GENERAL BIOLOGY II

S.Y. ‘23 - ‘24 | SEM #2 Q4 | MODULE 1: PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
(REPRODUCTION, DEVELOPMENT, AND NUTRITION)

- Gymnosperm means “naked seeds” that

LESSON 2: PLANT AND ANIMAL is based on the unenclosed condition of
DEVELOPMENT their seeds and the

A. PLANT DEVELOPMENT ★ ANGIOSPERMS

- a plant that has flowers and
produces seeds enclosed within a
- Plants are the antennae by which the
carpel.
energy of sunlight is captured in the
ecosphere and then stored in food for - The angiosperms are a large group
later slow, catabolic release in the living and include herbaceous plants,
cells of both plants and animals. shrubs, grasses, and most trees).
- To many of us, plants are little more than - The angiosperms are then divided
a green mass in the background of life. into the monocots and the dicots,
mostly on the basis of their seed
- Yet more than 99% of our planet’s living
structure.
matter is composed of plants; this
includes a tremendous variety of algae, SEED STRUCTURE
vines, shrubs, trees, grasses, and herbs.

- Almost all of these diverse plant shapes

are variations on a common theme, and
almost all tracheophytes (vascular
plants) are composed of just three main
parts: leaves, stems, and roots.

- Although a plant begins life as a seed, the

seed has a history of development all its
own.

- The fundamental body plan of a plant is

laid down even before a seed leaves the
parent plant (Villee, Solomon & Davis)
THE MONOCOT SEED

SEEDS - In a typical monocot such as a grass, the

seed is surrounded with a protective seed
- The seed plants are classified into two coat.
major groups:
ALEURONE LAYER
★ GYMNOSPERMS
- both male and female
- lies under the seed coat, functions as a
- that is, each reproductive
kind of digestive organ in seed
organ is either male or
germination.
female.
- They are a group of
seed-producing plants that
includes conifers, cycads,
Ginkgo, and gnetophytes.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 1

 - More typically, as in beans, peas, and
ENDOSPERM
maple seeds, the cotyledons serve as
food storage organs in place of the
- Most of the seeds consist of starchy
endosperm.
endosperm.
- Other dicot seed structures include the
- It is a food storage tissue that forms
radicle and the plumule, which
separately from the embryo while the
corresponds to the shoot apex in
seed is still attached to the parent plant.
monocots.

COLEORHIZA - In most dicot seeds, however, there is

nothing comparable to the aleurone or
- In some monocots the embryo proper is coleorhiza, although some do have a
demarked from the endosperm by a functional endosperm.
tough scutellum, and often by another
- The embryo and its cotyledon(s) are the
layer
result of one of two distinct fertilizations:
- protects the future root, or radicle, as it in one of these, the endosperm (if any) is
grows out of the seed into the produced.
surrounding soil.
- The other fertilization process, which
gives rise to the embryo, yields a zygote,
which then undergoes cleavage.
★ All of these structures will be discarded once
they have served their function, leaving only - The cell divisions that the zygote
the radicle, the mesocotyl (future stem) and undergoes following fertilization first
the shoot apex, which by then will have produce a basal cell and a terminal cell.
developed into the mature versions of - From the basal cell develops a filament of
these structures. cells called a suspensor.

★ Monocot means “single leaf,” which refers - The terminal cell divides, forming a
to its only seed structure that appears to rounded mass of cells; from this mass
be homologous with a leaf – the single grow the two cotyledons and a central
cotyledon. axis.

★ The monocot cotyledon absorbs digested HYPOCOTYL

food from the endosperm.
- the part of the axis below the point of
★ In grass embryos, a very large cotyledon
attachment of the cotyledons
develops, which is known as the
scutellum (Villee, Solomon & Davis)
EPICOTYL

- the part above it (HYPOCOTYL)

THE DICOT SEED

- Dicots, as their name implies, have two

The embryo is in this state of development when
cotyledons.
the seed becomes dormant.
- Sometimes, as in the castor bean plant,
these do function as actual leaves.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 2

SEED GERMINATION - It is an apical meristem, a growing tip of
embryonic, differentiating tissue.
DORMANCY - By the time they have begun to enlarge,
they are left behind in a zone of
- The embryonic plant is kept in a state of elongation, which is responsible for most
suspended development of the lengthwise growth of the root tip.
- ends when germination takes place - Since new cells are constantly added to
this zone by mitosis, however, growth
BREAKING DORMANCY
continues indefinitely.

GIBBERELLIN - At the same time, the older portions of

the zone of elongation cease to grow and
- A hormone that diffuses through the seed
become incorporated into the zone of
at the first step in breaking dormancy.
maturation, where tissue differentiation
- In monocots, the hormone then triggers now begins.
the production of digestive enzymes by
the aleurone; MERISTEMS AND BUDS

- In dicots, the digestive enzymes are PRIMARY MERISTEMS

produced by the cotyledons.
- For the most part, the primary meristems
- These enzymes then proceed to break give rise to differentiated tissues such as
down the stored food in the endosperm phloem and xylem.
or cotyledons.
- However, some tissues derived from the
- For example, amylase breaks down starch primary meristem remain
to form maltose, which is then cleaved by undifferentiated and form the cambium
maltase to yield glucose; and other layers of the stem and the similar
enzymes attack stored proteins, fats, and pericycle layer of the root.
oils, mobilizing them for the seedling’s
- These eventually form differentiated
use.
tissues themselves, but in such a way as
THE EARLY ROOT AND EMERGENCE to produce lateral growth and increase in
girth.
- Microscopic examination of the root tip
will disclose a cap consisting partly of THE LEAF BUD
dead or moribund cells at its apex, whose
function is largely to protect the tender LEAF GROWTH
tissues from abrasion by soil particles,
- Each leaf originates on the side of the
and in addition to serve as a source of
meristem, growing upward as it enlarges
growth hormones.
and begins to differentiate.
- The actual living tissue, however, is
- Once its growth is well under way,
undergoing vigorous mitosis.
another group of cells next to it and
- For that reason, this part of the root tip is somewhat above it begins to grow
known as the zone of division. outward and upward.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 3

 - It is appropriately known as the
LEAF FALL
provascular cylinder.
- Leaves age and die in all plants, and in
some cases the plant senescence as a - On the exterior, potential epidermis
whole. called the protoderm develops.

- As xylem ages, for example, it becomes - Between the two lies a layer called
clogged with resins and turns to ground meristem or ground tissue, which
heartwood. becomes the cortex and the pith.

- As cells produced by the cork cambium IN MONOCOTS

age, they die and become converted to
cork. - Secondary growth usually does not occur
in monocots.
- The part of a perennial plant that ages
most obviously – and sometimes - The trunk of a treelike monocot such as
spectacularly – is the leaf. bamboo or a palm tree remains roughly
the same diameter from base to crown.;
- In deciduous trees, however, all leaves in fact, the diameter of a palm trunk can
age and die at about the same time in be somewhat smaller at the base than
what happens to be basically a water midway between it and the crown.
conservation measure.
- Yet the trunk of a palm seedling is
obviously not nearly as great as is that of
the mature tree.
THE ECOLOGY OF ABSCISSION
- What happens is a bit different than what
- Abscission is the process by which plants occurs in dicots.
shed one of their parts, and an abscission
layer is an adaptation that specifically - Immediately behind the apical meristem
permits loss of leaves. is a primary thickening meristem that is
as great in diameter as the trunk.
- The abscission layer also represents a
point of weakness, so that in due time, - It is derived from the apical meristem,
the yellowed leaves are swirled away by which continuously enlarges to produce
the winds of winter. it.

SECONDARY GROWTH - The primary thickening meristem then

lays down vascular and other
IN DICOTS differentiated tissues to form the stem of
the palm tree.
- If root and shoot (stem) meristems give
rise to all plant tissues, a process of EARLY DEVELOPMENT
differentiation must occur behind the
growing tips of the stem and the root.
ZYGOTE
- In stems, the earliest trace of
differentiation occurs just behind - a fertilized egg that has the potential to
give rise to all the diverse cell types of
- the apical zone of active mitosis. the complete individual

- In the center of the apical bud is a

cylinder that develops into the vascular
tissues as it matures.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 4

 - In most vertebrate zygotes, the cytoplasm THE BLASTOCYST
contains yolk, which serves as food for
the developing embryo. - During this period, its cells arrange
themselves into the form of hollow ball
- The amount and distribution of yolk vary called blastocyst (blastula), eventually
among different animal groups. forming nutritive membranes (the chorion
and placenta) that surround the embryo.
- Yolk is absent from the human zygote.
- A little cluster of cells, the inner cell
CLEAVAGE: FROM ONE CELL TO MANY mass, projects into the cavity of the
blastocyst.
CLEAVAGE
- These cells give rise to the embryo itself.
- a process wherein the zygote undergoes a
rapid mitosis.

- By about 24 hours after fertilization, the

human zygote has completed the first
mitotic division and reached the two-cell
stage.

- Each of the cells of the two-cell stage

embryo undergoes mitosis, bringing the
number of cells to four.

- Repeated divisions continue to increase

the number of cells making up the IMPLANTATION
embryo.

- At about the 16-cell stage, the embryo - Implantation of the embryo in the
consists of a tiny cluster of cells called endometrium (lining) of the uterus begins
the morula. on the seventh day of embryonic
development.
- As cleavage takes place, the embryo is
pushed along the uterine tube by ciliary - During this period, enzymes destroy some
action and muscular contraction. tiny maternal capillaries in the wall of
the uterus.
- By the time the embryo reaches the
uterus, on about the fifth day of - Blood from these capillaries comes in
development, it is in the morula stage. direct contact with the trophoblast of
the embryo, temporarily providing a rich
source of nutrition.

- Implantation is completed by the ninth

day of development.

FORMATION OF GERM LAYERS

- The cells of the inner cell mass of the

blastocyst arrange themselves to form a
two-layered disk.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 5

- The cells of the lower level then merge to LESSON 3: PLANT AND ANIMAL NUTRITION
line an inner cavity, the primitive gut, or
archenteron, which will eventually A. PLANT NUTRITION
develop into the digestive tract and
certain other structures. - The basic photosynthetic reaction
- These cells make up the endoderm, while combines carbon dioxide with water in
the cells that remain to cover the embryo two stages to yield glucose and oxygen.
and become its outermost layer form the - Glucose contains the elements carbon,
ectoderm. oxygen, and hydrogen – the only
- A third layer of cells, the mesoderm, elements occurring in complex sugars
proliferates between the ectoderm and and in most fats.
endoderm. - Thus, the carbohydrates and fats
- Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are occurring in plants can be made from
known as the three germ layers, or water and carbon dioxide alone.
embryonic tissue layers. - However, plants do also require various
- Each gives rise to specific structures in other inorganic nutrients.
all vertebrate embryos (Villee, Solomon & - Biosynthesis of compounds such as
Davis). amino acids, phospholipids, nucleic acids,
and ATP requires the elements
phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.

- Often the very nutrients a plant requires

in modest amounts can poison it when
present in excess.

- Overuse of fertilizer, for instance, can

make the soil hypertonic to the plant,
resulting in osmotic stress that injures or
kills the plant.

- Plants like animals, have optimum ranges

in which nutrients are present in
concentrations that best promote their
health and growth.

- The uptake of nutrients by a plant: a

review.

- From CO2, O2, H20, and minerals, the

plant produces all of its own organic
materials.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 6

PLANT NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS - A deficiency may produce yellowing of
older leaves or a general lightening of all
NUTRIENT the green parts of the plant, combined
with a stunting of growth.
- refers to any substance required for the - An excess produces hypertrophy of
growth and maintenance of an organism. foliage and suppresses fruit production.
- The two types of organisms based on the - Nitrogen is mainly important as a
mode of nutrition are: component of proteins and nucleic acids.
A. AUTOTROPHS - organisms that
obtain energy from sunlight and B. POTASSIUM
chemicals to produce their own
food. Example: plants - Another early known plant nutrient, is
traditionally added to the soil in the form
B. HETEROTROPHS - organisms that of wood ash.
cannot make their own food and
obtain their energy from other - The main intracellular cation, potassium,
organisms. Example: fungi is probably most important for
maintaining the membrane potential of
plant cells,

THE MACRONUTRIENTS - and perhaps their turgidity as well

(especially in the guard cells of the
- are those nutrients needed by all plants
stomata).
in relatively large amounts.
- Deficiency produces general symptoms of
- The following list of required nutrients
poor health, which can include localized
should be considered as of more than
chlorosis (low chlorophyll content), or
passing interest, for our lives depend
mottling of leaves with small spots of
upon them.
dead tissue at the tips and between the
1. Nitrogen veins of lower leaves.
2. Potassium
3. Phosphorus C. PHOSPHORUS
4. Sulfur
5. Calcium - Deficient in a great many soils,
6. Magnesium phosphorus is essential for the
production of such vital compounds as
A. NITROGEN the nucleic acids and ATP.

- It is needed for flowering, fruiting, and

- one of the first nutrients to be
root development.
discovered.
- Deficiency results in small dark green
- Although it can be provided in the form of
leaves over the entire plant and the
nitrate or ammonia, it is usually absorbed
abnormal presence of red and purple
in the form of nitrate.
colors in the leaves and stalks.
- Nitrogen is needed for proper leaf growth
and development.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 7

 D. SULFUR A. IRON

- Sulfur is an essential component of - Iron is needed in several of the electron

protein because of its occurrence in the transport substances of the cell
amino acids cysteine and methionine. (ferredoxin, cytochromes), and in some
other materials (e.g., phytochrome).
- Deficiency produces chlorosis in new
leaves and buds, usually without spotting, - It is also required for chlorophyll
and poor root development. synthesis.

- Sulfur cannot be absorbed in elemental - Deficiency in iron absorption can occur in

form but must be present as sulfate. soils with high or low pH.

E. CALCIUM - If there is a deficiency, it results to

interveinal chlorosis characterized by
- Calcium deficiency results in abnormal yellowing of the leaf along the veins, that
growth and cell division, since calcium is is confined to the youngest leaves.
an important component of the middle
lamella of cell walls (along with pectin).
B. BORON
- Typically, the terminal bud dies, following
a period in which small leaves with - The function of Boron is unknown.
dried-up tips are produced.
- Deficiency results in abnormally dark
- Calcium has a multitude of cellular foliage, growth abnormalities, and
functions in the plant body. malformations.

- Root tip elongation also shows.

F. MAGNESIUM

- Magnesium is required for the action of C. ZINC

many enzymes and is needed also in the
synthesis of chlorophyll, which contains - Zinc is required for the production of
it. amino acid tryptophan.

- Deficiency, therefore, produces mottled - Since auxins are derived from tryptophan,
chlorosis. zinc is indirectly required for the
production of auxins as well; it is also
required as a cofactor for some of the
DNA polymerase enzymes.
THE MICRONUTRIENTS
- Deficiency produces small leaves and
- Micronutrients are as vital as
stunted stems owing to short internodes.
macronutrients but are required only in
extremely small amounts. - In excess, zinc is poisonous to plants.
- The following elements in trace amounts
are now known to have a significant role D. MANGANESE
in maintaining plant health.
- Manganese is required as a cofactor for
1. Iron 5. Chlorine
enzymes in oxidative metabolism and in
2. Boron 6. Molybdenum
photosynthetic oxygen production.
3. Zinc 7. Copper
4. Manganese

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 8

- Its deficiency produces a mottled,
characteristic form of chlorotic leaf
yellowing.

E. CHLORINE

- Probably required for ionic balance and

maintenance of cellular membrane
potentials, chlorine (in the form of
chloride) is apparently also needed for
oxygen production in photosynthesis.

- Its deficiency results in very small leaves

and slow growth.

- Leaves become wilted, chlorotic, or even SPECIALIZED ABSORPTIVE STRUCTURES

necrotic and may eventually become
bronze-colored. A. ROOT HAIRS

- slender extensions of specialized

F. MOLYBDENUM epidermal cells that greatly
increase the surface area available
- Molybdenum is needed as part of the for absorption.
denitrifying and nitrogen-fixing enzymes
of microorganisms. B. ROOT NODULES

- Molybdenum is also needed by the nitrate - localized swellings in roots of

reductase enzyme present in most plant certain plants where bacterial cells
roots. exist symbiotically with the plant.

- Plants must utilize this enzyme if they are - The bacteria help the plant fix
to employ nitrate as a nitrogen source. nitrogen and in turn, the bacteria
are able to utilize some organic
- However, plants that absorb ammonia as compounds provided by the plant.
a nitrogen source do not need
molybdenum. C. MYCORRHIZAE (SINGULAR, MYCORRHIZA)

- Low productivity was related to - a symbiotic interaction between a

molybdenum deficiency. young root and a fungus.

- The fungus obtains sugars and

G. COPPER nitrogen-containing compounds
from root cells while the plant is
- Copper is a component of some enzymes able to get some scarce minerals
and cytochromes. that the fungus is better able to
absorb from the soil.
- Its deficiency results in a lowered rate of
protein synthesis and sometimes in ROUTES FOR THE ABSORPTION OF WATER
chlorosis. AND MINERALS ACROSS PLANT ROOTS:

- Young leaves may be dark green and A. Symplast route – through plasmodesmata
twisted, with dead spots. B. Apoplast route – along cell walls

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 9

 - The most important source of BNF
is the symbiotic interaction
between soil bacteria and legume
plants, including many crops
important to humans.

- The NH3 resulting from fixation can

be transported into plant tissue
Note that the water and minerals from the soil and incorporated into amino acids,
need to reach the conducting tissues of plants, which are then made into plant
specifically the xylem. proteins.

- Some legume seeds, such as

soybeans and peanuts, contain
high levels of protein and are
NUTRITIONAL ADAPTATION BY PLANTS
among the most important
A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbe agricultural sources of protein in
Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria the world
Interactions
DIAGRAM OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE
- Nitrogen is an important
macronutrient because it is part of
nucleic acids and proteins.

- Atmospheric nitrogen, which is the

diatomic molecule N2, or
dinitrogen, is the largest pool of
nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems.

- However, plants cannot take

advantage of this nitrogen because
they do not have the necessary
enzymes to convert it into
biologically useful forms.

- However, nitrogen can be “fixed.” It Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship

can be converted to ammonia between Fungi and Roots
(NH3) through biological, physical,
- A nutrient depletion zone can develop
or chemical processes.
when there is rapid soil solution uptake,
- Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), low nutrient concentration, low diffusion
the conversion of atmospheric rate, or low soil moisture.
nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3),
- These conditions are very common;
is exclusively carried out by
therefore, most plants rely on fungi to
prokaryotes, such as soil bacteria
facilitate the uptake of minerals from the
or cyanobacteria.
soil.
- Biological processes contribute 65
- Mycorrhizae, known as root fungi, form
percent of the nitrogen used in
symbiotic associations with plant roots.
agriculture.
In these associations, the fungi are
actually integrated into the physical
structure of the root.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 10

 - The fungi colonize the living root tissue - The parasitic plant obtains water and
during active plant growth. nutrients through these connections.

- Through mycorrhization, the plant obtains - The plant is a total parasite (a

phosphate and other minerals, such as holoparasite) because it is completely
zinc and copper, from the soil. dependent on its host.

- The fungus obtains nutrients, such as - Other parasitic plants, called

sugars, from the plant root. Mycorrhizae hemiparasites, are fully photosynthetic
help increase the surface area of the and only use the host for water and
plant root system because hyphae, which minerals.
are narrow, can spread beyond the
nutrient depletion zone. - There are about 4,100 species of parasitic
plants
- Hyphae are long extensions of the fungus,
which can grow into small soil pores that
allow access to phosphorus otherwise
unavailable to the plant. B. ANIMAL NUTRITION

- The beneficial effect on the plant is best - According to Johnson and Raven, Calorie
observed in poor soils. is a unit of energy that indicates the
amount of energy contained in food.
- The benefit to fungi is that they can
obtain up to 20 percent of the total - It specifically refers to the amount of
carbon accessed by plants. heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by
- Mycorrhizae function as a physical barrier
1oC (1.8oF).
to pathogens.
- And so, the greater the number of
- They also provide an induction of
Calories in a quantity of food, the greater
generalized host defense mechanisms,
energy it contains.
which sometimes involves the production
of antibiotic compounds by the fungi.

- Fungi have also been found to have a NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS

protective role for plants rooted in soils
with high metal concentrations, such as 1. Carbohydrates
acidic and contaminated soils. 2. Proteins
3. Fats

PLANT PARASITES CARBOHYDRATES

- A parasitic plant depends on its host for

- serve as a major energy source for the
survival.
cells in the body.
- Some parasitic plants have no leaves.
- These are usually obtained from grains,
- An example of this is the dodder, which cereals, breads, fruits and vegetables.
has a weak, cylindrical stem that coils
- On average, carbohydrates contain 4
around the host and forms suckers.
Calories per gram.
- From these suckers, cells invade the host
stem and grow to connect with the
vascular bundles of the host

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 11

 PROTEINS ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS

- can also be used as an energy source but - used for making special membrane lipids;
the body mainly uses these as building an example is linoleic acid in humans
materials for cell structures and as
enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles,
VITAMINS
and bones.

- Proteins come from dairy products, - organic molecules required in small

poultry, fish, meat, and grains. amounts for normal metabolism;
examples include fat-soluble Vitamin:
- Like carbohydrates, proteins also contain ★ A
4 Calories per gram. ★ D
★ E
FATS ★ K,
- water soluble Vitamins:
- are used to build cell membranes, steroid ★ B
hormones, and other cellular structures; ★ B2
also used to insulate nervous tissue., and ★ B3
also serve as an energy source. ★ B12
★ C.
- Fats also contain certain fat-soluble
vitamins that are important for good
TRACE ELEMENTS OR MINERALS
health.

- Fats are obtained from oils, margarine, - inorganic nutrients needed by the body in
butter, fried foods, meat, and processed minute amounts, these form part of
snack foods. enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids;
examples include:
- They contain a higher amount of energy ★ Iodine
per gram than carbohydrates and ★ Cobalt
proteins, about 9 Calories per gram. ★ Zinc
★ Molybdenum
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
★ Manganese
1. Essential amino acids ★ Selenium
2. Essential fatty acids
3. Vitamins
4. Trace elements or minerals FOOD UPTAKE IN CELLS VIA THE THREE
TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
1. PHAGOCYTOSIS

- needed for synthesis of proteins and - engulfment of organic fragments

enzymes; among the 20 amino acids, or big particles, e.g. pseudopod
eight could not be synthesized by formation in Amoeba.
humans:
1. Lysine 5. Phenylalanine 2. PINOCYTOSIS
2. Tryptophan 6. Leucine - uptake of extracellular fluid by a
3. Threonine 7. Isoleucine cell using small vesicles derived
4. Methionine 8. Valine from the plasma membrane.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 12

 3. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS DIFFERENT KINDS OF DIGESTIVE
- this relies on membrane receptor COMPARTMENTS IN ANIMALS
recognition of specific solutes
which are then taken up by the cell 1. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms
via receptor-coated pits.
- These fuse with lysosomes that
TYPES OF ANIMALS BASED ON FEEDING contain hydrolytic enzymes.
MECHANISMS - Example: food vacuole in a
1. Substrate-feeders protozoa like Paramecium
2. Filter-feeders 2. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete
3. Fluid-feeders digestive system
4. Bulk-feeders
- composed of a single opening
through which the food is taken in
SUBSTRATE-FEEDERS
and where wastes are disposed of.

- animals that live in or on their food - It is a sac-like body cavity.

source.
- Examples: cnidarian Hydra and
- Examples: earthworms that feed through flatworm Planaria
the soil where they live in; caterpillars
that eat through the leaves where they 3. Complete digestive system
live on
- essentially like a tube with an
opening at one end for taking in
FILTER-FEEDERS food (mouth) and an opening at
the outer end where unabsorbed
- include many aquatic animals which draw waste materials are eliminated
in water and strain small organisms and (anus).
food particles present in the medium.
- In between the mouth and anus,
- Examples: whales and coelenterates are specialized organs that carry
out transport, processing, and
absorption of digested nutrients.
FLUID-FEEDERS
ACCESSORY ORGANS FOR DIGESTION IN A
- suck fluids containing nutrients from a COMPLETE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
living host.
1. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats.
- Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice, 2. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the
aphids liver.
3. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break
BULK-FEEDERS down all major food molecules; secretes
buffers against HCl from the stomach;
- eat relatively large chunks of food and secretes the hormone insulin for control
have adaptations like jaws, teeth, of glucose metabolism.
tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in
securing the food and tearing it to pieces.

NICA | 12 - ALDRIN GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 13