detail. This helps other researchers in understanding one’s study,
particularly where replication may be desired. We shall discuss population, sample and sampling
methods, types of variables and the measurement scales.

2.0. Objectives
By the end of these unit learners should be able to:
1. Determine population of their study.
2. Identify appropriate sampling method for the study
3. Classify variables relating to the measurement scale.

3.0 Main Content

A sample is a group in a research study on which information is obtained. A population is the group
to which the results of the study are intended to apply. In almost all research investigations, the
sample is smaller than the population, since the researchers rarely have access to all the members
of the population.

24
Sampling refers to the process of selecting these individuals. Researchers would prefer to study the
entire population in which they are interested. However, this is difficult to do. Most populations of
interest are large, diverse, and scattered over a large geographic area. Finding, let alone contacting
all the members can be time- consuming and expensive.

A population
Population can be referred to as the entire set of relevant units of analysis, or data. It can as well be
referred to as the “ aggregate of all cases that conform to some designated set of specifications,
Isidor Chein, 1982, pp 419{ Isidor Chein, “ An Introduction to Sampling”, in Claire Selltiz,et al.,
Research Methods in Social relations, 4th ed.( New York: Holt, Renehart and Winston,1981),
p.419. For example, we can define a population consisting of all the people residing in Kenya. We
can even narrow this down to a specific population of say university students in Zetech University.

A population may be either finite or infinite. A finite population contains a countable number of
sampling units, for example, all registered voters in a particular constituency in a given election
year. An infinite population, on the other hand, consists of an endless number of sampling units,
such as an unlimited number of stars in the sky.

A sampling unit
A sampling unit is a single member of a sampling population. For example, if you are studying the
University of Nairobi students, each single student becomes your sampling unit. A good sampling
unit must it must be relevant to the research problem. It is important to note that a sampling unit
need not be an individual. It can be an event, a city, or a situation.

A Sampling frame

It is very important for a researcher to draw a sampling frame for the population of the study. A
sampling frame is a complete listing of the sampling units. The accuracy of a sample depends
largely on the sampling frame. Indeed, every aspect of the sampling design- the population
covered, the stages of sampling, and the sampling frame influences the actual selection process-.

25
3.1. Key Steps in the Sampling Procedures
Figure below outlines the step-by-step procedures that researchers can follow when drawing a
sample from a population.

Figure: The Sampling Procedure

Define the population

Decide on sampling frame

Determine the sampling

Decide on appropriate

Select the sample elements

The definition of the population in any study is determined by the purpose of the study. But, the
population should be defined very carefully, and in such a manner that another researcher would
be able to identify it sufficiently well to reproduce it. The researcher, for example, must specify
whether the population consists of individuals such as housewives, college students or lawyers
etc.
Secondly, researcher must determine the sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of study
objects from which the sample will be drawn. An ideal sample frame should contain every
population object only. Sampling frames can be obtained from research agencies, government
departments and organization.

The researcher must next determine the sampling procedure i.e. either probability or nonprobability
techniques (discussed later).

The researcher must then determine the appropriate sample size. A rule of thumb is that the larger
the sample, the more accurate the conclusions drawn are likely to be. Finally, the researcher then
selects the specific study objects to be included in the sample.

26
3.2. Types of Sampling Designs

The members of a sample are selected either on a probability basis or by another means.
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection – a controlled procedure that
assures that each population element is given a known nonzero chance of selection.

In contrast, non-probability sampling is nonrandom and subjective. Each member does not have
a known nonzero chance of being included. Allowing interviewers to choose sample members ‘at
random’ (meaning ‘as they wish’ or ‘wherever they find them’) is not random sampling. Only
probability samples provide estimates of precision.

Table 1 Type of Sampling Designs

Representation Basis
Element Selection Probability Nonprobability

Unrestricted Simple random Convenience

Restricted Complex random Purposive
Systematic Judgment

Cluster Quota

Stratified Multi- Snowball

stage
3.2.1. Probability Sampling
The unrestricted, simple random sample is the simplest form of probability sampling. Since all
probability samples must provide a known nonzero chance of selection for each population
element, the simple random sample is considered a special case in which each population element
has a known and equal chance of selection. In this section, we use the simple random sample to
build a foundation for understanding sampling procedures and choosing probability samples.

1. Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling, all study objects have an equal chance of being included in the
sample. Researchers begin with a complete list of all members of a population and then choose
sample items at random. It should be noted that in simple random sampling, each study object is
selected completely independently of other objects.

The sampling process involves assigning a unique identification number to each study object in the
sampling frame. After this, the researcher must design a method of selecting study objects in a
manner that allows all equal chance of being selected. One way of doing this is writing these
27
identification numbers on small pieces of paper, mixing them thoroughly in a box, and then picking
the papers without looking. The numbers on the pieces of paper picked identify the study objects
to be included in the sample. In some cases, however, this procedure (lottery method) may be
impractical or tedious.

Another procedure used in selecting study objects in simple random sampling involves the use of
tables of random numbers. The researcher begins picking randomly objects from any preselected
place in the table of random numbers. Then s/he systematically chooses numbers by either
moving vertically or horizontally. The sample will therefore consist of the study objects whose
numbers are chosen.

Complex probability Sampling

Simple random sampling is often impractical. It requires a population list that is often not
available. The design may also be wasteful because it fails to use all the information about a
population. In addition, the carrying out of a simple random design may be expensive in time and
money. These problems have led to the development of alternative designs that are superior to the
simple random design in statistical and/or economic efficiency.

A more efficient sample in a statistical sense is one that provides a given precision (standard error
of the mean) with a smaller sample size. A sample that is economically more efficient is one that
provides a desired precision at a lower dollar cost. We achieve this with designs that enable us to
lower the costs of data collecting, usually through reduced travel expense and interviewer time.

In the discussion that follows, four alternative probability sampling approaches are considered:
systematic, stratified, cluster and multi-stage.

2. Systematic Sampling
This method is frequently used in production and quality control sampling. In this approach, every
n’th element in the population is sampled, beginning with a random start of an element in the
range of 1 to n. After a randomly selected start point(s) a sample item would be selected every n’th
item. Assume that in an assembly line it was decided to sample every 100 th item and a start point
of 67 was chosen randomly, the sample would be the following items:

67th; 167th; 267th; 367th; and so on

The gap between selections is known as the sampling interval and is itself often randomly
selected. A concern with this technique is the possible periodicity in the population that may
coincide with the sampling interval and cause bias.

28
 3. Stratified Sampling
Most populations can be segregated into several mutually exclusive sub-populations, or strata.
Thus, the process by which the sample is constrained to include elements from each of the
segments is called stratified random sampling.

There are three reasons why a researcher chooses a stratified sample: To increase a sample’s
statistical efficiency;
To provide adequate data for analysing the various subpopulations, and
To enable different research methods and procedures to be used in different strata.

With the ideal stratification, each stratum is homogeneous internally and heterogeneous with other
strata.

The size of the strata samples is calculated with two pieces of information:
(i) How large the total sample should be and
(ii) How the total sample should be allocated among strata.

Proportional versus Disproportionate Sampling

In proportionate stratified sampling the number of items drawn from each stratum is equal.
Suppose a researcher needs a sample from a universe of 500 individuals, ie, n = 500. If she were to
select 4 strata ie, s1, s2, s3, and s4, each would have 125 items. A simple random sample is then
selected independentlyfrom each group.

In disproportionate sampling, no equal units are drawn but weights are assigned to each stratum.
Suppose again the researcher has a sample of 500 which represent income level groups, ie:

Income (Ksh) below 5,000 s1 = 0.4 (500) = 200.

Income (Ksh) 5,000 – 10,000 = s1 = 0.3 (500) = 150
Income (Ksh) 10,000-50,000 = s3 = 0.2 (500) = 100 Income
(Ksh) above 50,000 = s4 = 0.1 (500) = 50
500
Random samples are taken from within each group in the proportions that each group bears to the
population as a whole. The purpose of stratification is to ensure that the sample mirrors the
characteristics of the population. In the case of the study of incomes, by assigning a higher
weight to low income groups, the researcher is likely to get a good sample representative.
The main difference between stratified random sampling and simple random sampling is that in
the simple random method, sample items are chosen at random from the entire universe, while in
the stratified random sampling, the sample items are chosen at random from each stratum.
29
4. Cluster Sampling
In a simple random sample, each population element is selected individually. The population can
also be divided into groups of elements with some groups randomly selected for study. This is
cluster sampling. An immediate question might be: How does this differ from stratified
sampling? They may be compared as follows:

Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling

1. We divide the population into a few

subgroups each with many elements in
it. The subgroups are selected according
to some criterion that is related to the
variables under study.
2. We try to secure homogeneity within
subgroups and heterogeneity between
subgroups.
3. We randomly choose elements from
within each subgroup.
1. We divide the population into many
subgroups, each with a few elements in
it. The subgroups are selected according
to some criterion of ease or availability
in data collection.
2. We try to secure heterogeneity within
subgroups and homogeneity between
subgroups, but we usually get reverse.
3. We randomly choose a number of
subgroups, which we then typically
study in toto.

30
When done properly, cluster sampling also provides an unbiased estimate of population
parameters. Two conditions foster the use of cluster sampling: (1) the need of more economic
efficiency than can be provided by simple random sampling and (2) the frequent
unavailability of a practical sampling frame for individual elements.

Statistical efficiency for cluster samples is usually lower than for simple random samples
chiefly because clusters are usually homogeneous. Families in the same block (a typical
cluster) are often similar in social class, income level, ethnic origjn, and so forth.

4. Multi-Stage Sampling
This is a practical system widely used to reduce the travelling time for interviewers and the
subsequent costs multi-stage sampling is similar to stratified sampling except the groups and
sub-groups are selected on a geographical / location basis rather than some social
characteristics. For example: Assume you wanted the opinion of female students from
universities on gender equality. You would select your sample as:

All universities Public universities Students Female

students
(Female/
male)
It involves selecting sample in stages until you have identified your study unit.

3.2.2. Non-Probability Sampling

Any discussion of the relative merits of probability versus non probability sampling clearly
shows the technical superiority of the former. In probability sampling, researchers use a
random selection of elements to reduce or eliminate sampling bias. Under such conditions, we
can have substantial confidence that the sample is representative of the population from which
it is drawn. In addition, with probability sample designs, we can estimate an interval range
within which the population parameter is expected to fall. Thus, we not only can reduce the
chance for sampling error but also can estimate the range of probable sampling error present.

1
With a subjective approach like non probability sampling, the probability of selecting
population elements is unknown. There are a variety of ways to choose persons or cases to
include in the sample. Often we allow the choice of subjects to be made by field workers on
the scene. When this occurs, there is greater opportunity for bias to enter the sample selection
procedure and to distort the findings of the study. Also, we cannot estimate any range within
which to expect the population parameter. Given the technical advantages of probability
sampling over non probability sampling, why would anyone choose the latter?
There are some practical reasons for using these less precise methods.

Practical Considerations
We may use non probability sampling procedures because they satisfactorily meet the
sampling objectives. While a random sample will give us a true cross section of the
population, this may not be the objective of the research. If there is no desire or need to
generalize to a population parameter, then there is much less concern about whether the
sample fully reflects the population. Often researchers have more limited objectives. They
may be looking only for the range of conditions or for examples of dramatic variations. This is
especially true in exploratory research where one may wish to contact only certain persons or
cases that are clearly typical.

Additional reasons for choosing non probability over probability sampling are cost and time.
Probability sampling clearly calls for more planning and repeated callbacks to ensure that
each selected sample member is contacted. These activities are expensive. Carefully
controlled non probability sampling often seems to give acceptable results, so the investigator
may not even consider probability sampling.

While probability sampling may be superior in theory, there are breakdowns in its application.
Even carefully stated random sampling procedures may be subject to careless application by
the people involved. Thus, the ideal probability sampling may be only partially achieved
because of the human element.

2
It is also possible that non probability sampling may be the only feasible alternative. The total
population may not be available for study in certain cases. At the scene of a major event, it
may be infeasible to even attempt to construct a probability sample. A study of past
correspondence between two companies must use an arbitrary sample because the full
correspondence is normally not available.

In another sense, those who are included in a sample may select themselves. In mail surveys,
those who respond may not represent a true cross section of those who receive the
questionnaire. The receivers of the questionnaire decide for themselves whether they will
participate. There is some of this self-selection in almost all surveys because every respondent
chooses whether to be interviewed.

Methods
1. Convenience. Non probability samples that are unrestricted are called convenience
samples.
They are the least reliable design but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct.
Researchers or field workers have the freedom to choose whomever they find, thus the name
convenience. Examples include informal pools of friends and neighbors or people responding
to a newspaper’s invitation for readers to state their positions on some public issue.

While a convenience sample has no controls to ensure precision, it may still be a useful
procedure. Often you will take such a sample to test ideas or even to gain ideas about a
subject of interest. In the early stages of exploratory research, when you are seeking
guidance, you might use this approach. The results may present evidence that is so
overwhelming that a more sophisticated sampling procedure is unnecessary. In an interview
with students concerning some issue of campus concern, you might talk to 25 students
selected sequentially. You might discover that the responses are so overwhelmingly onesided
that there is no incentive to interview further.

2. Purposive Sampling. A non-probability sample conforms to certain criteria is called

purposive sampling. There are two major types – judgment sampling and quota sampling.

3
a) Judgment Sampling occurs when a researcher selects sample members to conform to
some criterion. In a study of labor problems, you may want to talk only with those who have
experienced on-the-job discrimination. Another example of judgment sampling occurs when
election results are predicted from only a few selected precincts that have been chosen
because of their predictive record in past elections.

When used in the early stages of an exploratory study, a judgment sample is appropriate.
When one wishes to select a biased group for screening purposes, this sampling method is
also a good choice. Companies often try out new product ideas on their employees. The
rationale is that one would expect the firm’s employees to be more favorably disposed toward
a new product idea than the public. If the product does not pass this group, it does not have
prospects for success in the general market.

b) Quota Sampling is the second type of purposive sampling. We use it to improve

representativeness. The logic behind quota sampling is that certain relevant characteristics
describe the dimensions of the population. If a sample has the same distribution on these
characteristics, then it is likely representative of the population regarding other variables on
which we have no control. Suppose the student body of Mount Kenya is 55 percent female
and 45 percent male. The sampling quota would call for sampling students at a 55 to 45
percent ratio. This would eliminate distortions due to a non-representative gender ratio.

In most quota samples, researchers specify more than one control dimension. Each should
meet two tests: (1) it should have a distribution in the population that we can estimate. (2) It
should be pertinent to the unit studied. We may believe that responses to a question should
vary, depending on the gender of the respondent. If so, we should seek proportional responses
from both men and women. We may also feel that undergraduates differ from graduate
students, so this would be a dimension. Other dimensions such as the student’s academic
discipline, ethnic group, religious affiliation, and social group affiliation may be chosen. Only
a few of these controls can be used. To illustrate, suppose we consider the following:

4
• Gender – two categories – male, female
• Class level – two categories – graduate and undergraduate
• College – six categories– Arts and Science, Agriculture,
Architecture,
Business, Engineering, other
• Religion – four categories – Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, other
• Fraternal affiliation – two categories – member, nonmember
• Family social-economic class – three categories – upper, middle, lower

Quota sampling has several weaknesses. First, the idea that quotas on some variables assume
representativeness on others is argument by analogy. It gives no assurance that the sample is
representative on the variables being studied. Often, the data used to provide controls may
also be dated or inaccurate. There is also a practical limit on the number of simultaneous
controls that can be applied to ensure precision. Finally, the choice of subjects is left to field
workers to make on a judgemental basis. They may choose only friendly looking people,
people who are convenient to them, and so forth.

Despite the problems with quota sampling, it is widely used by opinion pollsters and marketing
and other researchers. Probability sampling is usually much more costly and timeconsuming.
Advocates of quota sampling argue that while there is some danger of systematic bias, the
risks are usually not that great. Where predictive validity has been checked (e.g., in election
polls), quota sampling has been generally satisfactory.

3. Snowball. This design has found a niche in recent years in applications where
respondents are difficult to identify and are best located through referral networks. In the
initial stage of snowball sampling, individuals are discovered and may or may not be selected
through probability methods. This group is then used to locate others who possess similar
characteristics and who, in turn, identify others. Similar to a reverse search for bibliographic
sources, the ‘snowball’ gathers a subject as it rolls along.

5
Variations on snowball sampling have been used to study drug cultures, teenage gang
activities, power elites, community relations, insider trading and other applications where
respondents are difficult to identify and contact.

4. Dimensional Sampling. The researcher identifies the various characteristics of

interest in a population and obtains at least one correspondent for every combination of those
factors. It is a further refinement of the quota sampling technique. (ie, you have a number of
features, male/female, so you choose one man to represent the men and one woman to
represent the women).

3.3. Types of Variables

1. Independent and Dependent Variables:
An independent variable is one that the researcher makes changes in or manipulates in order to
determine its effect or influence on the dependent variable. It is the presumed cause of
changes in the values of the dependent variable. This variable has also been referred to as
predictor variable because it predicts the amount of variation that occurs in the dependent
variable. They are also called treatment, manipulated, or antecedent variables. According to
Best and Kahn (2006) there are two types of independent variables; treatment and organismic
or attribute. Treatment variables are those factors that the researcher manipulates and to which
s/he assigns subjects e.g. teaching methods, instructional materials while attribute variables
are those characteristics that cannot be altered by the researcher e.g. age, sex
A dependent variable is an outcome of the influence of the independent variable. It is a
variable which is expected to change as a result of the presence or absence or magnitude of
the independent variables. Dependent variables are also referred to as response variable
because they respond to the changes made in the independent variable. They are also called
criterion variable, outcome and effect variables.
2. Confounding Variables
These are variables that might influence the dependent variable and whose effect may be
confused with the effects of the independent variable. Confounding variables are of two types:
intervening and extraneous variables.

6
Intervening variables may be defined as that factor which theoretically affects the observed
phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured or manipulated because they usually have to do
with an individual’s feelings e.g. fatigue, boredom, excitement. Their effects are inferred from
the effects of the independent variable.

Extraneous variables are independent variables that are not related to the purpose of study,
but may affect the dependent variable. It is any uncontrolled variable which can influence the
outcome of the study or the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable
(Ogula, 2005). These variables affect the outcome of a research study either because the
researcher is not aware of their existence or if the researcher is aware, s/he does not control
for them. For example: The relationship between a type of a fertilizer and the amount of yield.
In this example type of soil, size of the farm can also determine the yield. Type of soil is thus
an extraneous variable. The researcher should control for this variable by for example using
farms that have similar type of soil. If extraneous variables are not controlled, it is difficult to
determine how much influence on the dependent variable is due to an extraneous variable and
how much is due to the independent variable, hence Kothari (2003) advises that a study must
always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the
independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variables.
Controlling Extraneous Variables
Variables that are of interest to the researcher can be controlled by:
• Removing the variable: using only female respondents removes sex as a confounding
variable but reduces the generalization from the study to only females

• Randomization: this involves pure chance of selecting and assigning respondents to

experimental and control group. This provides the most effective way of minimizing
bias and also the effects of extraneous variables

• Matching cases: this is used when randomization is not feasible. It involves selecting
individuals with identical or nearly identical characteristics and assigning them to
either experimental or control group. However, matching is not considered satisfactory
unless

7
 the members of the pairs are then randomly assigned to the treatment groups, a method
known as matched randomization (Best and Kahn, 2006)

3. Moderating Variables
In a relationship, there is at least one independent variable and dependent variable. It is
normally hypothesized that in some way the independent variable ‘causes’ the dependent
variable to occur. A moderating variable is a second independent variable that has been
selected for study in order to determine if it affects or modifies the basic relationship between
the primary independent variable and the dependent variable (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2004). For
instance, if a researcher thinks that the relationship between yield and amount of fertilizer
might be altered by a third variable, type of soil, then type of soil could be included in the
study as a moderator variable. Here is an example of a hypothesis with a moderating variable:
Amount of fertilizers used affects yield but the correlation is high for farms with soil type…

4. Mathematical Classification of Variables:

Variables may be classified in terms of the number of mathematical values they may take on
within a given time:
• Discrete / categorical: These are the variables that take specific numbers. They can
take definite set of values e.g. human beings, gender, eye color, political party
affiliation etc. Discrete variables are counted. These variables have a minimum-sized
unit and do not vary in degree, amount, or quantity but they are qualitatively different
• Continuous / Quantitative: Continuous variables can take any value within an
infinite series of possible values e.g. weight, height. These can lie from 0≤ x ≥ α. They
do not have a minimum-sized unit. Continuous variables are measured.
Each of these variables conveys different amounts of information and uses different type of
analysis and measurement, requiring the use of different measurement scales.

There are four types of measurement scales:

a) Nominal Variables have values which differ in quality only. These kinds of variables
are used for identification only e.g. gender, eye color, skin color, race, name,
admission numbers etc. Numbers are assigned to categories to show differences e.g. a
researcher
8
 studying gender may assign 1 to females and 2 to males. Number 1 or 2 does not
imply than females are superior to men but they identify gender during analysis
b) Ordinal variables are variables that have values which are ordered according to
quantity i.e. values are assigned to reflect high to low or least to most e.g. educational
levels, income levels, grading system, position in class, test scores etc. However the
differences between ranks are not necessarily the same

Nominal and ordinal variables are sometimes classified together as categorical variables.
c) Interval variables have the characteristics of nominal and ordinal with an addition of
values whose interval between them are equal e.g. the interval between 40 – 50 oc is
the same as 60 – 70 oc. This interval does not start from zero, one begins to count or
add successfully not from an absolute zero point that represents total absence of a
property but from an arbitrary or artificial zero point e.g. 0 oc. does not mean absence
of temperature.
d) Ratio variables are interval variables with a true zero point. For example, a scale
designed to measure height, weight, age, income, time would be a ratio scale
Interval and ratio variables are sometimes classified together as continuous variables because
they deal with numbers. 3.4. Measurement Scale
A scale is a device for measuring magnitude or quantity of a variable. Scales may be a series
of steps, degrees, a scheme of graded amounts from the highest to lowest, an indicator of
relative size; scales may also designate appropriate categories such as age, sex, etc;

There are four types of scales commonly used as levels of measurements.

(a) Nominal scale

In business and social research, nominal data are probably more widely collected than any
other. When you collect nominal data, you partition a set into categories that are mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive.

In this type of scale, the numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying objects, events or
characteristics. For instance, a person identity card number is a nominal scale. It only serves
the function of identifying the person. We can assign numbers to football players,
telephone 9
subscribers or to products in a storeroom. These numbers or codes have no mathematical
implication, and the only property conveyed by the number is identity. Arithmetic operations
cannot be performed on these numbers, as they would have no meaning.

The only permissible mathematical operations in nominal scales are those leased upon
counting such as frequencies, modes and percentages.

There are three forms of nominal scales:

(i) label nominal scale
(ii) category nominal scale
(iii) mixture nominal scale

i) Label nominal scale: This is the most elementary nominal scale. A label nominal
scale is simply a label assigned to an object in order to identify and keep track of it. In this
kind of scaling each label is unique to one object and possesses no meaning in itself.
ii) Category nominal scale: This is the most commonly used nominal scale in marketing
research. In category nominal scale, numbers are used to represent mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories of objects. Thus, one might classify the residents of a city according to
their expressed religious preferences. Classification set A given in table 8.1 is not a sound
category nominal scale because it is not collectively exhaustive. Set B meets the minimum
requirements, although this classification may be more useful for some research purposes than
others.

Table 8
A
B
Baptist
Catholic Catholic
Jewish Jewish
Protestant Lutheran
Other Methodist
None Presbyterian
Protestant

10
Thus each category must be assigned to one, and only one scale category, and must possess
the measured common characteristic. Other examples of characteristics measured with
category nominal scale include sex, tribe and so forth. For instance, in a given study men may
be coded ‘1’ and women ‘2’ and this serves no other function apart from classification.

iii) Mixture nominal Scale: This is a nominal scale which is partially a label. The numbers
and labels assigned football players serve to identify the individual players, and also to place
players in a category.

(b) Ordinal scales

This is a qualitative scale comprised of equal appearing intervals that rank observations from
large to small. This scale indicates rank order only. It does not indicate the nature of the
intervals between the ranks. For example, if several soft drinks are scaled according to
sweetness, and number 1 represents the highest degree of sweetness, then the drinks assigned
number 3 would be sweeter than one assigned number 4 but less sweet than one assigned
number

Note that with ordinal scale the only permitted statements are of greater than or less than
nature; we cannot make statements about how much less of characteristic one object posses
relative to another.

Ordinal measures commonlyhave only three to five categories, i.e, good, better, best or:

5 4 3 2 1
Excellent Very good Average Below average Very poor
Or
Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree Strongly
disagree
In dealing with ordinal scale, statistical description to positional measures such as median,
quartile, percentile or other summary characteristics which deal with order among quantities.

c) Interval scales
Interval scale has the power of nominal and ordinal scale plus one additional strength; it
incorporates the concept of equality in interval (the distance between 1 and 2 equals the
distance 11
between 2 and 3). The intervals are known and equal. They can be added, subtracted and their
summaries can be subjected to statistical tests. The interval scale does not have an absolute
zero. The zero point of this scale is arbitrary, but it permits inferences to be made.

One common example of the interval scaling is the Fahrenheit and centigrade scales used to
measure temperature. An arbitrary zero is assigned to each scale, and equal temperature
differences are found by scaling equal volumes of expansion in the liquid used in the
thermometer.

Interval scales permit inferences to be made about the differences between the entities to be
measured (warmness); but we cannot say that any value on a specific interval scale is a
multiple of another. Thus a temperature of 50 F is not twice as hot as a temperature of 25 F.
Also, the elapsed time between 3 and 6 a.m equals the time between 4 and 7 a.m., but one
cannot say 6
a.m. is twice as late as 3 a.m.

When a scale is interval, you use the arithmetic mean as the measure of central tendency. You
can compute the average time of first arrival of trucks at a warehouse. The standard deviation
is the measure of dispersion for arrival time. Product moment correlation, t-tests, and F-tests
and other parametric tests are the statistical procedures of choice.

d) Ratio Scale
This is the highest level of measurement among scales. It incorporates all the powers of the
previous scales plus the provision for absolute zero or origin. Ratio scale represents the actual
amounts of a variable. Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, and
are examples. In business research, we find ratio scales in many areas. These include money
values, population counts, distances, return rates, productivity rates.

5.0. Review of the chapter

1. Discuss the following terms:
a) Population
b) Validity
c) Accessible population
12
 d) Target population
e) Probability sampling
2. Select a research study in your area of specialization and discuss the following: a)
The sampling size
b) Sampling method used
c) The type of variable in the study
d) Measurement Scale used in the operationalization of these variables.
UNIT 5. DEVELOPING RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS: RELIABILITY AND
VALIDITY IN RESEARCH

1.0. Introduction
A researcher needs to develop instruments with which to collect the necessary information. In
research especially social research the most commonly used instruments are: Interviews,
questionnaires, observation and standardized tests. For reliability and validity to exist in the
data, the data collection techniques must yield information that is not only relevant to the
research hypotheses/questions, but also correct. Reliability and validity are measures of
relevance and correctness.

2.0. Objectives
1. Identify relevant research instruments related to the type of study undertaken.
2. Develop research instruments that you will use to collect data.
3. To test validity and reliability of the data collection instruments.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

a. Questionnaires

Questionnaires are commonly used to obtain important information about the population
under study. Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific objective,
research question or hypothesis of the study. The researcher must also know how information
obtained from each questionnaire item will be analyzed.

Kinds of questions used in questionnaire.

There are two broad categories of questions that are used in questionnaire
1. Structured or closed -ended 2.
Unstructured or open-ended.

13
 1. Structured or closed ended questions
These types refer to questions which are accompanied by a list of all possible alternatives
from which respondents select the answer that best describes the situation. In many cases, it is
impossible to exhaust all the categories since the researcher may not know all possible
answers. In such cases, it is customary to include a category called ‘other’ take to care of all
those responses which may not fit in the given categories.

Example:
1. What type of school do your children attend?
a. Private school
b. Public school
c. Non-formal school
d. Other.
Advantages of Structured or closed ended questions
1. Closed-ended questions are easier to analyze since they are in an immediate usable form.
2. They are easier to administer because each item is followed by alternative answers.
3. They are economical to use in terms of time and money. Disadvantages of Structured
or closed ended questions

1. They are more difficulty to construct because categories must be well thought out.
2. Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions according
to the researcher’s choices.

2. Unstructured or open-ended questions

It refers to questions which give the respondent complete freedom of response. These free
response questions permit an individual to respond in his or her own words. The amount of
space provided is however a good indicator of whether a brief or lengthy answer is desired.
Example:
1. How do you keep track of your monthly household expenses?
…………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
Advantages of open-ended questions.
1. They permit a greater depth of response. When a respondent is allowed to give a
personal response, usually reasons for the response given may be directly or indirectly
included.
14
 2. Open-ended questions are also simpler to formulate mainly because the researcher
does not have to labor to come up with appropriate response categories.
3. The respondent may give an insight into his feelings, background, hidden motivation,
interests and decisions.
4. Open-ended questions can stimulate a person to think about his feelings or motivates
and to express what he considers being most important.

Disadvantages of open-ended questions

1. When the respondent is free to give an individual response deemed to be proper, there
is a tendency to provide information which does not answer the stipulated research
questions or objectives.
2. The response given may be difficult to categorize and hence difficult to analyze
quantitatively.
3. Responding to open ended questions is time consuming. They may put off some
respondents.

3.2. Interviews
An interview is an oral administration of a questionnaire or an interview schedule. Interviews
are therefore face to face encounters. To obtain accurate information through interviews, a
researcher needs to obtain the maximum cooperation from respondents. The researcher must
therefore establish a friendly relationship with the respondent prior to conducting the
interview.

Advantages of interviews.
1. It provides in-depth data which is not possible to get through a questionnaire.
2. Make it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the study.
3. Interviews guard against confusing the questions since the interviewer can clarify the
questions thereby helping the respondent give relevant responses.
4. Interviews are more flexible than questionnaires because the interviewer can adapt to
the situation and get as much information as possible.
5. The interviewer can get more information by using probing questions.

Disadvantages of interviews.
1. Interviews are more expensive. Researcher has to travel and meet the respondents.
2. Interviews tend to be misused to get factual responses which could be obtained more
accurately through other methods.
3. Interviewing require higher level of skills, perhaps yet to be acquired by the novice
researcher. It requires communication and interpersonal skills.
4. Interviewers need to be trained to avoid
15bias.
 5. Interviews generally involve smaller samples because they are time consuming.
6. Responses may be influenced by the respondents’ reactions to the interviewer.
3.3. The Observation method
Observation as a method of data collection involves listening, reading, smelling and
touching. When used in scientific research, observation includes the full range of monitoring
behavioral and non-behavioral activities and conditions, which can be classified as follows:

(a) Non-behavior observation

Record analysis
Physical condition analysis
Physical process analysis

(b ) Behavior observation
Nonverbal analysis
Linguistic analysis
Extra linguistic analysis
Spatial analysis

Advantages of observation method

1. Observation is the only method available to gather certain types of information like
records mechanical processes and lower animals
2. It enables the researcher to collect the original data at the time they occur.
3. It helps to secure information that most participants would ignore either because it is so
common and expected or because it is not seen as relevant.
4. It is the only data collection method that can capture the whole event as it occurs in its
natural environment.
5. Subjects seem to accept an observational intrusion better than questioning

Disadvantages of observation method

1. The observer must be at the scene of the event when it takes place, yet it is often
impossible to predict where and when the event will occur.
2. It is slow and expensive process that requires either human observers or costlysurveillance
equipment.
3. Its most reliable results are restricted to information that can be learned by overt actions or
surface indicators to go below the surface, the observer must make inferences.

16
4. The research environment is more suited to subjective assessment and recording of data
than controls and quantification of events.
5. Observation is limited as a way to learn of the past. It is similarly limited as a method by
which to learn what is going on in the present at some distant place

4.0. TEST OF VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

To carry out a research investigation, researchers must gather data with which to answer
research questions or test hypothesis. The tools used to collect this data are referred to as
research instruments. In this stage, a researcher determines the research instruments to use to
collect data. Researchers must also provide evidence that the research instruments will yield
data that is both valid and reliable.

Validity

Validity is concerned with the question ‘am I measuring what I intend to measure?’ Validity is
that quality of a data-gathering tool/instrument that enables it to measure what it is supposed
to measure. There are three categories of validity:
 Content validity – this refers to the degree to which an instrument measures the subject
matter and behaviors the researcher wishes to measure. It is also the representativeness or
sampling adequacy of the content of a measuring instrument. There are two types of
content validity; face validity and sampling validity. Face validity is concerned with the
extent to which an instrument measures what it appears to measure according to the
researcher’s subjective assessment while sampling validity is the degree to which a
measure adequately samples the subject matter under consideration. Content validity
yields a logical judgment as to whether the instrument covers what it is supposed to cover.
To ensure content validity, the researcher should ask a panel of experts in the field to
critically examine the items for their representativeness

 Criterion-related Validity (Empirical Validity) – this attempt to a measure the extent to

which a measure relates / correlates with an external criterion. There are two types of
criterion-related validity; concurrent validity and predictive validity. Concurrent validity

17
 deals with measures that can be administered at the same time as the measure to be
validated. The concurrent validity for an instrument is determined by administering both
the instruments to a group of respondents, then finding the correlation between the two.
Predictive validity refers to the extent to which a measuring instrument predicts future
outcomes that are logically related to the construct for instance do pupils who score high
in KCPE also score high in KCSE? Unlike content validity, criterion-related validity
yields a numeric value, correlation coefficient, sometimes also called a validity
coefficient.

 Construct validity – an instrument has construct validity if its relationship to other

information corresponds well with some theory. A theory is a logical explanation that can
account for the interrelationships among a set of variables. Theories can be used to
determine construct validity of an instrument. For instance, if a test is supposed to
measure arithmetic computation skills, scores would be expected to improve after
intensive coaching in arithmetic. In general, any information that lets you know whether
results from the test correspond to what you would expect (based on your knowledge
about what is being measure) tells you something about the construct validity of a test.
Triangulation increases construct validity.

Reliability

Reliability is concerned with the question ‘does the instrument yield the same or similar
results consistently?’ Reliability is the degree of consistency that the instrument or tool
demonstrates on repeat trials. There are two main methods of estimating reliability; repeated
measurements and internal consistency. Both involve the procedure of correlating two sets of
scores. The higher the correlation coefficient, the greater the reliability. Correlation coefficient
varies on a scale of 0.00 (indicating total unreliability) and 1.00 (indicating perfect reliability).
0.8 -0.9 indicates high reliability, 0.6 -0.8 indicates acceptable reliability value while below
0.5 is unacceptable.

Repeated measurement is concerned with the ability of the instrument to measure the same
thing at different times. Three methods are used:
18
 Test-Retest method – this is estimated by measuring individuals on the same instrument
on different occasions and correlating the scores obtained by the same person’s on the two
administration. However it is affected by time between the test and retest, the mood of the
respondent during either of the test and also some respondents may memorize answers
especially if the second administration is given too soon. Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient may be used ot determine the coefficient

 Alternative forms method – this is similar to test-re-test except that the questions on the
second instrument are renumbered to create an alternative form of the first instrument

 Parallel forms/ equivalent forms method – in this method, two alternative instruments
designed as equivalent as possible is administered to the same group of respondents
during the same time period.

Internal consistency form of reliability indicates the degree of homogeneity among items in an
instrument. It is estimated by determining the degree to which each item in a scale correlates
with each other item. Internal consistency is based on a single administration of a measure.
There are three types of this reliability:
 Split half reliability- a measure is split into two parts and each of them is treated as a
separate measure. Each part is scored accordingly and the scores correlated. The
spearman-Brown Prophesy formula is used to estimate this reliability
rxx1 = 2roe
where rxx1 = reliability of the original test
1- roe roe = reliability coefficient obtained by correlating
the scores of odd statements with even statements
 The Kuder-Richardson Method – this is used for knowledge questions

 Cronbach-Alpha – this is used with instruments in which there is no right or wrong

answer to each item, such as an attitude scale

5.0. Review of the chapter

1. Describe the differences between questionnaire and interviews.
2. Discuss the importance of testing research instruments’ validity and reliability.
3. Read further on other research instruments.

19
UNIT 6: TYPES OF RESEARCH

1.0. Introduction
Various authors have given different classification of research as per the review of the
existing books. In this unit we shall include all the classifications identified by the different
authors.

2.0 Objectives
1. Discuss types of research from the various classifications.

2.1 MAIN CONTENT

2.2 BROAD CLASSIFICATION

Broad classification of research includes Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed mode research
method.

2.3 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research methods are techniques that are used to gather quantitative data or
information dealing with numbers and anything that is measurable. The research transforms
what is collected or observed into numerical data. They are used in an attempt to establish
laws and principles.

This approach involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical
calculations can be made and conclusions drawn. It includes designs, techniques and measures
that produce discrete numerical/quantifiable data, as in experimental research, causal-
comparative research and co-relational research. It sometimes yields qualitative data
depending on the kind of questions asked. For example, descriptive surveys are typically
quantitative but the use of open ended questions give respondents an opportunity to express
their views in a way that provides qualitative data.

3.0.1. Qualitative Research

This approach uses designs, techniques and measures that do not produce discrete numerical
data. The data produced is often in the form of words as opposed to numbers.
Qualitative research involves recording, analyzing and attempting to uncover the deeper
meaning and significance of human behavior.20The approach is used by researchers who are
interested in gaining a rich and complex understanding of people’s experience. It is the
approach considered best suited for explaining human behavior, especially areas such as
attitudes and other emotions that cannot be investigated by direct observation.

Qualitative approach recognizes that anybody has the capacity to construct knowledge,
including poor disadvantaged groups who are often voiceless. This approach gives the
researcher the role of providing a voice for the voiceless, hence empowering them by giving
them a chance to be heard. It has the advantage of allowing research to go beyond the
statistical results reported in quantitative research. However, it can also yield quantitative data
depending on the research objectives and the procedures for data collection. Historical
research and observational research yield qualitative data.

3.0.2. Mixed mode Research

This is the method which involves the integration of qualitative & quantitative data through a
transformative process. It refers to all the procedures for collecting & analyzing both
qualitative & quantitative data in the context of a single study (Tashakon & Teddlie 2003).
This approach has also been referred to as multi- method, integrated, hybrid, combined &
mixed methodology research (Creswell & Plano Clark 2007:6).

3.2. Types of
Research Basic
research
It is also referred to as pure or fundamental research. It is a type of research which is
Characterized by a desire to know or to expound the frontiers of knowledge. It is research
based on the creation of new knowledge. It is mainly theoretical and for advancement of
knowledge. Basic researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge which will be a
broad base for further research. The main purpose for conducting this research is to generate
more information and understanding the phenomena that operate in a situation. The aim is not
usually to apply findings, to solve an immediate problem but rather to understand more about
a certain phenomenon and expound that knowledge.

21
Another focus of basic research is to generate new knowledge in order to refine or expand
existing theories. However, there is no consideration of the practical applications of the
findings to actual problems or situations. Such research does however often lead to further
research of the practical nature and may in fact provide the very basis of this further research.

Applied Research
The type of research which is conducted for purpose of improving present practice, normally
applied research is conducted for the purposes of applying or testing theory and evaluating its
usefulness in solving problems. Applied research provides data to support theory or suggest
the development of new theories. It is the research done with the intention of applying the
results of its findings to solve specific problems, currently being experienced in an
Organization.

Action Research
This is a small scale intervention in the functioning of the real world and a close examination
of the effects of such interventions. Action research is normally situational and it is concerned
with diagnosing a problem in a specific context and attempting to solve it in that context.

Normally action research is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific,
immediate and concrete problem in a local setting. Action research is not concerned with
whether the results of the study are generalized to other settings, since its major goal is to seek
a solution to a given problem. Action research is limited in its contribution to theory, but it is
useful because it provides answers to problems that cannot wait for theoretical solutions.

Descriptive Research
A descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the
characteristics of variables in a situation. Quite often descriptive studies are undertaken in
organizations in order to learn about and describe characteristics of employees. Eg Education
level, job status, length of service etc
The most prevalent method of gathering information in a descriptive study is the
questionnaire. Others include: interviews, job analysis, documentary analysis etc. Descriptive
statistics such
22
as the mean, standard, deviation, frequencies, percentages are used in the analysis of
descriptive research.

Correlational Research
Correlation research is descriptive in that it cannot presume a cause-and-effect relationship. It
can only establish that there is an association between two or more traits or performance. This
involves collecting data to determine whether a relationship exists between two or more
quantifiable variables. The main purpose of correlation research is to describe the nature of
the relationship between the two variables. Correlational research helps in identifying the
magnitude if the relationship.

Many techniques have been devised to provide us with numerical representations of such
relationships and these are known as measures of association. The most commonly used
measures of association are two:

Pearson’s product moment of coefficients.

Spearman’s rank order correlation.

Correlational techniques are generally intended to answer 3 questions:

1. Is there a relationship between the two variables?
2. If the answer is Yes, what is the direction of the relationship (nature of relationship) (- or +)
3. What is the magnitude of the relationship?

Casual Research
A casual study is one which is done to establish a definative ‘cause’ ‘effect’ relationship
among variables. In this type of research, the researcher is keen to delineating one or more
factors that are certainly causing the problem. The intention of the researcher conducting a
casual study is to be able to state that variable X cause’s variable Y to change. A casual study
is more effective in a situation where the researcher has already identified the cause of the
problem. However, this type of a design is limiting in that quite often, especially in an
Organization, there are a multiple cases of a problem which are linked to many factors ie Does
a payrise cause higher productivity?

23
Historical Research
This is the systematic and objective location and synthesis of evidence in order to establish
facts and draw conclusions about past events. The act of historical research involves the
identification and limitation of a problem of an area of study which is based on past events.
The researcher aims to:

• Locate as many pertinent sources of information as possible concerning the specific

problem.
• Then analyze the information to ascertain its authenticity and accuracy, and then be able
to use it to generalize on future occurrences.

Historical research is important because:

• It enables solutions to contemporaryproblems to be solved in the past. ii) Historical
research throws light on present and future trends.
• Historical research allows for the revelation of data in relation to select hypothesis,
theories and generalizations that are presently held about the past.

Ability of history to employ the past, to predict the future and to use the present to explain the
past gives historical research a dual and unique quality which makes is exceptionally useful
for all types of scholarly study and research.

Experimental Research
In experimental research, the investigator deliberately controls and manipulates the conditions
which determine the events to which he is interested. It involves making a change in the value
of one variable (the independent variable) and observing the effect of that change on another
variable (the dependent variable). In experimental design, the independent variable is a
stimulus ie, it is stimulated while the dependent variable is responsive.

If all extraneous factors can be successfully controlled then the researcher can presume that
changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable.
Longitudinal Studies
These are designed to permit observations over an extended period. For example, analyses of
newspaper editorials overtime. Three special type of longitudinal studies should be noted here:

24
i) Trend Studies: are those that study changes within some general population over
time. Ie a series of opinion polls during the course of an election campaign, showing trends in
the relative strengths and standing of different candidates.
ii) Cohorot Studies: examine more specific subpopulations (cohorts) as they change
overtime. Typically a cohort is an age group, such as those people born during the 1920s,
people who got married in 1964, and so forth. An example of cohort study would be a series of
national surveys, conducted perhaps every ten years, to the study the economic attitudes of the
cohort born during the early 1960s.
A sample of persons 20-25 years of age might be surveyed in 1970, another sample of those
30-35 years of age in 1980, and another sample of those 30-35 years of age in 1970, and
another sample of those 40-45 years of age in 1990. Although the specific set of people
studied in each of these surveys would be different, each sample would represent the survivors
of the cohort born between 1960 and 1964 iii) Panel Studies: are similar to trend and cohort
studies except that the same set of people is studied each time. One example would be a
voting study in which the same sample of voters are interviewed every month during an
election campaign and asked for whom they intended to vote for. Such a study would not
only make it possible to analyses overall trends in voter preferences for different candidates,
but would have the added advantage of showing the precise patterns of persistence and change
in intentions.
4.0. Further reading
Read and document advantages and disadvantages of using Quantitative, Qualitative and
Mixed mode research methods.
5.0. Chapter Review
Citing examples from your area of specialization, describe the following types of research:
Basic Research, Applied Research, Descriptive Research, Experimental Research, Historical
Research.
unit 7. Data Analysis and Presentation

7.1. Introduction
Data obtained from the field in raw form is difficult to interpret. Such data must be cleaned,
coded, edited and analyzed. It is from the results of such analysis that researchers are able to
25
make sense of the data. In this unit we shall discuss the process of data coding, data entry and
the common statistical procedures used in data analysis.

7.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
1. Distinguish between coding and editing.
2. Explain the process of tabulation.
3. Describe hypothesis testing.
4. Describe the various parametric and nonparametric tests.

MAIN CONTENT

7.3. Analysis and Presentation of Data

Once the data begin to flow in, attention turns to data analysis. The steps followed in data
collection influence the choice of data analysis techniques. The main preliminary steps that
are common to many studies are:
• Editing
• Coding and

Tabulation

7.3.1 Editing
Editing involves checking the raw data to eliminate errors or points of confusion in data. The
main purpose of editing is to set quality standards on the raw data, so that the analysis can
take place with minimum of confusion. In other words, editing detects errors and omissions,
corrects them when possible and certifies that minimum data quality standards are achieved.
The editor’s purpose is to guarantee that data are:
• Accurate
• Consistent with other information
• Uniformly entered
• Complete and

26
• Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation.

7.3.2 Coding
It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so the responses can be grouped
into a limited number of classes or categories. The classifying of data into limited categories
sacrifices some data detail but is necessary for efficient analysis. Instead of requesting the
work male or female in response to a question that asks for the identification of one’s gender,
we could use the codes ‘M’ or ‘F’. Normally, this variable would be coded 1 for male and 2
for female or 0 and 1.

Coding helps the researcher to reduce several thousand replies to a few categories containing
the critical information needed for analysis.

7.3.3 Tabulation
This consists of counting the number of responses that fit in each category. The tabulation
may take the form of simple tabulation or cross tabulation. Simple tabulation involves
counting a single variable. This may be done for each of the variables of the study. Each
variable is independent of the others. In gross tabulation two or more variables are handled
simultaneously. This may be done by hand or machine.

Where hand tabulation is used, a tally sheet is used. For example, if the question read: How
many cigarettes do you smoke in a day?

The tally for a sample of size 35 would look like this:

Classes Code Tal ly Frequency

0 1 ||||
4
1-5 2||||
6-10 3|||| || 7
11-15 4|||| |||| ||| 13
15 and over 5||||
|| 7
Cross tabulation can be
4
created when we combine the number of cigarettes
smoked in a day with the age of the respondent.

27
This can be done to establish the relationships between the number of cigarettes smoked and
age. The table below shows the cross tabulation for the variables.
Age of respondents Total

No of 15-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36+

cigarettes
smoked
1 || | | 4
2 ||| || | | 7
3 | ||| ||| |||| | 13
4 | ||| ||| 7
5 ||| | 4
Totals 6 6 5 13 5 35
The cross tabulations indicate for example, that all the respondents smoking more than 5
cigarettes a day are in the 36 and over years of age category. This kind of tabulation is only
useful in very simple studies involving a few questions and a limited number of responses.
Most studies involve large numbers of respondents and many items to be analyzed and these
generally rely on computer tabulation. There are many packaged programmes for studies in
the social sciences.

7.4. Hypothesis Testing

There are two approaches to hypothesis testing. The more established is the classical or
sampling theory approach; the second is known as the Bayesian approach. Classical statistics
are found in all of the major statistics books and are widely used in research applications. This
approach represents an objective view of probability in which the decision making rests
totally on an analysis of available sampling data. A hypothesis is established, it is rejected or
fails to be rejected, based on the sample data collected.

In classical tests of significance, two kinds of hypothesis are used:

(i) The null hypothesis denoted Ho; is a statement that no difference exists between the
parameter and the statistic being compared.
(ii) The alternative hypothesis denoted H1; is the logical opposite of the null hypothesis.

28
The alternative hypothesis – denoted (H1) may take several forms, depending on the objective
of the researchers. The H1 may be of the ‘not the same’ form (non-directional). A second
variety may be of the ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ form (directional).

These types of alternative hypothesis correspond with two-tailed and one tailed tests. A
twotailed test, or non- directional test, considers two possibilities: The average could be
‘More than’ or it could be ‘less than’. To test hypothesis, the region of rejection are divided
into two tails of the distribution.
A one-tailed test, or directional test, places the entire probability of an unlikely outcome into
the tail specified by the alternative hypothesis.

7.5. Descriptive statistics

Are used to present quantitative descriptions in a manageable form. In a research study with a
large number of people or data we can use any measure to make the data more sensible. Each
descriptive statistic reduces lots of data into a simpler summary.

Levels of measurement
Measurement produces different types of numbers in the sense that numbers are assigned
different meanings and implications from others. For example when we say Room 1 and
Room 2 is different from saying child A is 10kg while child B is 8kg. In the first case we used
numbers for naming, in the second case we used numbers to indicate quantities. There are four
scale used to distinguish, lets us look at them in turn.

a) Nominal measurement
This is the lowest measurement level you can use, from a statistical point of view. A nominal
scale is simply placing of data into categories, without any order or structure. The
measurements produced are qualitative in the sense that the categories produced are very
different from each other. It has no order and there is no distance between the values. E.g.
Variable Possible values
Sex Male, Female
Are you sick Yes, No

29
 Religion Christian, Muslim, Indian, Catholic
b) Ordinal measurement
An ordinal scale is next up the list in terms of power of measurement. The numbers
assigned on an ordinal scale signify relationships among measurement. The simplest ordinal
scale is a ranking. E.g.
Variable Possible vales
Types of soda in terms of flavor 1=most flavorful 2= moderate flavorful 3=
least flavorful

Condition of a disease 1= mild 2= moderate 3= severe 4=critical

Clients satisfaction 1-satisfied 2= undecided 3= dissatisfied

c) Interval measurement

This measurement is assumed to have equal distant points between each of the scale elements.
This means that we can interpret the differences in the degree of order along the scale. They
can also are defined by metrics. In these cases, the distances are not equal but they are strictly
definable based on the metric used. E.g.
Variable Possible vales
Heat 340C, 35.60C, 37.20C

Intelligence (IQ) 55,99,150

d) Ratio measurement
A ratio scale is the top level of measurement because it involves all characteristics and has a
true zero point. Both interval and ration scale produces quantitative measurement.

The simplest example of a ratio scale is the measurement of length

Variable Possible vales
Weight 10kg, 25kg, 62kg
Blood pressure 120/80mmHg,140/90mm/Hg
Frequency
Let’s start by looking at the definition of frequency and frequency distribution:

Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.

30
 Frequency distribution is an ordered array of data points (also called observations, measures,
measurements, scores) from highest to lowest or vice versa.

Organizing of discrete data

Nominal and ordinal are discrete, so the organization of data involves counting the number
(frequency) of cases in each category of measurement.

E.g. Organizing of discrete data using nominal data

The sex of neonates born in the month of June 2013 at Murea Hospital the raw data of infants’
records are as follows:
M,F,F,F,F,F,F,F,M,M,M,M,F,M,F,F,F,M,M,F.
Table 5.1 Frequency distribution of gender of neonates born in the month of June 2013 at Murea
Hospital
Gender f(frequency)
Males 8
Females 12
n(sample) 20
E.g. Organizing of discrete data using ordinal data
Presented by counting the number of cases (frequency) of each ordered rank making up the
scale.
A pharmaceutical company evaluates the effectiveness of a new analgesic versus placebo
treatment. Experimental group gets the analgesic while the control group gets the placebo; ten
patients are randomly assigned to each group. Pain intensity is assessed two hours after a
minor surgery on the following scale
5-excruciatingpain
4-severe pain
3-moderate pain
2-mild pain
1-No pain
The raw data is
Experimental group- 5,4,1,2,5,1,4,2,3,2

31
 Control group – 4,5,4,2,5,2,4,5,3,5

Reported pain intensity of patients using analgesics and placebo

Pain intensity Experimental group Control group
1 2 0
2 3 2
3 1 1
4 2 3
5 2 4
N 10 10
Graphing discrete data

32
Fig 7.1 bar column graph of gender of neonates born in the month of June 2013 at
Murea Hospital

Fig 7.2 bar column graph of patients’ pain intensity

For pie charts use percentage; percentage of gender of neonates born in the month of June
2013 at Murea Hospital.

Males 8/20=40% Females 12/20=60%

33
Interpretation of quantitative and qualitative research results.
Processing and analyzing data involves a number of closely related operations which are
performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a
manner that they answer the research questions (objectives).
The Data Processing operations are:
1. Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and
omissions and to correct these when possible.
2. Classification- a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics e.g. use of tables. Depending on the nature of phenomenon
involved.

Qualitative Data Analysis:

Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process with few rigid rules and procedures. For
this purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process called Content Analysis.
Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of an interview in order to identify the main
themes that emerge from the responses given by the respondents.

34
Quantitative Data Analysis:
This method is most suitable for large well designed and well administered surveys using
properly constructed and worded questionnaire.
Data can be analyzed either manually or with the help of a computer.

Manual Data Analysis:

With reasonably small number of respondents and variables to be analyzed then it’s possible
for the data to be analyzed manually. However, this is useful only for calculating frequencies
and for simple cross tabulations.
Manual data analysis is extremely time consuming. The easiest way to do this is to code it
directly onto large graph paper in columns. Detailed headings can be used or question
numbers can be written on each column to code information about the question.
To manually analyze data (frequency distribution), count various codes in a column and then
decode them.
In addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they have to be calculated manually.

Data Analysis Using a Computer:

If you want to analyze data using computer, you should be familiar with the appropriate
program. In this area, knowledge of computer and statistics plays an important role.
The most common software is SPSS for windows. However, data input can be long and
laborious process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results.
Presentation has been mentioned where analyzed data is presented as bar graphs, pie charts
etc.

References
1. A.D. Jankowicz (2005) Business Research Projects 4TH Edition,Luton Business
School, UK
2. Margaret Peil (1995) social science research methods. East African
Educational
Publishers

35
UNIT 8. ETHICAL CONSIDERATION IN RESEARCH

9. INTRODUCTION

In any research to be undertaken, there are important ethical issues to be factored in. These are
issues that the researcher must be aware of before starting the research. In this case ethical
issues awareness will protect the integrity of the researcher and also ensure honest results.

10. Objectives

a. Describe ethical consideration in research.

b. Identify how ethical issues arise while conducting research.

MAIN CONTENT

i. Definition of ethics.
Bogdan and Biklen (1992) define ethics in research as “Principles of right and wrong that a
particular group accepts”. Research code of ethics addresses individual rights to dignity’
privacy and confidentiality and avoidance of harm. (Glesne & Peshkin 1992, Punch 1986).
Frankfort (2004) on his side views it as a method, Procedure or perspective for deciding how
to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues.

ii. Importance of ethics in research.

To any researcher, ethical considerations and guidelines should be taken like a Bible to

Christians or Quran to Muslims as they underscore the importance of any study undertaken. If

strictly adhered to, these guidelines help;

1. To promote and enhance the aims of research such as knowledge, truth and

avoidance of error, for example guarding against falsifying or misrepresenting research data

promotes the truth and avoids error.

36
2. It also promotes the values that are essential to collaborative work such as trust,

mutualrespect and fairness. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contribution

and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely; in fact this puts

emphasis on significance of the avoidance of plagiarism.

3. There is also a high possibility of getting sponsorship as the exercise builds

strong donor and public trust due to the foreseen observation of quality and integrity

standards. (Mugenda 1991).

4. Observation of ethical standards also ensures that researchers can be held

accountable to the public and especially those funded using public money can be held to

account for it.

5. Ethical considerations also promote other important moral and social values such as

social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with law and healthy

safety.

8.4. Ethical issues in Research problem Statement.

During the identification of research problem, it is important that the problem being studied

be beneficial to the respondents, it should not marginalize or disempower participants. To

curb this, proposal developers can conduct a pilot project and establish trust and respect with

participants as any form of marginalization will be detected at this early stage. Pilot stage

before proposal is developed as the study is commenced.

8.4.1 Ethical issues in purpose statement and Research Questions.

To develop the purpose or the central intent and questions for study proposal, developers

should convey the purpose for the study to the participants since deception can occur when
participants understand one purpose for a study but the researcher has a different purpose in

mind. It is also important for researchers to specify the sponsorship of their study. This can be
37
achieved by having the researcher design a cover letter for survey research in order to

establish trust between him and the respondents. This is especially important if the research

adopts survey as instrument.

8.4.2 Ethical issues in data collection.

As researchers anticipate data collection, they should respect the respondents and sites for

research as many ethical issues arise during this important stage of study. Researchers should

not put participants at risk and should also respect vulnerable populations against physical,

social, economic or legal risks (Sieber, 1998). They should also consider minors, mentally

retarded, prisoners, pregnant women and people affected or infected by AIDS, etc. To curb

any form of malpractice, researchers develop an informed consent form to respondents to sign

before engaging in research, this form acknowledges that, participants rights have been

protected during data collection. The following elements are contained in the consent form

(Creswell, 2002), the right to participate voluntarily, withdraw at any time, purposes of the

study and its impact on them, the right to ask questions, obtain a copy of the results/findings,

procedures of study, benefits of the study to individuals and signature of both participants and

researcher.

Researchers need to respect research sites by leaving them undisturbed after the study, this is

done by minimizing disruption of physical setting especially if it is a qualitative study that

involves prolonged observation or interviewing at the site. This can be done by timing the

visits so as to intrude little on the flow of activities of respondents. In a school scenario,

teachers on teaching practice need to be supervised by their tutors only when they have

classes as per the school time table.

38
 A researcher must follow the protocol in gaining permission to institutions/sites to collect

data by writing a letter detailing time to take, impact and research outcomes, e.g. to be

allowed to collect data in a gazetted institution such as prison and police cells, one should get

authority from the commission of prisons or police commissioner.

8.4.2.1 Anonymity and Confidentiality.

A researcher should offer anonymity and confidentiality to all the participants in the research,

i.e. assuring them that they will not be identified with any of the opinion they express in the

questionnaire surveys. This will in turn contribute to a higher response rate and increased

honesty in interviews; it will also encourage greater freedom of expression and more open

responses. However, in some studies, it may be very important to state the name or position of

participants because their opinions can only be appreciated in the context of their role, in such

circumstances it’s imperative that the participant gives his or her consent, e.g. where the

research wish to name the author of an internal document. In this situation the ethical code for

researcher is to protect the privacy of participants and to convey this protection to all

individuals involved in a study.

8.4.2:2 Techniques in maintaining confidentiality.

In order to allow outsiders access data without compromising confidentiality, the following

techniques can be employed:-

Deletion of identities, e.g. deleting names, streets, social security number or nationality from

the data.

39
Error inoculation, deliberately introducing errors into individual records and leaving the

aggregate data unchanged.

Micro aggregation means constructing “average persons” from data and releasing this data

rather than the original data.

Crude report categories, e.g. releasing the year of birth rather than specific date, profession

but not professional specialization.

8.4.2:3 Voluntary participation

A researcher should not coerce people into taking part in the research or seek support, in all

phases of research. It’s also advisable to avoid offering financial or material reward to

induce people to take part as this will lead to biased results. People should be given

information about what is required, if they agree to take part and how much time it will take.

8.5. Ethical issues in Data Analysis and interpretation.

During analysis of data, issues emerge that call for a researcher’s need to protect

anonymity of individuals, roles and incidents in project especially in survey research. He

should dissociate names from responses during coding and recording process in order to

protect identities. In qualitative study for example, a researcher should use aliases or

pseudonyms for individuals and places to protect identities.

Data needs to be kept for a specific period of time, Sieber (1995), recommends 5 – 10

years once analysed, then it should be discarded so that it does not fall into the hands of other

researchers who might use it for other purposes.

8.6. Ethical issues in Writing and disseminating the research.

40
Researcher should avoid use of languages or words that are biased against persons because of

their gender, sex, race, ethnicity, disability or age, e.g. rather than saying “woman doctor”

should use “doctor” or “physician”.

A researcher should also avoid falsifying, suppressing or inventing findings to meet his needs

or those of audience, these would constitute scientific misconduct.

A researcher should release details of research together with study design for readers to

determine the credibility of the study (Nenman, 2000).

Researcher should also anticipate repercussions of carrying our research on source evidences

and should not misuse results to advantage one group or another.

8.7. Plagiarism and Fraud

This is a situation where a researcher fails to acknowledge the original author of a study or

work, i.e. refer to the work of another person as his/hers. Theft of ideas is also plagiarism. It

also refers to a situation where one makes false presentation. It is a crime. A proposal should

clearly define who owns the data once it has been collected and analyzed to avoid splitting

research teams and participants, this guard against sharing the data with individuals who were

not involved in the project (Burgess, 1989). For example Karl Theodor Zu Guttenburg, a

German defence minister was stripped off his PhD degree by the University of Bayreuth in

2011 and was forced to resign from his position after being discovered to have used another

scholar’s work to earn his doctorate degree which was an act of plagiarism.

A researcher needs to provide accurate account of information during interpretation of data by

having a “de-briefing” between self and participants in order to clear any complex issues and

align any fears that may arise.

41
Respect for colleagues in the field of research is very important and as such, researchers

should accord each other fair treatment at all times.

Continuous learning is very vital in any discipline research included, it is therefore

incumbent upon any researcher to keep on learning and conducting research in order to keep

pace with the changing trends and technology and be knowledgeable, and this will ensure

that high standards in research field are maintained. (Vohra, 2009).

a. Review of the unit

1. To what extent as a researcher do we require to protect the vulnerable groups

while conducting research study?

2. Discuss ethical considerations that you would bear in mind while undertaking

research on HIV/AIDS patients at the county hospitals in Kenya.

b. References.

Chava Frankfort (2004) Research Methods in Social Sciences. London, Replika Press Ltd.

Mugenda and Mugenda, (1991) Research Methods, Quantitative and Qualitative Approach.

Nairobi, Acts Press.

Sieber J. E (1998) Planning Ethically Responsible Research. Sage Publications.

Vohra N. D, (2009) Qualitative Techniques in Management. New Delhi, Tata McGraw Hill

Publishing Company Ltd.

UNIT 9.0 WRITING A RESEARCH AND PROJECT PROPOSAL

9.1. INTRODUCTION
A proposal is a document which details an intended activity e.g. research or a project; it is a
contract in that, once accepted by an institution or a funding agency, the writer of the proposal
is obliged to follow the steps outlined in the proposal. A proposal demonstrates the
researcher’s

42
ability to think clearly about the intended research or project. The proposal should be clearly
organized, simple and presented in a logical form.

9.2. Objectives
1. Describe briefly the main sections of a research proposal and a research report.
2. Write a research proposal.
3. Critique a typical research proposal and a research report.

9.3. MAIN CONTENT

9.3.0. Types of proposal

There are two main types of proposals;

9.3.1. Research proposal

It is a proposal written by the researcher where s/he proposes to undertake a piece of research
on some pertinent issues. A research proposal may an academic research proposal leading to
an award of bachelors, masters or PhD.

9.3.2. Project Proposal

Refers to a proposal which is not research oriented, but is action oriented and aimed at
undertaking certain activities to solve a specific problem in the society. However it is
common to find a project proposal with common components of the research proposal.

9.4 Purpose of a research proposal

A research proposal is a document that communicates the intentions of the researcher. It

indicates the following:
1. The purpose of the study
2. The importance of the study
3. The steps followed in conducting the study. Problem statement
4. Research questions and hypothesis
5. The subjects of the sample The research instruments The research design

43

@ Codondi
 6. The data analysis methods
7. The research findings

A research proposal, therefore, spells out in details what the researcher intends to do. It helps
the researcher to clarify what needs to be done and avoid unintentional pitfalls or unknown
problems. The main differences between a research proposal and research report is that a
research report states what was done rather than what will be done. It includes the actual
results of the study and the associated discussions.

A research proposal and a research report follow the same structure/ format of presentation.
Let us now look at the components of each section of the research proposal

9.4.1. Prefatory terms

This section deals with items that have no direct bearing on the research itself. Instead, they
assist the reader in using the research proposal/report.

I) Letter of Transmittal
The letter refers to the authorization for the project and any specific instructions or limitations
placed on the study. It should briefly state the purpose and the scope of the study.

ii) The Title Page.

The title page includes four items: the title of the report, the date, to whom it is prepared and
by whom it was prepared. The title should be brief but include the following three elements:
The variables of the study
The type of relationship among the variables, and
The population to which the results may be
applied
iii) Authorization Letter
If the research study is sponsored by a public organization or any other sponsor, it is
important to include a letter of authorization showing the authority for undertaking the
research.

iv) Executive summary/ Abstract.

44
This is a concise summary of the major findings, conclusions and recommendations of the
study. It contains a high density of significant terms since it repeats the highlights of the
report.

v) Table of contents
This section lists the main sections and their respective page number(s) in the report. It is
useful because the reader can see at a glance what is contained in the document and where to
find it.

vi) Introduction
The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the various parts of the
project. These include:
• The problem statement- the main focus of the investigation.
• The purpose of the study - It states very clearly what the researcher proposes to
investigate
• The research objectives - they address the purpose of the project. They may be in the
form of research question(s) and state clearly the variables of concern, the
relationships among them and the target group being studied.
• Research questions or hypothesis; The particular question to be investigated should be
stated. They are more specific form of the problem in question form.
• Justification for the study: A researcher must make it clear why this particular subject
is important to investigate. The researcher must make a case for the “worth” of the
study.

Definitions: all key terms should be defined. This includes the variables of the study. The
researcher should attempt to make his or her definitions as clear as possible. It is in this
section that the researcher will also provide the operational definitions for the study.

Operational definitions helps to clarify how certain terms will be used in this current study.

vi) Background and literature review

In this section, the researcher tries to show that he or she is familiar with the major trends in
previous research and opinions on the unit and understands their relevance to the current
45
study. This review may include theoretical conceptions, directly related studies, and
studies that

46
provide additional perspectives on the research question. The researcher should avoid citing
references without indicating their relevance or implication for the planned study.

vii) Research Methodology

The methodology section includes discussions of:

• The research design

• The sampling design
• Instrumentation
• Procedure details

• Data analysis Limitations.

Research design: The research design must be adapted to the purpose. If it is an experimental
study, the materials, tests, equipments control conditions and any other device should be
described. In descriptive or ex post factor designs, it may be sufficient to describe them.
Rationale for using one design over the others
Sampling design: The researcher should explicitly define the target population being studied
and the sampling methods used. It is crucial to give an explanation of the sampling methods,
uniqueness of the chosen parameters. The calculations should be placed in an appendix
instead of in the body of the report.
Data collection Methods/ instrumentation: This part describes the specifics of data gathering.
Data analysis: This section describes how the data will be organized and analyzed. It should
specifically describe how the data will be handled, the preliminary analysis, statistical tests,
computer programmes, and any other technical information. The researcher should give a
rational for the choice of analysis.
Limitations: This section should be a thoughtful presentation of significant methodology or
implementation problems. All research studies have their limitations and a sincere researcher
should recognize that the reader need aid in judging the study’s validity

ix) Findings

47
This is a very important section and its objective is to explain the data rather than to draw
interpretations or conclusions. It is important that the findings are presented in numbered
paragraphs. Use of tables, charts, and graphics is encouraged.

x) Summary and Conclusions and recommendations:

The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. In cases where findings are
presented in sections, it is also important to present the summaries in sections. Conclusions
may be presented in a tabular form for easy reading and reference. Recommendations or
Further study suggestions: These are usually few ideas about corrective actions. In academic
research recommendations become the suggestions for further research. In applied research,
the recommendations will usually be for managerial action rather than research action. xi)
Budget

A research study requires resources. It is important for the researcher to indicate the expected
budget for the study. The budget should include such items such as: Salaries, Materials,
Equipment costs, Secretarial and other assistance, Expenses such as travel, postage and
overheads.

xii) Appendices
This section deals with complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents, copies of forms
and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of methodology, instructions to field officers and any
other evidence important to the report.

xiii) Bibliography
If secondary sources of information have been used, then a
bibliography is very important .In this case, proper citation, style, and format are
unique to the purpose of the report.

9.5. S u m m a r y

In a nutshell the final report is organized as follows:

Introductory Section: Title page

Table of Contents
List of figures 48
 List of Tables
Declaration
Abstract
Acknowledgement
Dedication
Acronyms
Abbreviations

II. Main Body

Problem to be
investigated Purpose
of the study Justification of
study Research question
and Hypothesis
Definition of terms

Background and review of related literature

Theory is, appropriate Studies directly related Studies tangentially related.

Procedures:
Description of the research design
Description of the sample
Description of the instruments
Explanation of the procedure followed (the what, when, where, and how of the study)
Discussions of internal validity
Description and justification of the statistical techniques or other methods of analysis
used

Findings:
Description of findings pertinent to each of the research hypothesis or question
Summary and Conclusions:
Brief summary of the research question being investigated, the procedures
employed and the results obtained
Discussion of the implementation of the findings (their meaning and significance
Suggestion for further research

III. References
(Bibliography)
IV. Appendixes

49
9.6 A standard structure of a research proposal/report

Every institution has its own preferred structure of a research proposal of report. The standard
structure followed by most universities would take the following format.

Preliminaries Cover page

Declaration
Acknowledgemen
t Dedication
Abstract
Table of
contents List of
figures List of
tables Acronyms
Abbreviations

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

Background to the
study Statement of the
problem Purpose of the
study Objectives of the
study
Research questions/ Research
hypothesis Justification of the study
Significance of the study
Scope of the
study Assumptions
of the study
Limitations / Delimitations of the study

CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review

Introduction
Review of literature according to the study
variables Knowledge gaps
Conceptual frame work/theoretical Framework
Summary of the literature reviewed Definitions of key terms Operational definitions of
terms

CHAPTER THREE: Research Methodology

Introduction
Research Design
Target
50
population
Sampling design

51
 Data collection methods and
procedures Data analysis methods and
justification

CHAPTER FOUR: Data Presentation, Interpretation and Analysis

Introduction
Reliability and validity test results of the research instruments
Descriptive data presentation as per research
question/objectives/variables
Summary

CHAPTER FIVE: Summary of Findings Discussions and Conclusions

Introduction
Findings as per research objectives/ research
questions Hypothesis tests Summary of findings
Conclusions
Recommendation
s
Suggestions for further research

REFRENCES

APA format for all citations in the

study Should be done alphabetically

APPENDICIES
The research instruments
Letters to research
participants
Any supporting document related to the study
Any table used and could not be in the text.

BUDGETS
A budget provides the activities and their estimated costs.

TIME FRAME
A timeframe provides each activity and the estimated time it would
take to complete.

52