Chapter p‚e xrypi‚

Eighteen hspp‚eg„syx2s
No one has ever been able to define the difference between interference and diffraction sat-
isfactorily. It is just a question of usage, and there is no specific, important physical difference
between them. The best we can do is, roughly speaking, is to say that when there are only a
few sources, say two, interfering, then the result is usually called interference, but if there is
a large number of them, it seems that the word diffraction is more often used.
—Richard Feynman in Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. 1

LO 1: describe diffraction phenomenon.

LO 2: derive the intensity distribution associated with the single-slit diffraction pattern.
LO 3: analyse diffraction by circular aperture.
LO 4: discuss the directionality of laser beams.
LO 5: discuss the limit of resolution.
LO 6: derive the intensity distributions associated with the 2 slit and N-slit Fraunhofer diffraction patterns.
LO 7: discuss the grating spectrun.
LO 8: discuss the diffraction of a plane wave incident obliquely on a grating.
LO 9: analyse X-ray diffraction and its experimental methods.
LO 10: discuss self-focussing or laser beams.

Important Milestones
1819 Joseph Fraunhofer demonstrated the diffraction of light by gratings which were initially made by winding
fine wires around parallel screws.
1823 Fraunhofer published his theory of diffraction.
1835 George Airy calculated the (Fraunhofer) diffraction pattern produced by a circular aperture.

18.1 INTRODUCTION LO 1 very large compared to the wavelength, then the light
intensity in the region AB is not uniform and there is also
Consider a plane wave incident on a long narrow slit of width some intensity inside the geometrical shadow. Further, if the
b (see Fig. 18.1). According to geometrical optics one expects width of the slit is made smaller, larger amounts of energy
the region AB of the screen SS to be illuminated and the reach the geometrical shadow. This spreadingout of a wave
remaining portion (known as the geometrical shadow) to be when it passes through a narrow opening is usually referred
absolutely dark. However, if the observations are made to as diffraction and the intensity distribution on the screen
carefully then one finds that if the width of the slit is not is known as the diffraction pattern. We will discuss the
IVFR Optics
u
phenomenon of diffraction in this chapter and will show that of diffraction, the source and the screen are at infinite dis-
the spreading out decreases with decrease in wavelength. tances from the aperture; this is easily achieved by placing
Indeed, since the light wavelengths are very small ( ~ 5 the source on the focal plane of a convex lens and placing
10–5 cm), the effects due to diffraction are not readily the screen on the focal plane of another convex lens [see
observed. Fig. 18.2(b)]. The two lenses effectively moved the source
S
and the screen to infinity because the first lens makes the
light beam parallel and the second lens effectively makes the
A
screen receive a parallel beam of light. It turns out that it is
b B much easier to calculate the intensity distribution of a
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern which we plan to do in this
S¢ chapter. Further, the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is not dif-
Fig. 18.1 If a plane wave is incident on an aperture then ficult to observe; all that one needs is an ordinary laboratory
according to geometrical optics a sharp shadow spectrometer; the collimator renders a parallel beam of light
will be cast in the region AB of the screen. and the telescope receives parallel beams of light on its focal
plane. The diffracting aperture is placed on the prism table.
We should point out that there is not much of a difference In Chapter 20, we will study the Fresnel class of diffraction
between the phenomena of interference and diffraction, and will discuss the transition from the Fresnel region to the
indeed, interference corresponds to the situation when we Fraunhofer region.
consider the superposition of waves coming out from a
number of point sources and diffraction corresponds to the
situation when we consider waves coming out from an area 18.2 SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
source like a circular or rectangular aperture or even a large PATTERN LO 2
number of rectangular apertures (like the diffraction grating).
The diffraction phenomena are usually divided into
We will first study the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern pro-
two categories: (i) Fresnel diffraction and (ii) Fraunhofer dif-
duced by an infinitely long slit of width b. A plane wave is
fraction.
assumed to fall normally on the slit and we wish to calculate
In the Fresnel class of diffraction, the source of light
the intensity distribution on the focal plane of the lens L [see
and the screen are, in general, at a finite distance from the
Fig. 18.3(a)]. We assume that the slit consists of a large num-
diffracting aperture [see Fig. 18.2(a)]. In the Fraunhofer class
ber of equally spaced point sources and that each point on
S the slit is a source of Huygens’ secondary wavelets which in-
terfere with the wavelets emanating from other points. Let
the point sources be at A1, A2, A3, and let the distance be-
Point
tween two consecutive points be [see Fig. 18.3(b)]. Thus,
source if the number of point sources be n, then
S¢
b = (n – 1) (18.1)
(a)

We will now calculate the resultant field produced by these n

sources at the point P, P being an arbitrary point (on the focal
plane of the lens) receiving parallel rays making an angle
with the normal to the slit [see Fig. 18.3(b)]. Since the slit
actually consists of a continuous distribution of sources, we
Point will, in the final expression, let n go to infinity and go to
source zero such that n tends to b.
L
f f Now, at the point P, the amplitudes of the disturbances
(b) reaching from A1, A2, will be very nearly the same because
the point P is at a distance which is very large in comparison
Fig. 18.2 (a) When either the source or the screen (or both)
to b [see Fig. 18.3(b)]. However, because of even slightly dif-
are at finite distances from the aperture, the diffrac-
tion pattern corresponds to the Fresnel class. (b) In ferent path lengths to the point P, the field produced by A1
the Fraunhofer class both the source and the will differ in phase from the field produced by A2.
screen are at infinity.
 Fraunhofer Diffraction I IVFS
u

Screen

Lens Diffraction
pattern

nt
ide
Inc wave
n e f
pla

Long narrow slit

(a)

B1
A1 q P
D
A2 B
A¢2 2
b A3 B3

L
f
(b)

Fig. 18.3 (a) Diffraction of a plane wave incident normally on a long narrow slit of width b. Notice that the
spreading occurs along the width of the slit. (b) In order to calculate the diffraction pattern, the slit is
assumed to consist of a large number of equally spaced points.

For an incident plane wave, the points A1, A2, are in the points A2 and A3 will also be and thus the resultant
phase and, therefore, the additional path traversed by the field at the point P would be given by
disturbance emanating from the point A2 will be A2A2 where
E = a[cos t + cos ( t – ) + + cos ( t – (n – 1) )] (18.3)
A2 is the foot of the perpendicular drawn from A1 on A2B2.
This follows from the fact that the optical paths A1B1P and where
A2 B2P are the same. If the diffracted rays make an angle
2
with the normal to the slit then the path difference would be = sin

A2A2 = sin Now, we had shown in Sec. 11.7 that

The corresponding phase difference, , would be given by cos t + cos ( t – ) + + cos [ t – (n – 1) ]

=
2
sin (18.2) =
sin n / 2
cos 12 t
1
(n 1) 45 (18.4)
sin / 2 3 2 6
Thus, if the field at the point P due to the disturbance ema- Thus,
nating from the point A1 is a cos t then the field due to the
disturbance emanating from A2 would be a cos ( t – ). Now E = E0 cos 12 t
1
(n 1) 45 (18.5)
the difference in the phases of the disturbance reaching from
3 2 6
IVFT Optics
u
where the amplitude E of the resultant field would be given
by*
sin (n / 2)
E =a (18.6)
sin / 2
Amplitude distribution
In the limit of n and 0 in such a way that n b,
we have Intensity distribution

n
= n sin b sin
2
Further,
p 2p 3p b
2 2 b sin
= sin = (a)
n
b
would tend to zero and we may, therefore, write y =
y

a sin
%& n () sin
b sin
E
'20 = na
b sin y = tan b
2
sin p
=A (18.7) 0 2p 3p
b

where** y = tan b
A = na (b)
and Fig. 18.4 (a) The intensity distribution corresponding to
b sin the single slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. (b)
= (18.8) Graphical method for determining the roots of the
equation tan = .
Thus,

E =A
sin
cos ( t ) (18.9) as the conditions for minima. The first minimum occurs at =

The corresponding intensity distribution is given by

QV
sin–1 b ; the second minimum at = sin–1 2b , etc. Q V
Since sin cannot exceed unity, the maximum value of m is
sin 2 the integer which is less than (and closest to) b .
I = I0 (18.10)
2 The positions of minima can directly be obtained by
simple qualitative arguments. Let us consider the case m = 1.
where I0 represents the intensity at =0 The angle satisfies the equation
18.2.1 Positions of Maxima and Minima b sin = (18.13)
The variation of the intensity with is shown in Fig. 18.4(a). It We divide the slit into two halves as shown in Fig. 18.5.
is obvious from Eq. (18.10) that the intensity is zero when Consider two points A and A separated by a distance b/2.
=m ,m 0 (18.11) Clearly the path difference between the disturbances (reach-
ing the point P) emanating from A and A is b2 sin which in
sin
[When = 0, = 1 and I = I0 which corresponds to the this case is 2 . The corresponding phase difference will be
maximum of the intensity.] Substituting the value of one and the resultant disturbance will be zero. Similarly, the dis-
obtains turbance from the point B will be cancelled by the
b sin = m ; m = 1, 2, 3, (minima) (18.12) disturbance reaching from the point B . Thus, the resultant

* Equation (18.6) represents the amplitude distribution due to the interference of n point sources. Thus, for n = 2, the amplitude E
becomes cos /2 giving rise to cos2 /2 intensity distribution [cf. Eq. (14.13) of Chapter 14]. Notice that if we have a large number
of equidistant sources oscillating in phase, then the propagation is only in cetain directions where the displacements add up in phase.
** We may mention here that in the limit n and a 0 the product na tends to a finite limit.
 Fraunhofer Diffraction I IVFU
u
is about 0.0496, the intensity of the first maximum is about
4.96% of the central maximum. Similarly, the intensities of the
second and third maxima are about 1.68% and 0.83% of the
q central maximum, respectively.
A
B
b/2
Example 18.1 A parallel beam of light is incident normally
on a narrow slit of width 0.2 mm. The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
is observed on a screen which is placed at the focal plane of a con-
b A¢
B¢
vex lens whose focal length is 20 cm. Calculate the distance between
the first two minima and the first two maxima on the screen. As-
sume = 5 10–5 cm and that the lens is placed very close to the
slit.

Solution:
λ 5 × 10 −5
= = 2.5 10–3
b 2 × 10 −2
Now, the conditions for diffraction minima are given by
Fig. 18.5 The slit is divided into two halves for deriving sin = m /b. We assume to be small (measured in radians) so that
the condition for the first minimum.
we may write sin (an assumption which will be justified by
subsequent calculations); thus, on substituting the value of /b, we
disturbance due to the upper half of the slit will be canceled get
by the disturbances reaching from the lower half and the re- ~
− 2.5 10–3 and 5 10–3 radians
sultant intensity will be zero. In a similar manner when
as the angles of diffraction corresponding to the first and second
b sin =2 (18.14) minima, respectively. Notice that since
we divide the slit into four parts; the first and second quarters sin (2.5 10–3) = 2.4999973 10–3
cancelling each other and the third and fourth quarters can-
the error in the approximations sin ~
− is about 1 part
celling each other. Similarly when m = 3, the slit is divided
in a million! These minima will be separated by a distance (5
into six parts and so on.
10–3 – 2.5 10–3) 20 = 0.05 cm on the focal plane of the lens.
In order to determine the positions of maxima, we differ-
Similarly, the first and second maxima occur at
entiate Eq. (18.10) with respect to and set it equal to zero.
Thus = 1.43 and 2.46

dI
= I0
12
2 sin cos 2 sin 2 45 = 0 respectively. Thus,
d 2 3
3 6 b sin = 1.43 and 2.46
or or
sin [ – tan ] = 0 (18.15) sin = 1.43 2.5 10–3 and 2.46 2.5 10–3
The condition sin = 0, or = m (m 0) correspond to Consequently, the maxima will be separated by the distance given
minima. The conditions for maxima are roots of the follow- by
ing transcendental equation
(2.46 – 1.43) 2.5 10–3 20 ~
− 0.05 cm
tan = (maxima) (18.16)
Example 18.2 Consider, once again, a parallel beam of light
The root = 0 corresponds to the central maximum. The ( = 5 10–5 cm) to be incident normally on a long narrow slit of
other roots can be found by determining the points of inter- width 0.2 mm. A screen is placed at a distance of 3 m from the slit.
sections of the curves y = and y = tan [see Fig. 18.4(b)]. Assuming that the screen is so far away that the diffraction is es-
The intersections occur at = 1.43 , = 2.46 , etc., and are sentially of the Fraunhofer type, calculate total width of the central
known as the first maximum, the second maximum, etc. Since maximum.

2 Solution: As in Example 18.1, the first minimum occurs at

12 sin (1.43 ) 45 ~
− 2.5 10–3 radians; thus the total width of the central maximum
3 1.43 6 is approximately given by
IVFIV Optics
u
It is of interest to note that if we assume that the angular
y y tan i y sin i
resolution of the human eye is primarily due to diffraction sin = (18.42)
OP D /2 D /2
effects then it will be given by
6 10 5 where we have assumed sin i tan i , this is justified since
~ =3 10–4 rad. (18.40) the image distance (OP ) is large compared to D. Using
2 10 1
D
Eqs. (18.41) and (18.42), we get
where we have assumed the pupil diameter to be 2 mm. Thus,
at a distance of 20 m, the eye should be able to resolve two 0.61 0
y
points which are separated by a distance n sin i
3 10–4 20 = 6 10–3 m = 6 mm If we now use the sine law n y sin i = ny sin i [see Eq. (4.39)
One can indeed verify that this result is qualitatively valid of Chapter 4], we get
by finding the distance at which the millimetre scale will be- 0.61 0
come blurred. y (18.43)
n sin i
In the above discussion, we have assumed that the
two object points produce identical (but displaced) Airy pat- which represents the smallest distance that the microscope
terns. If that is not the case then the two central maxima will can resolve. The quantity n sin i is the numerical aperture of
have different intensities; accordingly one has to set up a the optical system and the resolving power increases with
modified criterion for the limit of resolution such that the two increase in the numerical aperture. It is for this reason that in
maxima stand out. some microscopes the space between the object and the
objective is filled with an oil—and they are referred to as ‘oil
18.5.1 Resolving Power of a immersion objectives’. Equation (18.43) also tells us that the
Microscope resolving power increases with decrease in . As such, one
often uses blue light (or even ultraviolet light) for the illumi-
We next consider the resolving power of a microscope objec- nation of the object. For example, in an electron microscope
tive of diameter D as shown in Fig. 18.28. Let P and Q
the de Broglie wavelength of electrons accelerated to 100 keV
represent two closely spaced self-luminous point objects
is about 0.03 10–8 cm and therefore such a microscope has
which are to be viewed through the microscope. Assuming
a very high resolving power.
the absence of any geometrical aberrations, rays emanating
In the above analysis, we have assumed that the two
from the points P and Q will produce spherical wavefronts
object points are self-luminous so that the intensities can be
(after refraction through the lens) which will form Airy pat-
added up. However, in actual practice, the objects are illumi-
terns around their paraxial image points P and Q . For the
points P and Q to be just resolved, the point Q should lie on nated by the same source and, therefore, in general, there is
the first dark ring surrounding the point P and, therefore, we some phase relationship between the waves emanating from
must have the two object points; for such a case the intensities will not
be strictly additive (see Sec. 14.6), nevertheless Eq. (18.43)
122
. 122
. 0
sin = (18.41) will give the correct order for the limit of resolution.
D nD
where n and n represent the refractive indices of the object
and image spaces, 0 and (= 0/n ) represent the wave- 18.6 TWO-SLIT FRAUNHOFER
length of light in free space and in the medium of refractive DIFFRACTION
index n respectively. The angle is defined in Fig. 18.28 and
we have
PATTERN LO 6

n
n¢ In Sec. 18.3, we had studied the Fraunhofer diffraction
Q pattern produced by a slit of width b and had found that the
D
y
O
intensity distribution consisted of maxima and minima. In this
P i i¢ P¢
a¢ section, we will study the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
y¢
produced by two parallel slits (each of width b) separated by
Q¢
a distance d. We would find that the resultant intensity
distribution is a product of the single-slit diffraction pattern
u v
and the interference pattern produced by two point sources
Fig. 18.28 The resolving power of a microscope objective. separated by a distance d.
 Fraunhofer Diffraction I IVFIW
u
In order to calculate the diffraction pattern we use a sin % 1 1 (
method similar to that used for the case of a single slit and E=A cos cos t
' 2 2 1 0
assume that the slits consist of a large number of equally
spaced point sources and that each point on the slit is a where
source of Huygens’ secondary wavelets. Let the point
1
sources be at A1, A2, A3, (in the first slit) and at B1, B2, = = d sin (18.44)
2
B3, (in the second slit) [see Fig. 18.29]. As before, we
assume that the distance between two consecutive points in The intensity distribution will be of the form
either of the slits is . If the diffracted rays make an angle
with the normal to the plane of the slits, then the path sin 2
I = 4I0 2
cos2 (18.45)
difference between the disturbances reaching the point P
from two consecutive points in a slit will be sin . The field
produced by the first slit at the point P will, therefore, be where I0 sin2 / 2 represents the intensity distribution
given by [see Eq. (18.9)] produced by one of the slits. As can be seen, the intensity
distribution is a product of two terms; the first term
sin (sin2 / 2) represents the diffraction pattern produced by a
E1 = A cos ( t – )
single slit of width b and the second term (cos2 ) represents
Similarly, the second slit will produce a field the interference pattern produced by two point sources
separated by a distance d. Indeed, if the slit widths are very
sin
E2 = A cos ( t – – 1)
small (so that there is almost no variation of the sin 2 / 2
term with ) then one simply obtains the Young’s interference
at the point P, where pattern (see Sec. 14.6).
2 In Fig. 18.30, we have shown the two slit diffraction
1 = d sin patterns corresponding to d = 0, 0.0176, 0.035 and 0.070 cm
with b = 0.0088 cm and = 6.328 10–5 cm. The intensity
distribution as predicted by Eq. (18.45) is shown in Fig. 18.31.
q
A1
b A2 P
d

B1
b B2

Fig. 18.29 Fraunhofer diffraction of a plane wave incident

normally on a double slit.

represents the phase difference between the disturbances

(reaching the point P) from two corresponding points on the
slits; by corresponding points we imply pairs of points like
(A1, B1), (A2, B2), which are separated by a distance d.
Hence the resultant field will be
E = E1 + E2
sin
=A [cos ( t – ) + cos ( t – – 1)] Fig. 18.30 The double-slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
which represents the interference of two waves, each of am- corresponding to b = 0.0088 cm and = 6.328
sin
10–5 cm. The values of d are 0, 0.0176, 0.035 and
plitude A and differing in phase by 1. The above 0.070 cm respectively [Adapted from Ref. 17;
equation can be rewritten in the form used with permission].
IVFPH Optics
u

1 I /I 0
b = 0.0088 cm
d = 0.035 cm
l = 6.328 ¥ 10–5 cm

–1 –0.5 0 0.5 1

1
b = 0.0088 cm
d = 0.07 cm
l = 6.328 ¥ 10–5 cm

–1 –0.5 0 0.5 1
q (in degrees)

Fig. 18.31 The double-slit intensity distribution as predicted by Eq. (18.45) corresponding to d = 0.035 cm
and 0.070 cm, respectively (b = 0.0088 cm and = 6.328 10–5 cm).

18.6.1 Positions of Maxima and Minima % (

= sin–1
Equation (45) tells us that the intensity is zero wherever ' b0
= ,2 ,3 , 12 6.328 10 45 = sin5
or when = sin–1 3
–1
[7.19 10–3]
3 5
23 8.8 10 56
=
, , ,
2 2 2 ~ 0.00719 radians
The corresponding angles of diffraction will be given by the ~ 0.412
following equation:
the first minimum of the diffraction term occurs.
b sin =m ; (m = 1, 2, 3, )@u Example 18.9 Consider the case when b = 8.8 10–3 cm,
and
= %n
1(
)A
(18.46)
d sin ; (n = 1, 2, 3, d = 7.0 10–2 cm and = 6.328 10–5 cm (see Fig. 18.31). How
' 20 uB many interference minima will occur between the two diffraction
The interference maxima occur when minima on either side of the central maximum? In the experimental
arrangement corresponding to Fig. 18.30 the screen was placed at a
= 0, , 2 ,
distance of 15 . Calculate the fringe width.
or when,
d sin = 0, , 2 , 3 , (18.47) Solution: The interference minima will occur when Eq. (18.46)
The actual positions of the maxima will approximately oc- is satisfied, i.e., when
cur at the above angles provided the variation of the %' 1 λ
(0 %' 1(0
diffraction term is not too rapid. Further, a maximum may not sin = n+ = 0.904 10–3 n + ;
2 d 2
occur at all if corresponds to a diffraction minimum, i.e., if b
n = 0, 1, 2,
sin = , 2 , 3 , These are usually referred to as missing
–3
orders. For example, in Fig. 18.31 we can see that for = 0.452 10 , 1.356 10–3, 2.260 10–3,
b = 0.0088 cm, the interference maxima are extremely weak 3.164 –3
10 , 4.068 –3
10 , 4.972 10–3,
around ~ 0.41 ; this is because of the fact that at 5.876 10–3, 6.780 10–3