Fluid Mechanics D.J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Module 1.

1.1 What is Fluid Mechanics

fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in
motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.

What Is a Fluid?
A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid. Distinction between a solid and a fluid is
made on the basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends to
change its shape. A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid deforms
continuously under the influence of shear stress, no matter how small. When a constant shear force is
applied, a solid eventually stops deforming, at some fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops
deforming and approaches a certain rate of strain.

1.2 Properties of Fluid:

P,v,t, Intensive and Extensive Properties, Density, Specific Gravity, equation of state, internal energy,
kinetic and potential energy, enthalpy

1.3 Fluid as a Continuum

Fluids are aggregations of molecules, widely spaced for a gas, closely spaced for a liquid. The distance
between molecules is very large compared with the molecular diameter. The molecules are not fixed in a
lattice but move about freely relative to each other. Thus fluid density, or mass per unit volume, has no
precise meaning because the number of molecules occupying a given volume continually changes. This
effect becomes unimportant if the unit volume is large compared with the cube of the molecular spacing,
when the number of molecules within the volume will remain nearly constant in spite of the enormous
interchange of particles across the boundaries. As is illustrated in Fig the “density” calculated from
molecular mass delta m within a given volume delta V is plotted versus the size of the unit volume. There
is a limiting volume Delta V* below which molecular variations may be important and above which
aggregate variations may be important. The limiting volume Delta V * is about 10-9 mm3 for all liquids
and for gases at atmospheric pressure.

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1.4 Viscosity

We move with relative ease in air, but not so in water. Moving in oil would be even more difficult, as can
be observed by the slower downward motion of a glass ball dropped in a tube filled with oil. A property
that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the “fluidity,” and that property is the viscosity.
The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called the drag force, and the magnitude
of this force depends, in part, on viscosity.

To obtain a relation for viscosity, consider a fluid layer between two very large parallel plates (or
equivalently, two parallel plates immersed in a large body of a fluid) separated by a distance l. Now a
constant parallel force F is applied to the upper plate while the lower plate is held fixed. After the initial
transients, it is observed that the upper plate moves continuously under the influence of this force at a
constant velocity V. The fluid in contact with the upper plate sticks to the plate surface and moves with it
at the same velocity, and the shear stress t acting on this fluid layer is
𝐹
𝜏=
𝐴

where A is the contact area between the plate and the fluid. Note that the fluid layer deforms continuously
under the influence of shear stress. The fluid in contact with the lower plate assumes the velocity of that
plate, which is zero (again because of the no-slip condition). In steady laminar flow, the fluid velocity
between the plates varies linearly between 0 and V, and thus the velocity profile and the velocity gradient
are

Newtons Law of Viscosity

Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear stress are called Newtonian fluids.
Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian fluids. Blood and liquid plastics
are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.

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𝑑𝑢
Shear stress 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦
:
where the constant of proportionality 𝜇 is called the coefficient of viscosity or the dynamic (or absolute)
viscosity of the fluid, whose unit is kg/m · s, or equivalently, N · s/m2 (or Pa.s where Pa is the pressure unit
pascal). CGS unit is poise, which is equivalent to 0.1 Pa.s

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1.5 Types of Fluids

For non-Newtonian fluids, the relationship between shear stress and rate of deformation is not linear, as
shown in Fig. The slope of the curve on the 𝜏 versus du/dy chart is referred to as the apparent viscosity of
the fluid. Fluids for which the apparent viscosity increases with the rate of deformation (such as solutions
with suspended starch or sand) are referred to as dilatant or shear thickening fluids, and those that exhibit
the opposite behavior (the fluid becoming less viscous as it is sheared harder, such as some paints, polymer
solutions, and fluids with suspended particles) are referred to as pseudoplastic or shear thinning fluids.
Some materials such as toothpaste can resist a finite shear stress and thus behave as a solid, but deform
continuously when the shear stress exceeds the yield stress and thus behave as a fluid.

1.6 Dependance of Viscosity on Temperature

Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids and by the molecular collisions
in gases, and it varies greatly with temperature. The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature,
whereas the viscosity of gases increases with temperature as shown. This is because in a liquid the
molecules possess more energy at higher temperatures, and they can oppose the large cohesive
intermolecular forces more strongly. As a result, the energized liquid molecules can move more freely. In

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a gas, on the other hand, the intermolecular forces are negligible, and the gas molecules at high temperatures
move randomly at higher velocities. This results in more molecular collisions per unit volume per unit time
and therefore in greater resistance to flow.

Prob No 2

A thin 20-cm " 20-cm flat plate is pulled at 1 m/s horizontally through a 3.6-mm-thick oil layer sandwiched
between two plates, one stationary and the other moving at a constant velocity of 0.3 m/s, as shown in Fig.
The dynamic viscosity of oil is 0.027 Pa.s. Assuming the velocity in each oil layer to vary linearly, (a) plot
the velocity profile and find the location where the oil velocity is zero and (b) determine the force that needs
to be applied on the plate to maintain this motion.

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Fluid Statics

1.7 Pressure

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

SI unit is N/m2 or Pascal
1 bar =105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero
in the atmosphere and so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the gauge pressure. Pressures below atmospheric pressure
are called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.

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Prob 3
Find out Pabs if 1) Pgauge = 1000 mm of Hg 2) Pvac = 400 mm of Hg
Ans 1) 2.315 × 105 Pa 2) 0.474 × 105 Pa

Pressure at a Point

P1 = P2 = P3 = P
The pressure at a point in a fluid has the same magnitude in all directions.

Variation of Pressure with Depth

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The pressure difference between two points in a constant density fluid is proportional to the vertical distance
∆z between the points and the density 𝜌 of the fluid. In other words, pressure in a fluid increases linearly
with depth.

Pascal’s Law

The pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal direction. The pressure applied to a confined
fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount. This is called Pascal’s law.

P1 = P2 since both pistons are at the same level (the effect of small height differences is negligible,
especially at high pressures), the ratio of output force to input force is determined to be

1.8 Manometer

An elevation change of ∆z in a fluid at rest corresponds to ∆P/𝜌g, which suggests that a fluid column can
be used to measure pressure differences. A device based on this principle is called a manometer, and it is
commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences.
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Consider the manometer shown in Fig that is used to measure the pressure in the tank. Since the
gravitational effects of gases are negligible, the pressure anywhere in the tank and at position 1 has the
same value. Furthermore, since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal direction within a fluid,
the pressure at point 2 is the same as the pressure at point 1, P2 = P1. The differential fluid column of height
h is in static equilibrium, and it is open to the atmosphere. Then the pressure at point 2 is determined directly
from

Many engineering problems and some manometers involve multiple immiscible fluids of different densities
stacked on top of each other. Such systems can be analyzed easily by remembering that (1) the pressure
change across a fluid column of height h is ∆P =𝜌 gh, (2) pressure increases downward in a given fluid and
decreases upward (i.e., Pbottom > Ptop), and (3) two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid at rest
are at the same pressure.

The last principle, which is a result of Pascal’s law, allows us to “jump” from one fluid column to the next
in manometers without worrying about pressure change as long as we don’t jump over a different fluid, and
the fluid is at rest. Then the pressure at any point can be determined by starting with a point of known
pressure and adding or subtracting 𝜌 gh terms as we advance toward the point of interest. For example, the
pressure at the bottom of the tank in Fig can be determined by starting at the free surface where the pressure
is Patm, moving downward until we reach point 1 at the bottom, and setting the result equal to P1. It gives

Prob No - 4

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Prob No - 5

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Fluid Statics

Fluid statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest. The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
Fluid statics is generally referred to as hydrostatics when the fluid is a liquid and as aerostatics when the
fluid is a gas. In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, and thus there are
no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it. The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is
the normal stress, which is the pressure, and the variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid.
Fluid statics is used to determine the forces acting on floating or submerged bodies and the forces developed
by devices like hydraulic presses and car jacks.

1.9 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES

Consider the top surface of a flat plate of arbitrary shape completely submerged in a liquid, as shown in
Fig. The plane of this surface (normal to the page) intersects the horizontal free surface with an angle𝜃, and
we take the line of intersection to be the x-axis. The absolute pressure above the liquid is P0, which is the
local atmospheric pressure Patm if the liquid is open to the atmosphere (but P0 may be different than Patm if

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the space above the liquid is evacuated or pressurized). Then the absolute pressure at any point on the plate
is

Where h is the vertical distance of the point from the free surface and y is the distance of the point from the
x-axis (from point O in Fig). The resultant hydrostatic force FR acting on the surface is determined by
integrating the force P dA acting on a differential area dA over the entire surface area

where PC = P0 + 𝜌ghC is the pressure at the centroid of the surface, which is equivalent to the average
pressure on the surface, and hC = yC sin 𝜃 is the vertical distance of the centroid from the free surface of the
liquid. Thus we conclude that:

The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of a completely submerged plate in a
homogeneous (constant density) fluid is equal to the product of the pressure PC at the centroid of the surface
and the area A of the surface.

To determine the line of action of the resultant force FR

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The line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force, in general, does not pass through the centroid of the
surface— it lies underneath where the pressure is higher. The point of intersection of the line of action of
the resultant force and the surface is the center of pressure. The vertical location of the line of action is
determined by equating the moment of the resultant force to the moment of the distributed pressure force
about the x-axis.

where Ixx, C is the second moment of area about the x-axis passing through the centroid of the area and yC
(the y-coordinate of the centroid) is the distance between the two parallel axes. Substituting the FR relation
and the Ixx, O relation and solving for yP gives

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Prob No - 6

1.10 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACES

For a submerged curved surface, the determination of the resultant hydrostatic force is more involved since
it typically requires the integration of the pressure forces that change direction along the curved surface.

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The easiest way to determine the resultant hydrostatic force FR acting on a two-dimensional curved surface
is to determine the horizontal and vertical components FH and FV separately. This is done by considering
the free-body diagram of the liquid block enclosed by the curved surface and the two plane surfaces (one
horizontal and one vertical) passing through the two ends of the curved surface, as shown in Fig
The vertical surface of the liquid block considered is simply the projection of the curved surface on a
vertical plane, and the horizontal surface is the projection of the curved surface on a horizontal
plane.

The resultant force acting on the solid curved surface is then equal and opposite to the force acting on the
curved liquid surface (Newton’s third law).

The force acting on the imaginary horizontal or vertical plane surface and its line of action can be
determined as discussed earlier. The weight of the enclosed liquid block of volume V is simply W = 𝜌gV,
and it acts downward through the centroid of this volume. Noting that the fluid block is in static equilibrium,
the force balances in the horizontal and vertical directions give

where the summation Fy + W is a vector addition (i.e., add magnitudes if both act in the same direction and
subtract if they act in opposite directions).

Thus
1.The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force acting on a curved surface is equal (in both magnitude
and the line of action) to the hydrostatic force acting on the vertical projection of the curved surface.
2. The vertical component of the hydrostatic force acting on a curved surface is equal to the hydrostatic
force acting on the horizontal projection of the curved surface, plus (minus, if acting in the opposite
direction) the weight of the fluid block.

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When the curved surface is a circular arc (full circle or any part of it), the resultant hydrostatic force acting
on the surface always passes through the center of the circle. This is because the pressure forces are normal
to the surface, and all lines normal to the surface of a circle pass through the center of the circle. Thus, the
pressure forces form a concurrent force system at the center, which can be reduced to a single equivalent
force at that point.

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Finally, hydrostatic forces acting on a plane or curved surface submerged in a multilayered fluid of
different densities can be determined by considering different parts of surfaces in different fluids as different
surfaces, finding the force on each part, and then adding them using vector addition. For a plane surface, it
can be expressed as in figure.

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Soln: Analyse individual triangle only for Fv i.e. the weight as Fh cancels for both the triangles. Fv acts
through the centroid of individual triangle. Use moment about the hinge and multiply the answer of tension
by 2.

1.11 Buoyancy and Floatation

A fluid exerts an upward force on a body immersed in it. This force that tends to lift the body is called the
buoyant force and is denoted by FB.
The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure in a fluid with depth. Consider, for example, a flat
plate of thickness h submerged in a liquid of density 𝜌f parallel to the free surface, as shown in Fig. The
area of the top (and also bottom) surface of the plate is A, and its distance to the free surface is s. The
pressures at the top and bottom surfaces of the plate are𝜌fgs and 𝜌fg(s + h), respectively. Then the
hydrostatic force Ftop = 𝜌fgsA acts downward on the top surface, and the larger force Fbottom = 𝜌fg(s + h)A
acts upward on the bottom surface of the plate. The difference between these two forces is a net upward
force, which is the buoyant force,

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where V = hA is the volume of the plate. But the relation 𝜌fgV is simply the weight of the liquid whose
volume is equal to the volume of the plate. Thus, we conclude that
The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume which is Archimedes
Principle.
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant force, which is the
weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating
body. That is,

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Wt office block = weight of liquid corresponding to volume of block in liquid(Bouyant Force)

An object of volume V floats at an interface of mercury and water such that 40 percent of its volume
is submerged in mercury and the remaining in water. Calculate the density of the object.

Density of obj * g * V = Den of mercury * g * .4 V + Density of Water * g * 0.6 V

Ans Density of object = 6040 SI units

1.12 Conditions for Stability

For an immersed or floating body in static equilibrium, the weight and the buoyant force acting on the body
balance each other, and hence such bodies are stable in the vertical direction. If an immersed neutrally
buoyant body is raised or lowered to a different depth, the body will remain in equilibrium at that location.
If a floating body is raised or lowered somewhat by a vertical force, the body will return to its original
position as soon as the external effect is removed.
The rotational stability of an immersed body depends on the relative locations of the center of gravity G of
the body and the center of buoyancy B, which is the centroid of the displaced volume. An immersed body
is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus point G is directly below point B. A rotational disturbance of
the body in such cases produces a restoring moment to return the body to its original stable position.

An immersed body whose center of gravity G is directly above point B is unstable, and any disturbance
will cause this body to turn upside down. A body for which G and B coincide is neutrally stable. This is the
case for bodies whose density is constant throughout.

If the floating body is bottom-heavy and thus the center of gravity G is directly below the center of buoyancy
B, the body is always stable. But unlike immersed bodies, a floating body may still be stable when G is
directly above B.

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This is because the centroid of the displaced volume shifts to the side to a point B’ during a rotational
disturbance while the center of gravity G of the body remains unchanged. If point B+ is sufficiently far,
these two forces create a restoring moment and return the body to the original position. A measure of
stability for floating bodies is the metacentric height GM, which is the distance between the center of
gravity G and the metacenter M—the intersection point of the lines of action of the buoyant force through
the body before and after rotation.
The metacenter may be considered to be a fixed point for most hull shapes for small rolling angles up to
about 20°. A floating body is stable if point M is above point G, and thus GM is positive, and unstable if
point M is below point G, and thus GM is negative.

*** Note: Kindly refer previous years numericals also from university point of view to score more.

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