Fundamentals Of Internet Of Things

-Md.Umalawara

Unit I

Introduction to Internet of Things, Characteristics of IoT, Physical design of IoT,

Functional blocks of IoT, Sensing, Actuation, Basics of Networking,
Communication Protocols, Sensor Networks.

Introduction to Internet of Things:

What Is Iot:
IoT stands for Internet of Things. It refers to the interconnectedness of physical
devices, such as appliances and vehicles, that are embedded with software,
sensors, and connectivity which enables these objects to connect and exchange
data.
This technology allows for the collection and sharing of data from a vast
network of devices, creating opportunities for more efficient and automated
systems.
Internet of Things (IoT) is the networking of physical objects that contain
electronics embedded within their architecture in order to communicate and sense
interactions amongst each other or with respect to the external environment.
In the upcoming years, IoT-based technology will offer advanced levels of
services and practically change the way people lead their daily lives.
Advancements in medicine, power, gene therapies, agriculture, smart cities, and
smart homes are just a very few of the categorical examples where IoT is strongly
established.

“IoT is network of interconnected computing devices which are embedded in

everyday objects, enabling them to send and receive data”.
Main components used in IoT:
 Low-power embedded systems: Less battery consumption, high performance
are the inverse factors that play a significant role during the design of
electronic systems.
 Sensors : Sensors are the major part of any IoT applications. It is a physical
device that measures and detect certain physical quantity and convert it
into signal which can be provide as an input to processing or control unit for
analysis purpose.
1. Different types of Sensors :
2. Temperature Sensors
3. Image Sensors
4. Gyro Sensors
5. Obstacle Sensors
6. RF Sensor
7. IR Sensor
8. MQ-02/05 Gas Sensor
9. LDR Sensor
10.Ultrasonic Distance Sensor
 Control Units : It is a unit of small computer on a single integrated circuit
containing microprocessor or processing core, memory and programmable
input/output devices/peripherals. It is responsible for major processing work
of IoT devices and all logical operations are carried out here.
 Cloud computing: Data collected through IoT devices is massive and this
data has to be stored on a reliable storage server. This is where cloud
computing comes into play. The data is processed and learned, giving more
room for us to discover where things like electrical faults/errors are within the
system.
 Availability of big data: We know that IoT relies heavily on sensors,
especially in real-time. As these electronic devices spread throughout every
field, their usage is going to trigger a massive flux of big data.
 Networking connection: In order to communicate, internet connectivity is a
must where each physical object is represented by an IP address. However,
there are only a limited number of addresses available according to the IP
naming. Due to the growing number of devices, this naming system will not
be feasible anymore. Therefore, researchers are looking for another alternative
naming system to represent each physical object.
There are two ways of building IoT:
1. Form a separate internetwork including only physical objects.

2. Make the Internet ever more expansive, but this requires hard-core
technologies such as rigorous cloud computing and rapid big data storage
(expensive).
In the near future, IoT will become broader and more complex in terms of scope.
It will change the world in terms of
―anytime, anyplace, anything in connectivity.‖

IoT Enablers:
 RFIDs: uses radio waves in order to electronically track the tags attached to
each physical object.
 Sensors: devices that are able to detect changes in an environment (ex: motion
detectors).
 Nanotechnology: as the name suggests, these are extremely small devices
with dimensions usually less than a hundred nanometers.
 Smart networks: (ex: mesh topology).

Working with IoT Devices :

 Collect and Transmit Data : For this purpose sensors are widely used they are
used as per requirements in different application areas.
 Actuate device based on triggers produced by sensors or processing devices
: If certain condition is satisfied or according to user’s requirements if certain
trigger is activated then which action to performed that is shown by Actuator
devices.
 Receive Information : From network devices user or device can take certain
information also for their analysis and processing purposes.
 Communication Assistance : Communication assistance is the phenomena of
communication between 2 network or communication between 2 or more IoT
devices of same or different Networks. This can be achieved by different
communication protocols like : MQTT , Constrained Application Protocol,
ZigBee, FTP, HTTP etc.
 Working of IoT
Characteristics of IoT:
 Massively scalable and efficient
 IP-based addressing will no longer be suitable in the upcoming future.
 An abundance of physical objects is present that do not use IP, so IoT is made
possible.
 Devices typically consume less power. When not in use, they should be
automatically programmed to sleep.
 A device that is connected to another device right now may not be connected
in another instant of time.
 Intermittent connectivity – IoT devices aren’t always connected. In order to
save bandwidth and battery consumption, devices will be powered off
periodically when not in use. Otherwise, connections might turn unreliable
and thus prove to be inefficient.

 Desired Quality of any IoT Application :
 Interconnectivity
It is the basic first requirement in any IoT infrastructure. Connectivity should be
guaranteed from any devices on any network then only devices in a network can
communicate with each other.
 Heterogeneity
There can be diversity in IoT enabled devices like different hardware and
software configuration or different network topologies or connections but they
should connect and interact with each other despite of so much heterogeneity.
 Dynamic in nature
IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to the changing surroundings
like different situation and different prefaces.

 Self adapting and self configuring technology

For example surveillance camera. It should be flexible to work in different
weather conditions and different light situations (morning, afternoon, or night).
 Intelligence
Just data collection is not enough in IoT, extraction of knowledge from the
generated data is very important. For example, sensors generate data, but that
data will only be useful if it is interpreted properly. So intelligence is one of the
key characteristics in IoT. Because data interpretation is the major part in any IoT
application because without data processing we can’t make any insights from data
. Hence big data is also one of the most enabling technology in IoT field.
 Scalability
The number of elements (devices) connected to IoT zone is increasing day by
day. Therefore, an IoT setup should be capable of handling the expansion. It can
be either expand capability in terms of processing power, Storage, etc. as vertical
scaling or horizontal scaling by multiplying with easy cloning
 Identity
Each IoT device has a unique identity (e.g., an IP address). This identity is
helpful in communication, tracking and to know status of the things. If there is no
identification then it will directly effect security and safety of any system because
without discrimination we can’t identify with whom one network is connected or
with whom we have to communicate. So there should be clear and appropriate
discrimination technology available between IoT networks and devices.
 Safety
Sensitive personal details of a user might be compromised when the devices are
connected to the Internet. So data security is a major challenge. This could cause
a loss to the user. Equipment in the huge IoT network may also be at risk.
Therefore, equipment safety is also critical.
 Architecture
It should be hybrid, supporting different manufacturer’s products to function in
the IoT network.
As a quick note, IoT incorporates trillions of sensors, billions of smart systems,
and millions of applications.
Application Domains: IoT is currently found in four different popular domains:
1) Manufacturing/Industrial business - 40.2%
2) Healthcare - 30.3%
3) Security - 7.7%
4) Retail - 8.3%
Modern Applications:
1. Smart Grids and energy saving
2. Smart cities
3. Smart homes/Home automation
4. Healthcare
5. Earthquake detection
6. Radiation detection/hazardous gas detection
7. Smartphone detection
8. Water flow monitoring
9. Traffic monitoring
10.Wearables
11.Smart door lock protection system
12.Robots and Drones
13.Healthcare and Hospitals, Telemedicine applications
14.Security
15.Biochip Transponders(For animals in farms)
16.Heart monitoring implants(Example Pacemaker, ECG real time tracking)
Advantages of IoT :

1. Improved efficiency and automation of tasks.

2. Increased convenience and accessibility of information.

3. Better monitoring and control of devices and systems.

4. Greater ability to gather and analyze data.

5. Improved decision-making.

6. Cost savings.

Disadvantages of IoT :

1. Security concerns and potential for hacking or data breaches.

2. Privacy issues related to the collection and use of personal data.

3. Dependence on technology and potential for system failures.

4. Limited standardization and interoperability among devices.

5. Complexity and increased maintenance requirements.

6. High initial investment costs.

7. Limited battery life on some devices.

8. Concerns about job displacement due to automation.

9. Limited regulation and legal framework for IoT, which can lead to confusion
and uncertainty.
Physical design of IoT
The physical design of an IoT system is referred to as the Things/Devices and
protocols that are used to build an IoT system. all these things/Devices are called
Node Devices and every device has a unique identity that performs remote sensing,
actuating and monitoring work. and the protocols that are used to establish
communication between the Node devices and servers over the internet.
Things/Devices

Things/Devices are used to build a connection, process data, provide interfaces,

provide storage, and provide graphics interfaces in an IoT system. all these
generate data in a form that can be analyzed by an analytical system and program
to perform operations and used to improve the system.

for example temperature sensor that is used to analyze the temperature

generates the data from a location and is then determined by algorithms.

Fig:Generic Block diagram of IOT

  Connectivity

Devices like USB hosts and ETHERNET are used for connectivity between the
devices and the server.

 Processor

A processor like a CPU and other units are used to process the data. these data are
further used to improve the decision quality of an IoT system.

 Audio/Video Interfaces

An interface like HDMI and RCA devices is used to record audio and videos in a
system.

 Input/Output interface

To give input and output signals to sensors, and actuators we use things like
UART, SPI, CAN, etc.

 Storage Interfaces

Things like SD, MMC, and SDIO are used to store the data generated from an IoT
device.

Other things like DDR and GPU are used to control the activity of an IoT system.

IoT Protocols

These protocols are used to establish communication between a node device and a
server over the internet. it helps to send commands to an IoT device and receive
data from an IoT device over the internet. we use different types of protocols that
are present on both the server and client-side and these protocols are managed by
network layers like application, transport, network, and link layer.
 Fig:Physical design of IOT

1.Application Layer protocol

In this layer, protocols define how the data can be sent over the network with the
lower layer protocols using the application interface. these protocols include
HTTP, WebSocket, XMPP, MQTT, DDS, and AMQP protocols.

HTTP

Hypertext transfer protocol is a protocol that presents in an application layer for

transmitting media documents. it is used to communicate between web browsers
and servers. it makes a request to a server and then waits till it receives a response
and in between the request server does not keep any data between two requests.

WebSocket

This protocol enables two-way communication between a client and a host that can
be run on an untrusted code in a controlled environment. this protocol is commonly
used by web browsers.
MQTT

It is a machine-to-machine connectivity protocol that was designed as a

publish/subscribe messaging transport. and it is used for remote locations where a
small code footprint is required.

2.Transport Layer

This layer is used to control the flow of data segments and handle the error control.
also, these layer protocols provide end-to-end message transfer capability
independent of the underlying network.

TCP

The transmission control protocol is a protocol that defines how to establish and
maintain a network that can exchange data in a proper manner using the internet
protocol.

UDP

a user datagram protocol is a part of an internet protocol called the connectionless

protocol. this protocol is not required to establish the connection to transfer data.

3.Network Layer

This layer is used to send datagrams from the source network to the destination
network. we use IPv4 and IPv6 protocols as host identification that transfers data
in packets.
IPv4

This is a protocol address that is a unique and numerical label assigned to each
device connected to the network. an IP address performs two main functions host
and location addressing. IPv4 is an IP address that is 32-bit long.

IPv6

It is a successor of IPv4 that uses 128 bits for an IP address. it is developed by the
IETF task force to deal with long-anticipated problems.

4.Link Layer

Link-layer protocols are used to send data over the network's physical layer. it also
determines how the packets are coded and signaled by the devices.

Ethernet

It is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. it defines
the physical layer and the medium access control for wired ethernet networks.

WiFi

It is a set of LAN protocols and specifies the set of media access control and
physical layer protocols for implementing wireless local area networks.
 Functional blocks of IoT

IoT systems include several functional blocks such as Devices, communication,

security, services, and application.

The logical design of an IoT system refers to an abstract representation of entities

and processes without going into the low-level specifies of implementation. it
uses Functional Blocks, Communication Models, and Communication APIs to
implement a system.

But before you learn about the logical design of IoT systems you need to know a
little bit about the physical design of IoT.

An IoT system consists of a number of functional blocks like Devices, services,

communication, security, and application that provide the capability for sensing,
actuation, identification, communication, and management.

These functional
blocks consist of
devices that provide
monitoring control
functions, handle
communication
between host and
server, manage the
transfer of data,
secure the system
using authentication and other functions, and interface to control and monitor
various terms.

Application

It is an interface that provides a control system that use by users to view the status
and analyze of system.

Management

This functional block provides various functions that are used to manage an IoT
system.

Services

This functional block provides some services like monitoring and controlling a
device and publishing and deleting the data and restoring the system.

Communication

This block handles the communication between the client and the cloud-based
server and sends/receives the data using protocols.

Security

This block is used to secure an IoT system using some functions like authorization,
data security, authentication, 2-step verification, etc.

Device

These devices are used to provide sensing and monitoring control functions that
collect data from the outer environment.
 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.

Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device
or material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form
like changes in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance etc.

IOT HARDWARE
Transducer :
 A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.
 It converts one type of energy into another type.
 It might be used as actuators in various systems.
Sensors in IOT sytem will have as below
I. Sensors characteristics
II. Sensor Classification
III. Types of sensors
I.Sensors characteristics :
1. Static
2. Dynamic
1. Static characteristics :
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after
steady state condition.
 Accuracy –
Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to
the true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by
absolute and relative errors. Express the correctness of the output compared to
a higher prior system. Absolute error = Measured value – True value
Relative error = Measured value/True value
 Range –
Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which
the sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no
kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
 Resolution –
Resolution is an important specification towards selection of sensors. The
higher the resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is
called threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
 Precision –
It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed
conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true
value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
 Sensitivity –
Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the
system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found
from the slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest
amount of difference in quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.
 Linearity –
The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particular straight line.
Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve
plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions.
A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes the linearity.
 Drift –
The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when
kept at that value for a long period of time.
 Repeatability –
The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same
conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time
duration so as not to allow significant long-term drift.
2.Dynamic Characteristics :
Properties of the systems
 Zero-order system –
The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It does not
include energy-storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.
 First-order system –
When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.
 Second-order system –
Complex output response. The output response of the sensor oscillates before
steady state.
II.Sensor Classification :
 Passive & Active
 Analog & digital
 Scalar & vector
1. Passive Sensor –
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture,
water level and temperature sensors.
2. Active Sensor –
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter
sensors.
3. Analog Sensor –
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input
parameter. Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog
hall effect.
4. Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog
sensors. Along with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for
bit conversion. Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital
temperature sensor(DS1620).
5. Scalar sensor –
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the
sensor is a function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by
the direction of input parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
6. Vector sensor –
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and
orientation of input parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope,
magnetic field and motion detector sensors.

III.Types of sensors –

1. Temperature Sensor
2. Proximity Sensor
3. IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
4. Pressure Sensor
5. Light Sensor
6. Ultrasonic Sensor
7. Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
8. Touch Sensor
9. Color Sensor
10.Humidity Sensor
11.Position Sensor
12.Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)
13.Sensor
14.Flow and Level Sensor
 15.Touch Sensor
16.Strain and Weight Sensor

Temperature Sensor
One of the most common and most popular sensors is the Temperature Sensor. A
Temperature Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the temperature i.e., it measures
the changes in the temperature.

There are different types of Temperature Sensors like Temperature Sensor ICs
(like LM35, DS18B20), Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD (Resistive
Temperature Devices), etc.

Temperature Sensors can be analog or digital. In an Analog Temperature Sensor,

the changes in the Temperature correspond to change in its physical property like
resistance or voltage. LM35 is a classic Analog Temperature Sensor.

Coming to the Digital Temperature Sensor, the output is a discrete digital value
(usually, some numerical data after converting analog value to digital
value). DS18B20 is a simple Digital Temperature Sensor.

Temperature Sensors are used everywhere like computers, mobile phones,

automobiles, air conditioning systems, industries etc.
A simple project using LM35 (Celsius Scale Temperature Sensor) is implemented
in this project: TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED SYSTEM.

Proximity Sensors
A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the presence of an
object. Proximity Sensors can be implemented using different techniques like
Optical (like Infrared or Laser), Sound (Ultrasonic), Magnetic (Hall Effect),
Capacitive, etc.

Some of the applications of Proximity Sensors are Mobile Phones, Cars (Parking
Sensors), industries (object alignment), Ground Proximity in Aircrafts, etc.

Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)

IR Sensors or Infrared Sensor are light based sensor that are used in various
applications like Proximity and Object Detection. IR Sensors are used as proximity
sensors in almost all mobile phones.
There are two types of Infrared or IR Sensors:

1. Transmissive Type

2. Reflective Type.

In Transmissive Type IR Sensor, the IR Transmitter (usually an IR LED)

and the IR Detector (usually a Photo Diode) are positioned facing each other so
that when an object passes between them, the sensor detects the object.

The other type of IR Sensor is a Reflective Type IR Sensor.

In this, the transmitter and the detector are positioned adjacent to each other
facing the object. When an object comes in front of the sensor, the infrared light
from the IR Transmitter is reflected from the object and is detected by the IR
Receiver and thus the sensor detects the object.
Different applications where IR Sensor is implemented are Mobile Phones, Robots,
Industrial assembly, automobiles etc.

Ultrasonic Sensor(SOUND WAVES)

An Ultrasonic Sensor is a non-contact type device that can be used to measure
distance as well as velocity of an object. An Ultrasonic Sensor works based on
the properties of the sound waves with frequency greater than that of the human
audible range.

 Ultrasonic sensors are used primarily as proximity sensors. They can be found
in automobile self-parking technology and anti-collision safety systems.

 Ultrasonic sensors are also used in robotic obstacle detection systems, as well as
manufacturing technology.

 Example for ultrasonic sensor

 Anti -collision detection
 In its basic form, a forward collision warning system monitors a vehicle's speed,
the speed of the vehicle in front of it, and the distance between the vehicles, so
that it can provide a warning to the driver if the vehicles get too close,
potentially helping to avoid a crash.

Light Sensor
Sometimes also known as Photo Sensors, Light Sensors are one of the
important sensors. A simple Light Sensor available today is the Light Dependent
Resistor or LDR. The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely
proportional to the intensity of the ambient light i.e.,

when the intensity of light increases, its resistance decreases and vise-
versa.

By using LDR is a circuit, we can calibrate the changes in its resistance to measure
the intensity of Light. There are two other Light Sensors (or Photo Sensors) which
are often used in complex electronic system design. They are Photo Diode
and Photo Transistor. All these are Analog Sensors.

There are also Digital Light Sensors like BH1750, TSL2561, etc., which can
calculate intensity of light and provide a digital equivalent value.

Smoke and Gas Sensors

One of the very useful sensors in safety related applications are Smoke and Gas
Sensors. Almost all offices and industries are equipped with several smoke
detectors, which detect any smoke (due to fire) and sound an alarm.

Gas Sensors are more common in laboratories, large scale kitchens and industries.
They can detect different gases like LPG, Propane, Butane, Methane (CH4), etc.
Now-a-days, smoke sensors (which often can detect smoke as well gas) are also
installed in most homes as a safety measure.

The ―MQ‖ series of sensors are a bunch of cheap sensors for detecting CO, CO2,
CH4, Alcohol, Propane, Butane, LPG etc. You can use these sensors to build your
own Smoke Sensor Application.

Alcohol Sensor
As the name suggests, an Alcohol Sensor detects alcohol. Usually, alcohol sensors
are used in breathalyzer devices, which determine whether a person is drunk or not.
Law enforcement personnel uses breathalyzers to catch drunk-and-drive culprits.
A simple tutorial on HOW TO MAKE ALCOHOL BREATHALYZER CIRCUIT?

Touch Sensor
We do not give much importance to touch sensors but they became an integral part
of our life. Whether you know or not, all touch screen devices (Mobile Phones,
Tablets, Laptops, etc.) have touch sensors in them. Another common application of
touch sensor is trackpads in our laptops.

Touch Sensors, as the name suggests, detect touch of a finger or a stylus. Often
touch sensors are classified into Resistive and Capacitive type. Almost all modern
touch sensors are of Capacitive Types as they are more accurate and have better
signal to noise ratio.
.

Color Sensor
A Color Sensor is an useful device in building color sensing applications in the
field of image processing, color identification, industrial object tracking etc. The
TCS3200 is a simple Color Sensor, which can detect any color and output a square
wave proportional to the wavelength of the detected color.
Example –food printing,cosmotic products industry etc

Humidity Sensor

If you see Weather Monitoring Systems, they often provide temperature as well as
humidity data. So, measuring humidity is an important task in many applications
and Humidity Sensors help us in achieving this.

Often all humidity sensors measure relative humidity (a ratio of water content in
air to maximum potential of air to hold water). Since relative humidity is
dependent on temperature of air, almost all Humidity Sensors can also measure
Temperature.

Humidity Sensors are classified into Capacitive Type, Resistive Type and Thermal
Conductive Type.

 Electrical sensor :
 An Electrical sensor (also called an electronic sensor) is a device that detects
a physical parameter of interest (e.g. heat, light, sound) and converts it into
 electrical signal that can be measured and used by an electrical or electronic
system.
 Electrical sensors are used wherever information on the state of an electrical
system is needed and are employed in everything from railway systems to
fan, pump, and heater monitoring
 A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic sensor that measures
infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view. They are
most often used in PIR-based motion detectors. PIR sensors are commonly
used in ―security alarms and automatic lighting applicationS‖

PIR SENSOR
  what is a real life example of a sensor?
 Some household appliance applications using sensors are the boiler,
washing machines and dishwashers for heating systems, and other white
products. Many vehicles, including automobiles, trains, buses, etc., employ
sensors to monitor petroleum temperature and pressure, and so many more.
Actuator
An actuator is a component of a machine or system that moves or controls
the mechanism or the system.

The actuator converts a source of energy into a physical-mchanical motion

An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an
environment
“An Actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy” to
“produce an action/motion/movement either linear or rotatry
motion”
Upon receiving a control signal, the actuator tor responds by converting the energy
into mechanical motion.
The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system),
software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other
input.
 In very simple terms, an actuator is a device that makes something move or
operate. Every one of us takes advantage of at least one actuator every day. Let’s
look at some examples of actuators.
1. Grocery Store Door
When we go to the grocery store, the door opens automatically for us. An actuator
makes the door open.

2. Car Seat
We can move the car seat forward or backward before we drive away in our car.
An actuator makes the seat move.
Types of Actuators
Types of ACTUATOR(bases of motion)
1. Linear Actuator
2. Rotary Actuator
Types Of Actuators(Bases Of Source Of Energy)
1. Hydraulic
2. Pneumatic
3. Electrical
4. Thermal/Magnetic
5. Mechanical

Types of ACTUATOR(bases of motion)

1. Linear Actuator
An actuator can move something in a straight line, also referred to as linear.

2. Rotary Actuator
Also, An actuator can make something move in a circular motion, also referred to
as rotary.
Types Of Actuators(Bases Of Source Of Energy
1. Hydraulic Actuator
2. Pneumatic Actuator
3. Electrical Actuator
4. Thermal/Magnetic
5. Mechanical Actuator

1. Electric actuators- use some form of electric energy to operate.

2. Hydraulic actuators -use a variety of liquids as a source of energy.
3. Pneumatic actuators -are operated by compressed air.
4. Thermal/Magnetic-are operated by magnetic enery and electrical enery
5. Mechanical Actuator-converts rotatry motion to linear actuator
1.Hydraulic Actuators

 A hydraulic actuator consists of a cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic

power to facilitate mechanical operation.
 The mechanical motion is converted to linear, rotary or oscillatory motion.
 Since liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator exerts
considerable force.
 The actuator's limited acceleration restricts its usage.

Advantages :
 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
 Used in ships , wheel motors for military vehicles, self-driven cranes.
 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance
systems
2.Pneumatic Actuators :

 A pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or compressed air

at high pressure into either linear or rotary motion.
 Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are used for valve controls of water
pipes.
 Pneumatic energy quickly responds to starting and stopping signals.
 The power source does not need to be stored in reserve for operation.
 Pneumatic actuators enable large forces to be produced from relatively small
presure changes (e.g., Pneumatic brakes can are very responsive to small changes
in pressure applied by the driver).
 It is responsible for converting pressure into force.
Pneumatic actuators are used in the following equipment:

 Exercise machines
 Bus brakes
 Pressure sensors
 Vane motors
Advantages :
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using
air is a safer option than chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.

 Disadvantages :
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.
3.Electric Actuators

 An electric actuator is generally powered by a motor that converts electrical

energy into mechanical torque.
 The electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as solenoid valves
which control the flow of water in pipes in response to electrical signals.
 a solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical work.

 Considered as one of the cheapest, cleanest and speedy actuator types

available.

Advantages :
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial
valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision
positioning.
Disadvantages :
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
 4.Thermal or Magnetic Actuators
 These can be actuated by applying thermal or magnetic energy.
 They tend to be compact, lightweight, economical and with high power
density.
 These actuators use shape memory materials (SMMs), such as shape
memory alloys (SMAs) or magnetic shape‐memory alloys (MSMAs).

 Fig: A coil gun works on the principle of magnetic actuation

Piezo motors can be used in medical robots, unique drug delivery

solutions and systems, surgical tools with small space constraints,
prosthetic elements and drug dispensing technologies
5.Mechanical Actuators
 A mechanical actuator converts rotary motion into linear motion to execute
some movement.
 It involves gears, rails, pulleys, chains and other devices to operate.
 Example : rack and pinion
fig:steering systems to change the direction of cars

Example:Rack and pinion used in industrial machinery and also On the other hand,
they are also used in steering systems to change the direction of cars.
Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things )

IoT devices are found everywhere and will enable circulatory intelligence in the
future. For operational perception, it is important and useful to understand how
various IoT devices communicate with each other. Communication models used in
IoT have great value. The IoTs allow people and things to be connected any time,
any space, with anything and anyone, using any network and any service.
Types of Communication Model :

1. Request & Response Model –

2. Publisher-Subscriber Model –
3. Push-Pull Model –
4. Exclusive Pair –
1.Request & Response Model –

This model follows a client-server architecture.

 The client, when required, requests the information from the server. This
request is usually in the encoded format.
 This model is stateless since the data between the requests is not retained and
each request is independently handled.
 The server Categories the request, and fetches the data from the database and its
resource representation. This data is converted to response and is transferred in
an encoded format to the client. The client, in turn, receives the response.
 On the other hand — In Request-Response communication model client sends
a request to the server and the server responds to the request. When the server
receives the request it decides how to respond, fetches the data retrieves
resources, and prepares the response, and sends it to the client.

2. Publisher-Subscriber Model –
This model comprises three entities: Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers.
 Publishers are the source of data. It sends the data to the topic which are
managed by the broker. They are not aware of consumers.
 Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.
 Hence, Brokers responsibility is to accept data from publishers and send it to
the appropriate consumers. The broker only has the information regarding the
consumer to which a particular topic belongs to which the publisher is unaware
of.
3. Push-Pull Model –
The push-pull model constitutes data publishers, data consumers, and data queues.
 Publishers and Consumers are not aware of each other.
 Publishers publish the message/data and push it into the queue. The consumers,
present on the other side, pull the data out of the queue. Thus, the queue acts as
the buffer for the message when the difference occurs in the rate of push or pull
of data on the side of a publisher and consumer.
 Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the producer and consumer.
Queues also act as a buffer which helps in situations where there is a mismatch
between the rate at which the producers push the data and consumers pull the
data.
4. Exclusive Pair –
 Exclusive Pair is the bi-directional model, including full-duplex
communication among client and server. The connection is constant and
remains open till the client sends a request to close the connection.
 The Server has the record of all the connections which has been opened.
 This is a state-full connection model and the server is aware of all open
connections.
 WebSocket based communication API is fully based on this model.
Communication API in IOT:
API-Application programming interface
What is API used for?
APIs are used to integrate new applications with existing software
systems.
Set of protocals,routines,instruction, function used to bhuild a
application software

Difference between Rest API and Web Socket API

In IoT, there are 2 communication APIs –

1. REST Based Communication APIs

2. Web Socket Based Communication APIs
Web service can either be implemented using REST principles or using Web
Socket Protocol –
1.REST Based Communication API :
REpresentational State Transfer (REST) is a set of architectural principles by
which you can design web services and web APIs that focus on a system’s
resources and how resource states are addressed and transferred. REST APIs
follow the request-response communication model. The REST architectural
constraints apply to the components, connectors, and data elements, within a
distributed hypermedia system. Representational State Transfer (REST) is an
architectural style that defines a set of constraints to be used for creating web services.
REST API is a way of accessing web services in a simple and flexible way
without having any processing.
What is REST API and example?
A REST API is a way for two computer systems to communicate using the HTTP
technologies found in web browsers and servers

REST technology is generally preferred to the more robust Simple Object Access
Protocol (SOAP) technology because REST uses less bandwidth, simple and flexible
making it more suitable for internet usage. It’s used to fetch or give some information
from a web service. All communication done via REST API uses only HTTP request.

Working: A request is sent from client to server in the form of a web URL as HTTP
GET or POST or PUT or DELETE request. After that, a response comes back from the
server in the form of a resource which can be anything like HTML, XML, Image, or
JSON. But now JSON is the most popular format being used in Web Services.

In HTTP there are five methods that are commonly used in a REST-based Architecture
i.e., POST, GET, PUT, PATCH, and DELETE. These correspond to create, read,
update, and delete (or CRUD) operations respectively. There are other methods which
are less frequently used like OPTIONS and HEAD.
 GET: The HTTP GET method is used to read (or retrieve) a representation of a
resource. In the safe path, GET returns a representation in XML or JSON and an
HTTP response code of 200 (OK). In an error case, it most often returns a 404 (NOT
 FOUND) or 400 (BAD REQUEST).

 POST: The POST verb is most often utilized to create new resources. In particular,
it’s used to create subordinate resources. That is, subordinate to some other (e.g.
parent) resource. On successful creation, return HTTP status 201, returning a
Location header with a link to the newly-created resource with the 201 HTTP
status.
NOTE: POST is neither safe nor idempotent.
 PUT: It is used for updating the capabilities. However, PUT can also be used
to create a resource in the case where the resource ID is chosen by the client instead
of by the server. In other words, if the PUT is to a URI that contains the value of a
non-existent resource ID. On successful update, return 200 (or 204 if not returning
any content in the body) from a PUT. If using PUT for create, return HTTP status
201 on successful creation. PUT is not safe operation but it’s idempotent.
 PATCH: It is used to modify capabilities. The PATCH request only needs to
contain the changes to the resource, not the complete resource. This resembles PUT,
but the body contains a set of instructions describing how a resource currently
residing on the server should be modified to produce a new version. This means that
the PATCH body should not just be a modified part of the resource, but in some
kind of patch language like JSON Patch or XML Patch. PATCH is neither safe nor
idempotent.
 DELETE: It is used to delete a resource identified by a URI. On successful
deletion, return HTTP status 200 (OK) along with a response body.
Idempotence: An idempotent HTTP method is a HTTP method that can be called many
times without different outcomes. It would not matter if the method is called only once,
or ten times over. The result should be the same. Again, this only applies to the result,
not the resource itself.
 Example:

 C

1. a = 4 // It is Idempotence, as final value(a = 4)

// would not change after executing it multiple

// times.

2. a++ // It is not Idempotence because the final value

// will depend upon the number of times the

// statement is executed.

Request and Response

Now we will see how request and response work for different HTTP methods. Let’s
assume we have an API(https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/api/students) for all students
data of gfg.
 GET: Request for all Students.

Request

GET:/api/students

 POST: Request for Posting/Creating/Inserting Data

Request
POST:/api/students

{―name‖:‖Raj‖}

 PUT or PATCH: Request for Updating Data at id=1

Request

PUT or PATCH:/api/students/1

{―name‖:‖Raj‖}

 DELETE: Request for Deleting Data of id=1

Request

DELETE:/api/students/1

Rest architecture constraints apply to components and connectors.

1.client-server constraint
2.stateless-It does not store the data
3.cashable constraint-client ahs full rights to reuse server response(data)for similar
request from client.
4.layered system-there is intermedaitor between client and server
5.uniform interface-sending and receiving of data in the form of uniform
RESTful web services are very popular because they are light weight,
highly scalable and maintainable and are very commonly used to create APIs for
web-based applications.
2.Web Socket Based Communication APIs :
Web Socket APIs allow bi-directional, full-duplex communication between
clients and servers. It follows the exclusive pair communication model. This
Communication API does not require a new connection to be set up for each
message to be sent between clients and servers. Once the connection is set up
the messages can be sent and received continuously without any interruption.
WebSocket APIs are suitable for IoT Applications with low latency or high
throughput requirements.
Low latency –minimal delay of sending of data.
Highthrouput-it measures how many units information a syatem can process
in a given amount of time.
Examples include live chats on support websites, news tickers, stock
tickers, messaging apps, and real-time games.
Difference between Rest API and Web Socket API :

S.NO. REST API WEB SOCKET API

It is Stateless protocol. It will not store the It is Stateful protocol. It will

1. data. store the data.

It is Bi-directional. Messages
It is Uni-directional. Only either server or can be received or sent by
2. client will communicate. both server or client.

3. It is Request-response model. It is Full duplex model.

It is suitable for real-time

HTTP request contains headers like head applications. It does not have
4. section, title section. any overhead.

New TCP connection will be set up for

5. each HTTP request. Only Single TCP connection.

6.
Both horizontal and vertical scaling (we Only vertical scaling (we can
S.NO. REST API WEB SOCKET API

can add many resources and number of add resources only

users both horizontally and vertically). vertically).

It depends upon the IP

It depends upon the HTTP methods to address and port number to
7. retrieve the data.. retrieve the data

web socket transmits

It is slower than web socket regarding the messages very fastly than
8. transmission of messages. REST API.

It does not need memory or buffers to It requires memory and

9. store the data. buffers to store the data.
IoT Communication Protocols—
IoT Data Protocols
IoT Data Communication Protocols
Below you'll find a brief breakdown of the some of the different IoT data
protocols, namely:

1. Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)

2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
3. Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
4. Data Distribution Service (DDS)
5. WebSocket
6. Advanced Message Queue Protocol (AMQP)
7. Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)
8. OPC Unified Architecture (OPC UA)

1.Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)

Designed to be lightweight, so it can work in very low bandwidth
networks, MQTT allows communication between nodes in both reliable and
unreliable networks. MQTT follows a publish/subscribe architecture, meaning that
there are nodes (brokers) that make the information available, while others (clients)
can read the available information after subscribing by accessing the corresponding
URL.
A use case of MQTT is in a smart factory where there are temperature sensors
installed along with the production plant. The installed sensors will connect to the
MQTT broker and will publish the data within sensor topics, as follows:
sensors/temperature/assemblyLineInit

Afterward, the MQTT clients, which can be of several types and quantities, will
subscribe to the same topic in order to read the temperature data. An example of an
MQTT architecture can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. MQTT's publish/subscribe architecture. Image used courtesy of MQTT

In addition, MQTT defines three levels of quality of service, depending upon the
reliability, from lowest to highest:
Level 0: there is no guarantee of the message delivery.
Level 1: the delivery is guaranteed, but it is possible to receive duplicate messages.
Level 2: the delivery is guaranteed and there will be no duplicates.

2.HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

This protocol has been the origin of data communication for the World Wide Web
(WWW), so logically it is being used in the IoT world. However, it is not
optimized for it because of the following:
The HTTP is made for two systems communicating to each other at a time, not
more, so it is time and energy-consuming to connect several sensors to get
information.
The HTTP is unidirectional, made for one system (client) to be sending one
message to another one (server). This makes it quite hard to escalate an IoT
solution.
Power consumption: HTTP relies on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which
requires a lot of computing resources, so it is not suitable for battery-powered
applications.

3.Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

CoAP is a web transfer protocol to be used with limited networks with low
bandwidth and low availability. It follows a client/server architecture and is built
similarly to HTTP, supporting the REST model: servers make resources available
with an URL, and clients can make requests of types GET, POST, PUT and
DELETE.
The CoAP communication links are 1:1 and UDP-based, so the delivery is not
guaranteed. CoAP is made to work in highly congested networks, where nodes do
not have a lot of intelligence and are not always working.

4.Data Distribution Service (DDS)

Similar to MQTT, DDS follows a publish-subscribe methodology, with the main
difference being that there are no brokers. It means that all publishers (i.e.,
temperature sensors) and subscribers (i.e., mobile phones) are all connected to the
same network. This network is known as Global Data Space (GDS) and it
interconnects each node with all the other ones to avoid bottlenecks. An example
of the DDS GDS can be seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2. A DDS Global Data Space. Image used courtesy of the DDS Foundation

Furthermore, any node can leave or join the network, since they are dynamically
discovered.

5.WebSocket
Linked to the HTTP protocol, the WebSocket technology establishes a TCP
connection between a browser and a server, and then both of them exchange
information until the connection is closed. Figure 3 shows a high-level comparison
between HTTP and WebSocket.
Figure 3. Comparison between HTTP and WebSocket. Image used courtesy
of Scaleway

Although this protocol can be seen as an improvement of the HTTP connection,

the WebSocket is still very overloaded and heavy for IoT applications
6..Advanced Message Queue Protocol (AMQP)
In the beginning, AMQP was not initially created for IoT applications, but for
banking environments. AMQP accepts publish/subscribe architectures, as well as
request/response types. It is TCP-based, so delivery is guaranteed, as well as
acknowledgment, which makes this protocol reliable, with the consequent
overhead message reliability.
Compared to MQTT, AMQP offers two Quality of Service levels:
At most once: the sender does not wait until having an acknowledgment from the
receiver to delete a message.
At least once: for each message, the sender will receive an acknowledgment from
the receiver before deleting the message. In a case where the acknowledgment is
lost, the message is re-sent.
Exactly once: the messages are sent only once. It requires special coordination
between the sender and the receiver.
7..Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)
It is based on Extensible Markup Language (XML) and in the past, it was known
as Jabber. It is an open-source, decentralized, secure protocol to exchange XML
messages.
A characteristic factor of XMPP is its addressing method and how nodes are
identified. It uses a Jabber ID with the format jabberID@domain.com, which
allows two nodes to interchange information regardless of the distance between
them.
8..OPC Unified Architecture (OPC UA)
It is a standard made for industrial communication, strongly oriented to guarantee
interoperability between manufacturers, operating systems, and programming
languages.All in all, the OPC UA is a transport-agnostic protocol, so it supports
both of the previously used architectures: request/response (such as WebSocket or
HTTP), as well as the publish/subscribe (such as the MQTT).
Communication Protocols
The following communication protocols have immediate importance to consumer
and
industrial IoTs:




Z‐Wave




Data Link Layer Communication Protocols in IoT
Communication Protocols
◼ The following communication protocols have immediate importance to
consumer and industrial IoTs:
 IEEE 802.15.4 ▪
 Zigbee
 6LoWPAN
 Wireless HART
 Z‐Wave
 ISA 100
 Bluetooth
 NFC
 RFID
 IEEE 802.15.4

Several Communication Protocols are used in Internet of Things (IoT) to provide service to the
network layer.
As we know IoT is based on networking of things where smart devices communicate with each
other by sending and receiving data. So for that several network protocols (Communication
protocols) are used to connect the IoT enabled devices and to establish the communication.
Some of the popular Standard IoT communication protocols are:
1. Bluetooth :
Bluetooth is a PAN (Personal Area Network) or it is a short-range wireless
communication network for exchanging data between the connected devices through that
network. It is very cheaper in price and effective in a performance point of view for short-
range distance. It is a 2.4GHz network that works well for personal wireless network
communication. It provides a data transfer rate of 3 Mbps in a range of 50m to 150m.
Nowadays Bluetooth is almost present in all smartphones and it is highly used in
wearable devices connected with the mobile applications.
2. ZigBee :
Zigbee is similar to Bluetooth technology with 2.4Ghz frequency. It is a low power
personal communication network. It is cheaper and is widely used for several
applications. It is used for specific commercial and industrial applications. Its range
varies from 10-100m. Mesh networking is one of the important advantages of Zigbee
technology. Zigbee supports star or mesh network topology.
3. BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) :
Bluetooth Low Energy is also known as Bluetooth smart which is a wireless
PAN(Personal Area Network). The range is similar to that of Bluetooth but it consumes
low power than Bluetooth. In 2011 BLE was introduced as Bluetooth 4.0. BLE goes to
sleep mode when there is no transmission of data. It is a low-cost networking protocol.
The smartphones operating systems like android, ios, etc uses this BLE technology and
provide a Bluetooth network.

4. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) :

WiFi is a local area network which is a wireless network there is no wired connection. It
is Proposed by Wi-Fi Alliance. WiFi provides Internet access to devices within a range of
60 feet to 100 feet. It uses high-frequency radio signals for sending and receiving data. It
uses the IEEE 802.11 standard. Its data rate varies from 2Mbps to 1.73Gbps. We can set
up PAN (Personal Area Network) or LAN (Local Area Network) or WAN (Wide Area
Network) in IoT systems. By Routing, we can increase the network area.

5. Z-Wave :
Z-wave technology is a wireless communication protocol that creates a wireless Mesh
network. It is based on low power RF(Radio Frequency) based technology. It is mainly
used for home automation applications and devices. It operates in 900 Mhz frequency
bands. It is a more secure technology. It offers data transfer rates of 9.6Kbps, 40Kbps, or
 100Kbps. Its range varies from 98 to 328 feet. It is low power and longer range IoT
technology.

6. RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification) :

Radio Frequency Identification technology uses radiofrequency waves to transfer data
between a reader and a movable item to identify and track. It does not require contact
between reader and tagged item. RFID tag, RFID reader, RFID antenna are the key
components of RFID technology. Tags operate depending upon their frequency bands of
13.56 and are mostly used.

7. Cellular :
Increased quantities of data can be sent over longer distances or range by using Cellular
communications (GSM/3G/4G/5G etc). But it is very useful in sending a small quantity
of data over the internet. Cellular carriers manage the infrastructure so when we use it we
don’t need to worry about infrastructure costs and support costs.

8. Sigfox :
Sigfox is a form of wireless communications that provides low power and long-range
wireless connectivity for devices. The messages are transmitted over the Sigfox global
network. Sigfox provides one of the largest IoT networks. It is like Cellular network type
which sets up antennas on towers. It is a Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN).

9. Ethernet:
Ethernet is used to connect the devices in a Local Area Network (LAN) which is based on
IEEE 802.3 standard. Ethernet is a LAN technology in which the devices are wired
connection which provides data transfer rates as high as 100 Mbps. Choosing Ethernet for
IoT ecosystem is a little bit costly in terms of setup and management.

10. NFC (Near Field Communication) :

NFC is an IoT which helps to connect devices. It provides short-range wireless
connectivity technology but NFC transmission is slower than Bluetooth. It is based on
Radio Frequency Identity (RFID) technology. It can operate in low power. It operates at
13.56 MHz frequency.
 11. LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network) :
LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network) is a wireless wide area network technology
whose range varies from 2 km to 1000 km depending on the technology. Siggfox, LoRa is
the examples involve all major LPWAN technology.

12. LoRaWAN :
LoRaWAN(Long Range Wide Area Network) is a wide area network protocol. It is a low
power consumption protocol that targets the wide-area network (WAN) applications with
better security and mobility. It supports a large network with millions and millions of low
power devices deployed on public networks. It is along with range bidirectional
communication which has a range of more than 15 km.

4 -layes in communication protocals


 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
 WSN Defination
 WSN Components
 Challenges Of WSN
 WSN Types-static and mobile WSN
 Advantages And Disadvantages
 Applications Of WSN

“Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can be defined as a self-configured

and infrastructure-less wireless networks to monitor physical or environmental
conditions, such as temperature, sound, vibration, pressure, motion or
pollutants and to cooperatively pass their data through the network to a main
location or sink where”
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network
that is deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is
used to monitor the system, physical or environmental conditions.
Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and
monitors the environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base
Station which acts as a processing unit in the WSN System.
Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.
WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
Components of WSN:

1. Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which is
used for data acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical signals.
2. Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the WLAN
access point. It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and
power source.
3. WLAN Access Point:
It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally
through the internet.
4. Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software called
as Evaluation Software for presenting the report to the users for further
processing of the data which can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and
mining of the data.
 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)

 ◼ Consists of a large number of sensor nodes, densely deployed over an area.

 ◼ Sensor nodes are capable of collaborating with one another and measuring
the condition of their surrounding environments (i.e. Light, temperature, sound,
vibration).
 ◼ The sensed measurements are then transformed into digital signals and
processed to reveal some properties of the phenomena around sensors.
 ◼ Due to the fact that the sensor nodes in WSNs have short radio transmission
range, intermediate nodes act as relay nodes to transmit data towards the sink
node using a multi‐hop path

Challenges of WSN:

1. Quality of Service
2. Security Issue
3. Energy Efficiency
4. Network Throughput
5. Performance
6. Ability to cope with node failure
7. Cross layer optimization
8. Scalability to large scale of deployment
A modern Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) faces several challenges,
including:
 Limited power and energy: WSNs are typically composed of battery-powered
sensors that have limited energy resources. This makes it challenging to ensure
that the network can function for
long periods of time without the need for frequent battery replacements.
 Limited processing and storage capabilities: Sensor nodes in a WSN are
typically small and have limited processing and storage capabilities. This makes
it difficult to perform complex tasks or store large amounts of data.
 Heterogeneity: WSNs often consist of a variety of different sensor types and
nodes with different capabilities. This makes it challenging to ensure that the
network can function effectively and efficiently.
 IoT devices are limited in terms of communication capabilities, processing
power, and energy consumption due to their low cost. That is why these
constrained devices are very heterogeneous in terms of their essential
communication protocols, device data formats, and technologies.
 Security: WSNs are vulnerable to various types of attacks, such as
eavesdropping, jamming, and spoofing. Ensuring the security of the network
and the data it collects is a major challenge.
 Scalability: WSNs often need to be able to support a large number of sensor
nodes and handle large amounts of data. Ensuring that the network can scale to
meet these demands is a significant
challenge.
 Interference: WSNs are often deployed in environments where there is a lot of
interference from other wireless devices. This can make it difficult to ensure
reliable communication between sensor nodes.
 Reliability: WSNs are often used in critical applications, such as monitoring
the environment or controlling industrial processes. Ensuring that the network is
reliable and able to function correctly
in all conditions is a major challenge.

-WSN Types:
1. ◼ Stationary WSN (SWSN)
2. ◼ Mobile WSN (MWSN)
1-Stationary WSN
◼ Sensor nodes are static
◼ Advantages:
▪ Easy deployment
▪ Node can be placed in an optimized
distance—Reduce the total number of nodes
▪ Easy topology maintenance
◼ Disadvantages:
▪ Node failure may results in partition of networks
▪ Topology cannot be change automatically-
2-Mobile WSN (MWSN):
◼ MWSN is Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)
◼ MANET‐Infrastructure less network of mobile devices
connected wirelessly which follow the self‐CHOP properties
▪ Self‐Configure
▪ Self‐Heal
▪ Self‐Optimize
▪ Self‐Protect
1. ▪ Underwater MWSN
2. ▪ Terrestrial MWSN
3. ▪ Aerial MWSN
-Components of MWSN
◼ Mobile Sensor Nodes
▪ Senses the physical parameter from the environment
◼ Mobile Sink
▪ Moves in order to collect data from sensor nodes
▪ Based on some algorithm sink moves to different nodes in
the networks
◼ Data Mules
▪ A mobile entity
 ▪ Collects the data from sensor nodes
▪ Goes to the sink and delivers the collected data from
different sensor nodes
1)Underwater MWSN
◼ Senses different parameters under the sea or
water levels
◼ Can be linked with Autonomous Underwater
Vehicles (AUVs)
◼ Applications: Monitoring‐marine life, water
quality etc
2)Terrestrial MWSN
◼ Sensor nodes typically deployed over land
surface
◼ Can be linked with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs)
◼ Applications: Wildlife monitoring, surveillance,
object tracking

3)Aerial MWSN
◼ Nodes fly on the air and sense data (physical
phenomena or multimedia data)
◼ Typical example is Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs)
◼ Applications: Surveillance, Multimedia data
Gathering.

Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):

 Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to deploy,
making them a cost-effective solution for many applications.
 Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired
connections, which can be costly and difficult to install. Wireless
communication also enables flexible deployment and reconfiguration of the
network.
 Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to
conserve energy, enabling long-term operation without the need for
frequent battery replacements.
Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing
sensors, making them suitable for a range of applications and environments.
  Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical
phenomena in the environment, providing timely information for decision
making and control.
Disadvantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):
 Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited,
which can be a challenge for large-scale deployments or in environments
with obstacles that obstruct radio signals.
 Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may
have limited processing power and memory, making it difficult to perform
complex computations or support advanced applications.
 Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as
eavesdropping, tampering, and denial of service attacks, which can
compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.
 Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to
interference from other wireless devices or radio signals, which can
degrade the quality of data transmission.
 Deployment challenges: Deploying WSNs can be challenging due to the
need for proper sensor placement, power management, and network
configuration, which can require significant time and resources.
 while WSNs offer many benefits, they also have limitations and challenges
that must be considered when deploying and using them in real-world
applications
Applications of WSN:
Internet of Things (IOT)
1. Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
2. Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
3. Noise Level of the surrounding
4. Medical applications like patient monitoring
5. Agriculture
6. Landslide Detection
7. Patient monitoring in hospitals , Home security, Military applications,
Livestock monitoring , Server Room monitoring
8. Wireless sensor network for smart agriculture
9. Wireless sensor network for forest fire detection
10.Wireless sensor network for water quality monitoring
11.Wireless sensor network for office monitoring
12.Wireless sensor network for environmental monitoring
13.Wireless sensor network for landslide detection
14.Wireless sensor network for IoT security
 Basics of Networking
What Is an IoT Network?
An IoT network refers to a collection of devices such as sensors, gadgets,
appliances, and software that communicate with each other and exchange
information and data without the need for human intervention.
If you’ve ever turned your lights on from your phone or told Alexa to play your
favorite song, you’ve experienced the power of an IoT network. But IoT networks
do a lot more, especially for big businesses.
Through the power of cloud and edge computing businesses can now collect new
insights from devices through IoT networks. This bridges the gap between the
digital and physical world and allows organizations to monitor environmental,
geolocation, and atmospheric conditions in real time. When paired with
automation, businesses can instantly react to changes in an environment, allowing
for less downtime, better insights, and improved efficiency.

How Does an IoT Network Work?

With the basics covered, let’s explore how exactly IoT networks work, what
sensors do, and how administrators manage them.
IoT Sensors
IoT networks rely on small inexpensive sensors to collect information about the
environment. For example, farmers use IoT sensors to monitor moisture levels
while industrial plants use similar sensors to monitor pipe pressure. IoT sensors are
highly configurable and can monitor hundreds of different changes.
A few examples of what IoT sensors can monitor include the following:

 Geolocation
 Fluid levels
 Temperature, humidity, and other atmospheric conditions
 Electrical currents
 Data packets
 The presence of particular gases or chemicals
IoT Connectivity
IoT sensors continuously send data back to the cloud or an edge computing device
for processing. IoT sensors typically use little power and send small amounts of
data rather than large streams of information. Businesses that require the lowest
latency and fastest response time often opt for edge computing as it shortens the
distance between the sensor and the server.
Depending on the technology and use case, businesses can choose from various
IoT networks to meet their goals. The two most common ways sensors send their
data are through Wi-Fi or cellular connection. We’ll touch more on the different
types of networks and their advantages later on.
IoT Processing
Once the data is collected, software processes and records that data in the cloud or
on an edge server. Many platforms use artificial intelligence and machine learning
to take action when specific data is sent from a sensor.
For example, if moisture levels reach a certain threshold, artificial intelligence can
send a command to turn on overhead fans or deactivate a water source. The beauty
of this process is that it’s done without the need of human intervention.
Enterprises pair IoT networks with automation to orchestrate device management
in a way that’s affordable, predictable, and highly scalable. IoT management
systems can process data from various systems allowing enterprises to monitor
everything from machine maintenance to the weather outside.
IoT Interface
Administrators simply set rules for the software to follow and teach the software
what actions to trigger when certain conditions are met. In some cases where
automation isn’t appropriate, the software can automatically alert a human when a
specific event occurs.
For instance, in an industrial IoT setting sensors can automatically create a
maintenance request to change a machine’s oil when it reaches a certain level. If
that request isn’t fulfilled and the device is in danger of overheating, the sensors
can send a more urgent alert and shut down the machine to prevent significant
damage if needed.
The back-end interface allows administrators to set conditional rules and service
levels to shape how monitoring and automation occur. These interfaces have come
a long way since the early days and are much easier to use and navigate.

Types of IoT Networks

There are a few different ways administrators can design their IoT networks. One
of the biggest differences is what protocol sensors use to share information. Keep
in mind a single IoT network can use a combination of these options for different
applications. Below we’ll explore some of the most common types of IoT network
designs and look at the advantages of each.
Enterprise Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a popular choice for IoT networks since many businesses already have
Wi-Fi coverage across their organization. Wi-Fi is a solid option for stationary IoT
sensors that need to share data across a medium range.
Administrators using Wi-Fi should segment IoT sensors on a different subnet and
implement quality of service to help provide better reliability to their sensors.
However, Wi-Fi IoT networks aren’t without their drawbacks.
Due to their power limitations, Wi-Fi networks don’t offer as much coverage as
cellular networks. Wi-Fi networks also don’t process device handover as smoothly
as cellular networks, meaning mobile IoT sensors might experience connectivity
issues on Wi-Fi networks. Wi-Fi IoT networks are best for the following uses:

 Small- to medium-sized networks

 Indoor areas with few obstructions
 Serving stationary IoT sensors

Private Cellular
Cellular networks offer long-range reliable connectivity for both stationary and
mobile IoT sensors. Autonomous vehicles can rely on public cellular networks for
latency connectivity and very large area coverage across cities.
Since the advent of private mobile networks, more enterprises are choosing to
build their IoT networks using private cellular networks. Private 4G LTE / 5G
connectivity allows businesses to untether themselves from commercial carriers
and control every aspect of their cellular network, apply the appropriate network
security policies, much like how enterprises control their own Wi-Fi.
This change gives businesses unprecedented control over their cellular coverage,
budget, and resources. Businesses can opt for a 5G connection for low latency IoT
networks. Industrial plants, safety systems, and emergency sensors can rely on 5G
wireless performance standards for the most sensitive connections.
Since private cellular networks operate on a different frequency than Wi-Fi, both
networks can coexist in the same space without interference. This allows
enterprises to segment their traffic and reserve their private 5G implementations
for critical IoT infrastructure.
The improved reliability, coverage, and capacity private cellular networks provide
make this design a popular choice among large enterprises and businesses that
must meet strict service-level objectives for IoT connectivity and performance.
Private cellular IoT networks are best for the following uses:

 Strict service level requirements for QoS, throughput, packet error rate and
latency
 Very large area coverage indoors and outdoors
 Clean interference free operation next to existing Wi-Fi networks

Bluetooth
Bluetooth has been around since 1994, but that doesn’t make it any less viable for
IoT networks. Bluetooth offers an affordable way to connect stationary IoT sensors
to edge devices over short distances.
In most use cases, IoT networks using Bluetooth can send signals up to 25 feet
away using very little power and bandwidth. While Bluetooth isn’t the most
popular choice, it does have its place in IoT networks.
Bluetooth IoT networks are best for the following uses:

 Short distances
 Low-power consumption requirements
 Low-bandwidth applications
Low-Power Wide Area Networks
An LPWAN uses specialized cellular connections that provide ample coverage
while serving low-power devices. These networks offer coverage similar to that of
cellular networks but are limited in terms of bandwidth and data rate.
Oil fields, agricultural operations, and rural job sites can leverage LPWAN for
their low-power IoT sensors. While these networks tend to be less expensive,
businesses that want to expand their IoT network to include high bandwidth
sensors often switch from LPWAN to a full cellular solution.
LPWAN IoT networks are best for the following uses:

 Low-power sensors
 Low data rates and bandwidth
 Rural areas with limited infrastructure

The Future of IoT Networks: 5G LAN

In recent years 5G has changed the way people and businesses build IoT networks.
In particular, private 5G has changed how IoT networks scale and how they are
controlled. Much like how 4G ushered in the smartphone era, 5G is paving the way
for real-time monitoring and wide-scale IoT orchestration.
By blending the reliability and control of a traditional LAN with the performance
and coverage of 5G, Celona has developed a new type of IoT network design
called 5G LAN.
5G LAN architecture provides unmatched visibility and control for enterprise IoT
networks that integrate seamlessly with existing applications and infrastructure.
Administrators can control and orchestrate their IoT sensors from a single
management console and even synchronize existing service level objectives into
their new 5G LAN.
5G LANs use MicroSlicing to give administrators granular application-level
control over their cellular resources. Unlike traditional QoS, MicroSlicing adheres
to detailed latency and throughput requirements. Machine learning algorithms
enforce these rules by continuously monitoring network conditions and changing
settings to reflect your service level requirements.
This same technology allows for self-healing networks, automated provisioning,
and application-aware onboarding. Simply put, 5G LAN is the first network
designed specifically for enterprise applications and demands.

The Celona Solution

Celona partners with enterprise organizations to provide private cellular IoT
networks as a seamless turnkey solution. Sensors can be quickly deployed
throughout the facility, while proactive monitoring ensures network service levels,
such as throughput and latency requirements, are consistently being met.
Celona uses cloud networking principles to make implementing private 4G and 5G
networks an out-of-box experience. Onboarding can be done alongside existing
wireless and IT infrastructure, without interrupting business operations.
If you’re building your IoT network for the future, check out our network
planner to estimate the size of your private cellular network, or test-drive the
Celona 5G LAN solution for yourself with a free trial.
Basic of IoT Networking
in IoT
1. Convergence of Domains
2. IoT Components
3. Functional Components of IoT
4. IoT Interdependencies
5. IoT Service Oriented Architecture
6. IoT Categories
7. IoT Gateways
IoT and Associated Technologies
8. Technical Deviations from Regular Web
9. Iot challenges
10.Complexity of Networks
11.Wireless networks
Convergence of Domains
IoT Components
Functional Components of IoT

 Component for interaction and communication with other IoT devices

 Component for processing and analysis of operations
 Component for Internet interaction
 Component for handling Web services of applications
 Component to integrate application services
 User interface to access IoT
IoT Interdependencies
IoT Service Oriented Architecture
IoT Categories

Industrial IoT

 IoT device connects to an IP network and the global Internet.

 Communication between the nodes done using regular as well as industry specific
technologies.
Consumer IoT

IoT device communicates within the locally networked devices.

 Local communication is done mainly via Bluetooth, Zigbee or WiFi.
 Generally limited to local communication by a Gateway.
IoT Gateways
IoT and Associated Technologies
Technical Deviations from Regular Web

IoT Challenges
 Security
 Scalability
 Energy efficiency
 Bandwidth management
 Modeling and Analysis
 Interfacing
 Interoperability
 Data storage
 Data Analytics
 Complexity management (e.g., SDN)
Considerations

 Communication between the IoT devices(s) and the outside world dictates the network
architecture.
 Choice of communication technology dictates the IoT devices hardware requirements and
costs.
 Due to the presence of numerous applications of IoT enabled devices, a single
networking paradigm not sufficient to address all the needs of the consumer or the IoT device.
Complexity of Networks

 Growth of networks
 Interference among devices
 Network management
 Heterogeneity in networks
 Protocol standardization within networks
Wireless Networks
 Traffic and load management
 Variations in wireless networks - Wireless Body Area
 Networks and other Personal Area Networks
 Interoperability
 Network management
 Overlay network
Scalability
 Flexibility within Internet
 IoT integration
 Large deployment
 Real-time connectivity of billions of devices